History of Early American Landscape Design - User contributions [en]

Bernard M’Mahon

2019-06-18T15:49:02Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ fix spacing of back up to history

'''Bernard M’Mahon''' (before 1765–September 18, 1816), self-described “[[Nursery]], Seedsman, and Florist,” wrote a popular calendar for American gardeners in 1806, ran a successful [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, corresponded with [[Thomas Jefferson]] about his gardening and agricultural endeavours, and cultivated previously undescribed botanic specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition.
==History==
The details of Bernard M’Mahon’s birth and youth in Ireland prior to his immigration to the United States remain largely unknown. While Appleton’s ''Cyclopedia of American Biography'' gives his birth date “about 1775,” historian Robert Cox has pointed out that that the 1810 census records list him as one of two men in his household over 45 years of age, suggesting a birth no later than 1765, and probably several years earlier.<ref>Robert S. Cox, ed., “‘I Never Yet Parted’: Bernard McMahon and the Seeds of the Corps of Discovery,” in ''The Shortest and Most Convenient Route: Lewis and Clark in Context,'' Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 5 (American Philosophical Society, 2004), 131, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> By 1806, he claimed already to have had experience “of near thirty years, in practical gardening,” so he must have begun an apprenticeship as a gardener or horticulturist around the year 1776.<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), v, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> The precise reasons for and year of his immigration are also unknown, but the botanist, physician, and congressman William Darlington (1782–1863) attributed his motivation to political unrest in Ireland, which came to a head with the failed French invasion of 1796 and the Irish rebellion of 1798.

[[Image:2191.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)]]
Knowledge of his life after his arrival in Philadelphia rests on firmer foundations. <span id="Darlington_cite"></span>By 1799 he was residing in the city, where he first met Darlington during an outbreak of yellow fever. As of 1802, M’Mahon “had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants” ([[#Darlington|view text]]).<ref>Joseph Ewan, “Bernard M’Mahon (c. 1775–1816), Pioneer Philadelphia Nurseryman, and His American Gardener’s Calendar,” ''Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History'' 3, no. 7 (October 1960): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> He recognized a need for pamphlets and books about plants tailored to American climates and species, which he set out to satisfy. In 1804 he published the first American seed catalog in booklet form.<ref> Bernard M’Mahon, ''A Catalogue of American Seeds'' (Philadelphia: Printed by William Duane, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4PHBM2KF/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> This was followed in 1806 by his most significant work, ''The American Gardener's Calendar,'' which broke up the seasonal labors of gardening into monthly lists of tasks over the course of 648 pages [Fig. 1]. By 1807, he ran a successful flower shop, [[nursery]] and seed business at 39 South 2nd Street in Philadelphia.<ref>See “M’Mahon, Bernard” in James Robinson, ''The Philadelphia Directory for 1807: Containing the Names, Trades, and Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark, and Northern Liberties: Also, a Calendar, from the 1st of February, 1807 to the 1st of February 1808, and Other Useful Information'' (Philadelphia: Printed for the publisher and sold by W. Woodhouse, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Image:2192.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806]]
[[Image:2193.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806]]
In addition to his publishing and commercial activities, M’Mahon was an active member of the Philadelphia horticultural and scientific communities. A receipt in M’Mahon’s handwriting [Fig. 2–3] reveals that he sold seeds and plants to the American Philosophical Society, which shipped them to Amsterdam.<ref>Now in the American Philosophical Society Archives, reproduced in Ewan 1960, 366–67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> Perhaps the most intriguing but least successful of his professional organizations and business interests was a viticulture endeavor known as the Pennsylvania Vine Company, run by Peter Legaux (1748–1827), which M’Mahon helped govern from 1807 to 1811.<ref>For his membership in the Vine Company see Robinson 1807, xlvii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero]; ''Census Directory for 1811: Containing the Names, Occupations, & Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark & Northern Liberties, a Separate Division Being Allotted to Persons of Colour; to Which Is Annexed an Appendix Containing Much Useful Information, and a Perpetual Calendar'' (Philadelphia: Printed by Jane Aitken, No. 71, North Third Street, 1811), 426, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero].
The society, which floundered throughout the first decade of the nineteenth century, is discussed in Thomas Pinney, ''A History of Wine in America: From the Beginnings to Prohibition'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 113, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HHVCQQVU/q/a%20history%20of%20wine view on Zotero].</ref> He also participated in the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, which listed him as a member in 1812.<ref>Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, ''Laws of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, as Revised and Enacted at the Annual Meeting, Held on the 14th January, 1812. To Which Is Prefixed, a List of the Members of the Society. Incorporated February 14, 1809.'' (Lydia R. Bailey, 1812), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVCQ42ZX/q/laws%20of%20the%20philadelphia%20society view on Zotero].</ref> As a member of the Philadelphia community of seedsmen and botanists, M’Mahon likely met many of the preeminent figures in these fields. Two undated letters attest to his correspondence and acquaintance with the botanist and physician Benjamin Smith Barton (1766–1815).<ref>American Philosophical Society Archives, Violetta Delafield-Benjamin Smith Barton Papers, ALS, 1p. (letter from M’Mahon to Barton inviting him to a meeting), and AMsS, 1p. (letter from Barton to M’Mahon about fish).
</ref> He must also have visited [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s Garden]], another celebrated [[botanic garden]] outside of Philadelphia, although no direct evidence of such a visit survives. The botanist Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859) named a genus of evergreen shrubs ''Mahonia'' after him (known today as ''Berberis aquifolium'' after Frederick Pursh’s earlier naming). Following M’Mahon’s death in September of 1816, his wife Ann and son Thomas took over the [[nursery]]. After an unsuccessful attempt to auction the land and its contents in 1818, Ann M’Mahon ran the garden until 1830, when Thomas Hibbert, business partner of [[Robert Buist]], purchased the property.<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Notices of Some of the Principal Nurseries and Private Gardens in the United States of America, Made during a Tour through the Country, in the Summer of 1831; with Some Hints on Emigration,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 284, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2TVP4JIX/q/notices%20of%20some%20of%20the%20principal view on Zotero].
</ref>

Bernard M’Mahon’s practical impact on early American landscape design is revealed by his correspondence with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who sought useful new American species to plant at [[Monticello]]. In 1806, M’Mahon sent a letter offering a copy of his ''Calendar'' to [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], who gladly accepted. This gift inaugurated the exchange of what would amount to thirty-seven letters between the men by the time of M’Mahon’s death in 1816. As Peter Hatch notes, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]’s notebook on gardening contains more than a few entries that precisely replicate M’Mahon’s specifications for layout and maintenance.<ref>Peter J. Hatch, ''“A Rich Spot of Earth”: Thomas Jefferson’s Revolutionary Garden at Monticello'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG/q/a%20rich%20spot%20of%20earth view on Zotero].</ref> In addition to following the guidance of the ''Calendar,'' [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] purchased a wide variety of seeds and plants from M’Mahon. In exchange, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] not only paid M’Mahon for his goods, but also created new professional opportunities for him. When the noted Parisian botanist André Thouin sent [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] a collection of international seeds in 1808, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] forwarded them on to M’Mahon to cultivate and sell as he saw fit.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Garden Book, 1766-1824, with Relevant Extracts from His Other Writings, Annotated by Edwin Morris Betts,'' ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 383, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>

In addition to his international connections, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] also helped M’Mahon secure his place within the American community of seedsmen and botanists. In the winter of 1806, just eight months after their correspondence had begun, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] arranged for M’Mahon to become one of two recipients of the botanic specimens collected by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark during their expedition to the Pacific Ocean.<ref>Jefferson 1944, 328, 337, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> The other designated recipient was [[William Hamilton]], also based in the Philadelphia area at his estate [[The Woodlands]]. M’Mahon received seeds and specimens from the expedition in early 1807, and by 1808 he was growing as many as twenty species and six genera that were previously undescribed in the botanical literature.<ref>As quoted in Jefferson 1944, 345, 373, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon hired a German botanist named Frederick Pursh to describe and illustrate the specimens collected by Lewis sometime in the winter of 1807–1808, but the project stalled when Lewis’s health declined in 1808. Lewis proved unable to visit Philadelphia and answer questions about damaged specimens before he died in 1809. Pursh left Philadelphia with his notes and drawings, unpaid, and eventually published a description of the discoveries in England in December of 1813 without the permission of the remaining expedition team.<ref> Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America,'' vol. 1, 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM/q/frederick%20pursh view on Zotero]. Cox 2004, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon finally began selling plants from the expedition in 1812, advertising a variety of fragrant currant (''Ribes odoratissimum'') “collected by Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, on the shores of the rivers ''Columbia'' and ''Jefferson,'' and in the ''Rocky Mountains.''”<ref>M’Mahon regularly advertised in the Philadelphia ''Aurora,'' and the currant appears in the edition of March 11, 1812, as quoted in Cox 2004, 127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="DemocraticPress_cite"></span>By the end of 1813 he had also relocated his shop from 39 South Second Street to 13 South Second Street, several blocks closer to the center of Philadelphia ([[#DemocraticPress|view text]]).

In 1808 M’Mahon purchased some land “on the township line road, near the Germantown road,” in the area of what is today Fotterall Square, where he opened a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] called Upsal [[Botanic Garden]].<ref>John William Harshberger, ''The Botanists of Philadelphia and Their Work'' (Philadelphia: Press of T. C. Davis & Son, 1899), 117, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V/q/harshberger view on Zotero].</ref> Referencing the [[botanic garden]] of Uppsala University in Sweden restored by the celebrated botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707– 1778), the name of M'Mahon's nursery and garden emphasized his knowledge of the history of botany and his scientific ambitions. Although no descriptions of Upsal survive from M’Mahon’s lifetime, early histories and guides to the city briefly mention it as an attraction, including James Mease’s 1811 ''The Picture of Philadelphia.''<ref>James Mease, ''The Picture of Philadelphia: Giving an Account of Its Origin, Increase, and Improvements in Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures, Commerce and Revenue. With a Compendious View of Its Societies ...'' (Philadelphia: Published by B. & T. Kite, 1811), 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5EXQKRJT/q/picture%20of%20philadelphia view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Poulsons1818_cite"></span>The earliest extant description, written in 1818, two years after M’Mahon’s death, records about twenty acres of “variegated” land, with “an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring” on the property, and several buildings including a “two-storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house, and out buildings” ([[#Poulsons1818|view text]]). With its [[pond]], mixed soils, and [[green house]], the land at Upsal must have afforded M’Mahon with diverse growing conditions for a wide variety of species. The garden continued to attract botanically-minded visitors in the decades following M’Mahon’s death, like the Scottish botanist David Douglas (1799–1834), who visited the property in 1823. <span id="Douglas_cite"></span>In his journal, Douglas briefly described Upsal’s Osage orange trees (''Maclura pomifera''), which were among the most celebrated specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition ([[#Douglas|view text]]). <span id="Report1831_cite"></span>As late as 1830, visitors remarked on the “[[green house]] 60 feet long,” the “beautiful fish and water plants” with which the [[pond]] was stocked, and “a row of native oaks, planted by him [M’Mahon], containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion” ([[#Report1831|view text]]).

''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' also outlived M’Mahon by several decades, reprinted in a total of eleven editions between 1806 and 1857 in Philadelphia. The ''Calendar'' provided readers with month-by-month instructions for the care and maintenance of [[kitchen garden]]s, [[orchard]]s, and [[nursery|nurseries]]. In both structure and content, it borrowed heavily from English garden manuals, and only lightly from American sources. M’Mahon himself admitted his admiration for the ''Gardener’s Dictionary'' by the English botanist Philip Miller (1691–1771).<ref>Sarah Pattee Stetson, “American Garden Books Transplanted and Native, before 1807,” ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 3, ser. 3 (1946): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QIREGNVP/q/transplanted%20and%20native view on Zotero].</ref> Other sources included John Abercrombie’s ''Every Many His Own Gardener,'' which provided a general structure for the work.<ref>For the most comprehensive analysis of his sources to date, see Brenda Bullion, “The Science and Art of Plants and Gardens in the Development of an American Landscape Aesthetic” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 1990), 293–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon was not, however, completely beholden to these English models. He cited Philadelphian John Beale Bordley’s 1799 ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' in his discussions of animal husbandry. The distinctly American perspective of the text appears most clearly in his discussion of indigenous flowering plants. <span id="Indigenous_cite"></span>Even before M’Mahon received specimens from the Lewis and Clark expedition, he pleaded with American gardeners to incorporate indigenous species in their ornamental plantings: “In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature” ([[#Indigenous|view text]]).

Within M’Mahon’s lifetime, he became especially known for his championing of [[hedge]]s as live fences, and his calendar may have helped popularize them wherever it was read. <span id="Aurora1816_cite"></span> In 1816, his obituary singled out his innovative approach to planting “Quickset [[hedge]]s” from European white thorn (''Crataegus laevigata''), based on observation of the weathering and germination of Hawthorn seeds in the wild ([[#Aurora1816|view text]]). As Brenda Bullion points out, M’Mahon himself understood these live fences as a response to the deforestation of the American countryside, recommending them “particularly in those parts of the Union in which timber has got scarce, and must inevitably become more so in a very rapid progression.”<ref>Bullion 1990, 304–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> Here, as elsewhere, his ''Calendar'' had both practical and aesthetic implications for the development of American landscape design.

Landscape design principles formed a small but significant part of the book’s content, and in 1841, the landscape gardener [[A.J. Downing]] described the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' as the “only American work previously published which treats directly of landscape gardening.”<ref> A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences... with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1841), 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PGUEKHNG? view on Zotero].</ref> Squeezed into the month of January, M’Mahon’s introductory overview of “The [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure]], or [[Flower Garden]]” quotes extensively from ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' by John Abercrombie.<ref>See the entry on Pleasure-Garden in the 1778 and, even more similar, 1797 editions of Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al, 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM/q/abercrombie view on Zotero].</ref> This overview effectively popularized a design vocabulary drawn from earlier English works for American audiences, employing terms for plantings like [[lawn]], [[hedge]], and [[parterre]]; architectural elements such as [[temple]], pyramid, and [[obelisk]]; and earthworks including [[slope]], [[terrace]], and [[eminence]].<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s taste and those of his sources subtly shaped this vocabulary. <span id="Modern_cite"></span>He expressed a preference for the “[[Modern style/Natural style|modern]] garden” in imitation of nature rather than the “too formal works” that characterized the [[Ancient style]] ([[#Modern|view text]]).<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 66 (perspective), 55–56 (modern garden), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].
</ref> <span id="Variety_cite"></span>Lifting passages from Abercrombie’s ''Universal Gardener and Botanist'' verbatim, he advocated variety in garden design, rather than single-minded adherence to any individual design principle ([[#Variety|view text]]).

The ''Calendar'' quickly gained a wide readership among the agricultural, botanical, and even medical communities (an early copy is listed in the New York Hospital library inventory of 1811).<ref>See the catalog of books in ''An Account of the New-York Hospital'' (New York: Collins & Co., 1811), 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/64Q6DV2I/q/an%20account%20of%20the%20new-york view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s horticultural and agricultural guidelines were excerpted in a variety of gardening manuals and almanacs like Fessenden’s 1828 ''The New American Gardener,'' which contains roughly twenty short passages attributed to M’Mahon.<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener,'' 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7/q/the%20new%20american%20gardener view on Zotero]. Fessenden also quoted liberally from M’Mahon in several of his later works.</ref> In 1819, one unscrupulous publisher named Fielding Lucas Jr. went so far as to reproduce the work nearly in its entirety, retitled ''The Practical American Gardener.''<ref>Ewan 1960, 378, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>The book was also known in Europe, where [[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|John Claudius Loudon]] praised its pioneering subject and completeness in the 1822 edition of his ''Encyclopaedia of Gardening,'' but expressed skepticism concerning just how widespread the horticultural and agricultural techniques described within really were: “We cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars” ([[#Loudon|view text]]). ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' was so successful that in 1846, some thirty years after M’Mahon’s death, his acquaintance Darlington cited it in his ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society,'' claiming that “although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”<ref>William Darlington, ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society, at Their First Annual Exhibition, in the Borough of West Chester, Sept. 11, 1846'' (West Chester, PA, 1846), 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Alexander Brey''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Modern"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing designs for a [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure ground]] (1806: 55)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Modern_cite|back up to History]]
:“In designs for a [[Pleasure-ground]], according to [[Modern style/Natural style|modern gardening]]; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished, such as long straight [[walk]]s, regular intersections, square [[Plot/Plat|grass-plats]], corresponding [[parterre]]s, quadrangular and angular spaces, and other uniformities, as in [[Ancient style|ancient designs]]; instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bounded with [[plantation]]s of trees, shrubs, and flowers, in various [[clump]]s; other compartments are exhibited in a variety of imitative rural forms; such as curves, projections, openings, and closings, in imitation of a natural assemblage; having all the various [[plantation]]s and [[border]]s, open to the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s.”

*<div id="Variety"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the monotonous quality of [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]] imitating rural design “to an extreme” (1806: 56)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Variety_cite|back up to History]]
:“In these rural works, however, we should not abolish entirely, the appearance of art and uniformity; for these when properly applied, give an additional beauty and peculiar grace, to all our natural productions, and sets [sic] nature in the fairest and most beautiful point of view.
:“But some modern [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure-grounds]], in which rural design is copied to an extreme, are often very barren of variety and entertainment, as they frequently consist only of a grass-[[lawn]], like a great field; having a running [[plantation]] of trees and shrubs all round it, just broad enough, to admit a gravel-walk winding through it, in the serpentine way, in many short twists and turns, and bordering at every turn alternately, upon the outward [[fence]] and the [[lawn]]; which are continually obtruded upon the sight, exhibiting the same prospect over and over, without the least variation; so as that after having traversed the [[walk]]s all round this sort of [[pleasure-ground]], we find no more variety or entertainment than at our first entrance, the whole having presented itself at the first view.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the usefulness of formal gardens to “diversify” landscapes (1806: 69)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The perpetual show of stiff formality, displayed by this kind of fancy, has induced many to discontinue it; but some of these run into the contrary extreme, by excluding all formal regularity and uniform appearances; and substituting various dissimilar arrangements, in the formation of the different compartments, in fancied imitation of natural rurality as much as possible.
:“However, for the sake of diversity, some of the more elegant regular works, ought still to be admitted, which would form a beautiful contrast with the general rural improvements, and diversify the whole scene, so as to have a most enchanting effect.”

*<div id="Indigenous"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, endorsing the ornamental use of “indigenous” flowers (1806: 72)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Indigenous_cite|back up to History]]
:“Here I cannot avoid remarking, that many [[flower-garden]]s, &c. Are almost destitute of bloom, during a great part of the season; which could be easily avoided, and a blaze of flowers kept up, both in this department, and in the borders of the [[pleasure ground]], from March to November, by introducing from our woods and fields, the various beautiful ornaments with which nature has so profusely decorated them. Is it because they are indigenous, that we should reject them? ought we not rather to cultivate and improve them? what can be more beautiful than our Lobelias, Orchis’, Asclepias’ and Asters; Dracocephalums, Gerardias, Monardas and Ipomoeas; Liliums, Podalyrias, Rhexias, Solidagos and Hibiscus’; Phlox’s, Gentianas, Spigelias, Chironias and Sisyrinchiums, Cassias, Ophrys’, Coreopsis’ and Cypripediums; Fumarias, Violas, Rudbeckias and Liatris’; with our charming Limadorum, fragrant Arethusa and a thousand other lovely plants, which if introduced would grace our plantations, and delight our senses?
:“In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature.”

*Anonymous, 1807, Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (''The Medical Repository'' vol. 4: 177-180)<ref>“Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'',” ''The Medical Repository'' 4 (1807): 174–80. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UR9I39RN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. M’Mahon has parcelled his work into twelve great divisions. These correspond to the months of the year. In each he prescribes the work to be done, and the way of doing it. In this manner he has constructed a Calendar, beginning with January, and proceeding regularly to June, and thence forward to December. By attending to this arrangement, the person who consults the volume can readily find the months, by casting his eye to the top of the pages, and below them the labour and preparation during each.
:“Besides this distribution of his precepts and directions, according to the sun’s place in the zodiacal signs, the author has made a methodical disposition of the business of every month. The operations in the [[kitchen-garden]], fruit-garden, [[orchard]], vineyard, [[nursery]], [[flower-garden]], [[green-house]], and [[hot-house]], are placed under distinct heads; and its is easy to find under one or another of these titles, whatever the Calendar contains for all the months of the year. By adverting thus to a division of his publication, into twelve parts or months, and these again into a subdivision of each into eight sections, Mr. M. has rendered it very easy to find any thing it contains. And, by attending to this, it is scarcely more difficult to examine the directions for the [[pleasure garden]] in September, the orchard in March, or the [[hot-house]] in December, &c. &c. Than to search for a word and its correlatives in the Encyclopaedia, or to examine passages in the Bible by the aid of a Concordance.
:“The reader is not to expect that the work should be wholly original. The author does not pretend to this. A candid acknowledgement is made, that in writing the treatise, he consulted the best publications in the American States, and in the transatlantic countries, especially those extant in the English, French, and Latin tongues. To bring into one compendious tract the information scattered in many books, composed in different languages, hard and costly to procure, laborious to examine when procured, and requiring more literature than falls to the lot of the great body of cultivators, is a very laudable and useful undertaking. Our fellow citizens, we confidently believe, will concur with us in opinion, that he has done them worthy and acceptable service. He is perfectly aware that in some cases he may be mistaken, and in others may have made omissions; and these he is ready to amend as soon as they shall be discovered. But he has employed a good share of judgment in the directions he has given for the rearing of thorn-quicks and other plants for live [[fence]]s; for cultivating liquorice, manna-ash, and rhubarb for medicines; planting madder and weld for dyeing; cork tree, fuller’s teazel, tanner’s-sumac, and paper mulberry for the economical arts; sea-kale for the dining table; grapes for the preparation of wine; and mulberry trees and insects for the manufacture of silk. And, in addition to all his knowledge derived from preceding authors, Mr. M. lays claim to the attention of his readers, by the experimental skill derived from a large and extensive course of practical gardening, pursued for almost thirty years. . . .
:“We were pleased to find that the American plants which beautify the woods, fields, and swamps, had not been overlooked or neglected by our author. Many of them are duly noticed, and the cultivator’s attention called to them among the instructions for the [[flower-garden]] in the month of August. And we were gratified also with a piece of convenient economy, by substituting oak leaves newly fallen in autumn, instead of tanner’s bark, as described in the section which relates to the [[hot-house]] department for October.
:“But we forbear any further comments or criticisms. A book of such great extent, and various contents, cannot be easily analized [''sic''] in a general way further than we have gone. And to proceed more deeply into particulars would be inconsistent with our plan and limits: we therefore observe, that as the taste for gardening is increasing, and the appearance of the book is opportune, we expect it will be sought with avidity, and thereby become the incentive and the guide to capital improvements in that interesting art. And we shall be disappointed, if nursery-men, florists, and gentlemen of taste, leisure, and fortune, do not add to their libraries, however select and small, M’Mahon’s American Calendar.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 3 January 1809, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]] describing a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Jefferson 1944: 401)<ref>Jefferson 1944, 401, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Last month I purchased in the vicinity of this City [Philadelphia] 20 Acres of ground, well adapted for a [[Nursery]] & [[Botanic Garden]], and hope that, in a few years, I shall enrich that spot, and through it, in some measure, the country in general, with as extensive and useful a collection of vegetable productions, as can reasonably be expected from the small means of which I am possessed.”

*Anonymous, 1811, Description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] published in the ''Census Directory for 1811,'' reprinted in various newspapers (1811: 426-27)<ref>''Census Directory for 1811,'' 426–427, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “From the True American. Botany,” ''Concord Gazette,'' April 23, 1811, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/84CNB3KN/q/from%20the%20true%20american view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Upsal [[Botanic Garden]]
:“A [[Botanic Garden]] and [[Nursery]] was commenced in the spring of 1809 in the immediate vicinity of this city [Philadelphia], near the junction of the Germantown and township line roads; the extent of the ground is 20 acres, well and advantageously watered, the varieties of soils and exposures which it produces and exhibits, is of considerable importance in an institution of this kind.
:“In the summer of the last year, the proprietor erected an elegant building for the preservation of exotics, which is now furnished with an immense variety; and the garden generally, at this time, is said to contain several thousand species and varieties of plants, foreign and indigenous, many of which are of considerable importance in medicine, agriculture, horticulture and the arts.—The proprietor of this garden, Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, a few years ago, published in this city a work on horticulture in general, entitled “The American Gardeners’ Calendar,” which appears to have thrown a new light on our former system of gardening; the good effects of which are here generally acknowledged, and are visible in the superabundance of fine fruits and vegetables, annually accumulating in the markets of this city.”

*<div id="DemocraticPress"></div>Anonymous, December 28, 1813, advertisement in the ''Democratic Press'' for M’Mahon’s new store at No. 13, South Second Street, Philadelphia<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, “Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.,” Democratic Press, December 28, 1813, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HYB8WB7Z/q/grass%20and%20garden%20seeds view on Zotero].</ref> [[#DemocraticPress_cite|back up to History]]
:“Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.
:“BERNARD M’MAHON
:“[[Nursery]] & Seedsman.
:“HAS recently moved his stock in trade from No. 39, to No. 13, South Second street where he intends permanently to reside. He is amply supplied, as usual with an extensive variety of Grass Garden and Flower Seeds; Bulbous Flower Roots, of numerous species and varieties, Garden Tools, Agricultural, Gardening and Botanical Books, &c. He has also for sale at his [[Botanic Garden]] [Upsal] near this city, a numerous variety of the most beautiful hardy perennial, tuberous and fibrous FLOWER ROOTS, ornamental Trees and Shrubs as well as [[Green House]] Plants, collected from various parts of the Globe, with some very valuable Fruit Trees, such as superior English Gooseberries, large red and white Antwerp Raspberries, red white and black Currants, Apples, Pears, Peaches, Nectarines and German Medlars, &c. with superior Strawberry and Asparagus Plants.
:“Dec. 22—if w10t”

*<div id="Aurora1816"></div>Anonymous, September 19, 1816, obituary in the ''Aurora'' for Bernard M’Mahon<ref>“Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Aurora,'' September 19, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LY9RB34Z/q/1816 view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' September 20, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/B9PBEY5G/q/1816 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Aurora1816_cite|back up to History]]
:“Died—On Wednesday Morning, at his [[Botanical Garden]], called Upsal, two and a half miles from this city, Mr. BERNARD M’MAHON, well known throughout the Continent and among the Botanists of the Old World. Mr. M’Mahon came to this city, from Ireland, about twenty years since, and from his previous experience and industry, and great enthusiasm in the profession to which he was bred, he has rendered very eminent services to the United States, (more, indeed, than all who had preceded him,) by applying the principles of Agricultural Science to the varieties of the climates of this continent; pointing out the errors which had retarded improvement, he contributed to the comforts, and the most delightful of human recreations, planting the shrub, and nursing the buds into bloom, and tendril into vigor. His Book of Gardening is a precious treasure, and ought to occupy a place in every house in this country; its principles are eternal, and its instruction fruitful of advantage. His theory of Planting, has removed the difficulties heretofore deemed insurmountable in the production of Quickset [[hedge]]s, from the white thorn—he urged, that he learned it from Nature, who scattering stone fruit on the surface of the earth opens the stone by the frost, and the earth to receive the kernel by the thaw—following this observation, he laid his white thorn seed, or the dried haw on the smooth surface of the ground upon which he proposed to plant, preparing the soil only to suit the operations of Nature. It was his desire, while living, to be useful; and it is in conformity with his usual mode of thinking, that we think fit to notice, at the same time that we notice his demise, his practice in an invaluable branch of knowledge, which many may see on this occasion, who have not before heard of it.
:“His funeral will take place at Upsal, this morning at ten o’clock, where his friends are requested to attend.”

*<div id="Poulsons1818"></div>Anonymous, April 4, 1818, auction notice and description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] in ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser''<ref> “Botanic Garden. Real Estate, &c.,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' April 4, 1818, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7487U853/q/botanic%20garden.%20real%20estate view on Zotero]. See also Cox 2004, 132, note 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Poulsons1818_cite|back up to History]]
:“[[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]].
:“REAL ESTATE, &c.
:“PURSUANT to an Order of the Orphans’ Court, held at Philadelphia, for the city and county of Philadelphia, on the 20th day of March, A.D. 1818, before the Honourable Jacob Rush, William Moulder, and Thomas Armstrong, Esquires, Justices of the said Court,
:“Will be Exposed to Public Sale,
:“On Tuesday, the 12th day of May, at seven o’clock in the evening, at the Merchants’ Coffee House, the following described Real Estate, late of James M’Mahon, deceased, to wit:
:“All that tract or piece of Land situate in Penn township, in the county of Philadelphia, on the township line road, near the Germantown road, and about two and a half miles from the city—adjoining lands of Charles Wharton, Esq. and others; containing 19 acres and 128 perches, on which is erected a two storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house and out buildings. The ground is variegated, and in high cultivation. Terms at sale.
:“By order of the Court,
:“Thomas F. Gordon, Clerk.
:“Ann M’Mahon, Widow and Administratrix of James M’Mahon, deceased.
:“AT THE SAME TIME AND PLACE,
:“Will also be exposed to Public Sale, either collectively or separately, as may best suit the purchaser or purchasers. The whole of the [[Green House]] plants, (about three thousand) and other articles, very many of which are peculiar, valuable, and far sought for. The ground is sufficiently variegated, to admit of every species of Botany, and is probably the best [[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]] in the country. It contains an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring, having therein Gold and Silver fish, in great variety and quantity. There is a great variety of Scots Fir, Silver Spruce, Larch, with other trees and shrubs—A pump of the finest water, &c. &c.
:“Catalogues will be made out, and the property may be viewed at any time previous to sale.
:“John Dorsey, Auc’r.”

*<div id="Loudon"></div>Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius), 1822, describing Bernard M’Mahon and the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1822, I: 106)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening,'' 1st ed. (London: Longman et al, 1822), 106, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Y638SNRW/q/loudon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]
:“M’Mahon, already mentioned, is a seedsman at Philadelphia, and ‘has connected with the seed-trade a botanical, agricultural, and horticultural book-store.’ His work is the first of the kind which has appeared in America, and includes every department to be found in our calendars. Ample instructions are given for growing the pine, vine, melon, and other delicate fruits, and also for the forcing departments both of the [[Flower garden|flower]] and [[kitchen garden]]s; but we cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars.”

*<div id="Douglas"></div>Douglas, David, August 22, 1823, describing his visit to Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] (1914: 8)<ref>David Douglas, ''Journal Kept by David Douglas During His Travels in North America 1823–1827 Together with a Particular Description of Thirty-Three Species of American Oaks and Eighteen Species of Pinus, with Appendices Containing a List of the Plants Introduced by Douglas and an Account of His Death in 1834'' (London: W. Wesley & Son, for the Royal Historical Society, 1914), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVY4XWI3/q/david%20douglas view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Douglas_cite|back up to History]]
:“Friday, August 22nd.
:“. . . . I made a journey to Mr. McMahon, which is three miles north of the city. I did not find him at home; I looked round the garden, and after a patient search found Maclura, two plants, height about seventeen feet, bushy and rugged; they had a few fruits on the trees; it is well described in Pursh’s Preface of his ‘Flora Amer.’ Then I called at [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s old place]], but found no person at home.”

*<div id="Report1831"></div>Anonymous, c. 1831, Report on the condition of Upsal for the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania, maintained after M’Mahon’s death by his wife (1831: 10–11)<ref>''Report of the Committee Appointed by the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania for Visiting the Nurseries and Gardens in the Vicinity of Philadelphia'' (Philadelphia: W. Geddes, 1831), 10–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SSQIGDZR/q/report%20of%20the%20committee view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Report1831_cite|back up to History]]
:“Mrs. M’Mahon’s Garden is about 3 miles north of Philadelphia. It contains a [[green house]] 60 feet long and calculated to hold a great many plants. The collection is good. The establishment is 19 years old, and was founded by that enterprising and distinguished horticulturist, Mr. B. M’Mahon, husband of the present proprietor.
:“Here is the largest Portlandia that we have seen, and a good selection of the succulent family, with many oranges, lemons, shaddock, etc. A very large tree of Maclura aurantiaca or osage orange; a highly ornamental tree, with bright green foliage, and standing longer in the fall than any other of the deciduous tribe. It bears a large green fruit, not unlike an orange. We think that Mr. M’Mahon was the first to introduce this tree, brought back by Lewis and Clark. Here we saw an uncommon large shrub of the Lonicera tartarica, or tartarian honeysuckle; it is twenty feet in diameter, and high in proportion.
:“The ground contains about 20 acres, distributed in [[nursery]] stock, and growing vegetable seeds.
:“Those two beautiful shrubs, the Symphoricarpos racemosus and Ribes aureum, were propagated in this [[nursery]] before any other in our vicinity; and this was the case, too, with many other shrubs and trees. Of European trees there are several valuable specimens, such as Fraxinus, Tilia, Ulmus, Fagus, Betula, Carpinus, Platanus and Pinus. On these grounds are [[pond]]s well stocked with beautiful fish and water plants, among these last is the Nymphaea odorata, with its showy white flowers, yellow anthers and sweet fragrance.
:“Mr. M’Mahon was an indefatigable arborist, and his garden now exhibits a row of native oaks, planted by him, containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion. The willow-leaved oak is the most conspicuous, and forms a very handsome conical tree.
:“Perhaps we owe as much to the late Mr. M’Mahon, as a horticulturist, as to any individual in America. Besides his efforts in collecting and propagating we are indebted to him for his excellent book on “American Gardening,” which has passed through many editions.
:“There is a small [[nursery]] connected with this, in Camac street.
:“Attached to this establishment is a Seed Store, in Second below Market street, where there is sold an extensive variety of seeds, foreign and native, to the amount of 2,000 kinds; with a variety of horticultural implements, and a collection of botanical and horticultural books.”

*Wynne, William, 1832, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia,” describing Hibbert [[Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 273)<ref>William Wynne, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia, with Remarks on the Subject of the Emigration of British Gardens to the United States,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 273, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CKN7ZG86/q/william%20wynne view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A Mr. Hibbert keeps a small [[nursery]], in which he grows roses and other plants in pots, which he sells chiefly in the city market. I understand Mr. Hibbert has taken a piece of ground formerly occupied as a [[nursery]] by Mr. M’Mahon, and has taken into partnership [[Robert Buist|Mr. Buist]], a gardener in the neighbourhood.”

*Darlington, William, 1846, on the significance of M’Mahon’s ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1846: 13)<ref>Darlington 1846, 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].
</ref>
:“To instruct us in the management of the [[Flower garden|Flower]] and [[Kitchen Garden]], we have “The American Gardener’s Calendar,” by the late Bernard M’Mahon—one of the pioneers among us, in the good work of teaching horticulture. Although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”

*<div id="Darlington"></div>Darlington, William, 1857, on his recollections of Bernard M’Mahon (in M’Mahon 1857: xii-xiii)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....,'' 11th ed. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company, 1857), xii–xiii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4CL25KHJ/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Darlington_cite|back up to History]]
:“I am much gratified to learn that a new edition of M’Mahon’s “American Gardener’s Calendar” is in press. That work was among the earliest of its kind in our country, and I have always regarded it as among the best. It is at once comprehensive and complete; and, moreover, remarkable for its judicious, practical, common sense views of the subject.
:“I had the pleasure of knowing Bernard M’Mahon, in my youthful days. He was, I believe, one of those Exiles of Erin who sought and found a refuge in our country, near the close of the last century. In the autumn, I think of 1799, he passed some weeks at my native village of Dilworthtown, in Chester County, in order to avoid the ravages of yellow fever, in Philadelphia, where he resided; and in that rural retreat I first knew him. I renewed the acquaintance in 1802, 3, and 4, while attending the medical lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, by which time he had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants: and I ever found him an obliging, intelligent, and instructive friend. He was a regularly educated gardener, of much experience, and great enterprise. He gave the first decisive impulse to scientific horticulture in our State; and to him we are mainly indebted among other favors, for the successful culture and dissemination of the interesting novelties collected by Lewis and Clarke, in their journey to the Pacific. When, in 1818, Mr. Nuttall published his Genera of North American Plants, he named a beautiful shrub “in memory of the late Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, whose ardent attachment to Botany, and successful introduction of useful and ornamental Horticulture into the United States, lay claim to public esteem:” and although the genus has been reduced by later botanists to a section of Berberis, it is generally known by—and I trust will long retain—the popular name of Mahonia.
:“It was a well-deserved tribute of respect, from one who intimately knew, and could justly appreciate the merits it commemorated: and I am happy in the opportunity, even at this late day, to add my own humble and inadequate testimonial to that of so accomplished a judge of botanical worth, as Thomas Nuttall.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
Image:2191.jpg|Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)
Image:2192.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806
Image:2193.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806
</gallery>
<hr>

==Other Resources==

[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/nr97032038 Library of Congress Authority File]

[https://www.monticello.org/site/house-and-gardens/bernard-mcmahon-pioneer-american-gardener “Monticello's Twinleaf Journal Online: Bernard McMahon, Pioneer American Gardener”]

[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b117016 Hathitrust Digital Library: 1806 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20141404#page/7/mode/1up Biodiversity Heritage Library: 1857 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|M'Mahon, Bernard]]

Bernard M’Mahon

2019-06-18T15:48:06Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ italicize title of 1807 review journal in text

'''Bernard M’Mahon''' (before 1765–September 18, 1816), self-described “[[Nursery]], Seedsman, and Florist,” wrote a popular calendar for American gardeners in 1806, ran a successful [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, corresponded with [[Thomas Jefferson]] about his gardening and agricultural endeavours, and cultivated previously undescribed botanic specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition.
==History==
The details of Bernard M’Mahon’s birth and youth in Ireland prior to his immigration to the United States remain largely unknown. While Appleton’s ''Cyclopedia of American Biography'' gives his birth date “about 1775,” historian Robert Cox has pointed out that that the 1810 census records list him as one of two men in his household over 45 years of age, suggesting a birth no later than 1765, and probably several years earlier.<ref>Robert S. Cox, ed., “‘I Never Yet Parted’: Bernard McMahon and the Seeds of the Corps of Discovery,” in ''The Shortest and Most Convenient Route: Lewis and Clark in Context,'' Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 5 (American Philosophical Society, 2004), 131, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> By 1806, he claimed already to have had experience “of near thirty years, in practical gardening,” so he must have begun an apprenticeship as a gardener or horticulturist around the year 1776.<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), v, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> The precise reasons for and year of his immigration are also unknown, but the botanist, physician, and congressman William Darlington (1782–1863) attributed his motivation to political unrest in Ireland, which came to a head with the failed French invasion of 1796 and the Irish rebellion of 1798.

[[Image:2191.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)]]
Knowledge of his life after his arrival in Philadelphia rests on firmer foundations. <span id="Darlington_cite"></span>By 1799 he was residing in the city, where he first met Darlington during an outbreak of yellow fever. As of 1802, M’Mahon “had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants” ([[#Darlington|view text]]).<ref>Joseph Ewan, “Bernard M’Mahon (c. 1775–1816), Pioneer Philadelphia Nurseryman, and His American Gardener’s Calendar,” ''Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History'' 3, no. 7 (October 1960): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> He recognized a need for pamphlets and books about plants tailored to American climates and species, which he set out to satisfy. In 1804 he published the first American seed catalog in booklet form.<ref> Bernard M’Mahon, ''A Catalogue of American Seeds'' (Philadelphia: Printed by William Duane, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4PHBM2KF/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> This was followed in 1806 by his most significant work, ''The American Gardener's Calendar,'' which broke up the seasonal labors of gardening into monthly lists of tasks over the course of 648 pages [Fig. 1]. By 1807, he ran a successful flower shop, [[nursery]] and seed business at 39 South 2nd Street in Philadelphia.<ref>See “M’Mahon, Bernard” in James Robinson, ''The Philadelphia Directory for 1807: Containing the Names, Trades, and Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark, and Northern Liberties: Also, a Calendar, from the 1st of February, 1807 to the 1st of February 1808, and Other Useful Information'' (Philadelphia: Printed for the publisher and sold by W. Woodhouse, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Image:2192.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806]]
[[Image:2193.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806]]
In addition to his publishing and commercial activities, M’Mahon was an active member of the Philadelphia horticultural and scientific communities. A receipt in M’Mahon’s handwriting [Fig. 2–3] reveals that he sold seeds and plants to the American Philosophical Society, which shipped them to Amsterdam.<ref>Now in the American Philosophical Society Archives, reproduced in Ewan 1960, 366–67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> Perhaps the most intriguing but least successful of his professional organizations and business interests was a viticulture endeavor known as the Pennsylvania Vine Company, run by Peter Legaux (1748–1827), which M’Mahon helped govern from 1807 to 1811.<ref>For his membership in the Vine Company see Robinson 1807, xlvii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero]; ''Census Directory for 1811: Containing the Names, Occupations, & Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark & Northern Liberties, a Separate Division Being Allotted to Persons of Colour; to Which Is Annexed an Appendix Containing Much Useful Information, and a Perpetual Calendar'' (Philadelphia: Printed by Jane Aitken, No. 71, North Third Street, 1811), 426, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero].
The society, which floundered throughout the first decade of the nineteenth century, is discussed in Thomas Pinney, ''A History of Wine in America: From the Beginnings to Prohibition'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 113, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HHVCQQVU/q/a%20history%20of%20wine view on Zotero].</ref> He also participated in the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, which listed him as a member in 1812.<ref>Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, ''Laws of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, as Revised and Enacted at the Annual Meeting, Held on the 14th January, 1812. To Which Is Prefixed, a List of the Members of the Society. Incorporated February 14, 1809.'' (Lydia R. Bailey, 1812), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVCQ42ZX/q/laws%20of%20the%20philadelphia%20society view on Zotero].</ref> As a member of the Philadelphia community of seedsmen and botanists, M’Mahon likely met many of the preeminent figures in these fields. Two undated letters attest to his correspondence and acquaintance with the botanist and physician Benjamin Smith Barton (1766–1815).<ref>American Philosophical Society Archives, Violetta Delafield-Benjamin Smith Barton Papers, ALS, 1p. (letter from M’Mahon to Barton inviting him to a meeting), and AMsS, 1p. (letter from Barton to M’Mahon about fish).
</ref> He must also have visited [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s Garden]], another celebrated [[botanic garden]] outside of Philadelphia, although no direct evidence of such a visit survives. The botanist Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859) named a genus of evergreen shrubs ''Mahonia'' after him (known today as ''Berberis aquifolium'' after Frederick Pursh’s earlier naming). Following M’Mahon’s death in September of 1816, his wife Ann and son Thomas took over the [[nursery]]. After an unsuccessful attempt to auction the land and its contents in 1818, Ann M’Mahon ran the garden until 1830, when Thomas Hibbert, business partner of [[Robert Buist]], purchased the property.<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Notices of Some of the Principal Nurseries and Private Gardens in the United States of America, Made during a Tour through the Country, in the Summer of 1831; with Some Hints on Emigration,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 284, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2TVP4JIX/q/notices%20of%20some%20of%20the%20principal view on Zotero].
</ref>

Bernard M’Mahon’s practical impact on early American landscape design is revealed by his correspondence with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who sought useful new American species to plant at [[Monticello]]. In 1806, M’Mahon sent a letter offering a copy of his ''Calendar'' to [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], who gladly accepted. This gift inaugurated the exchange of what would amount to thirty-seven letters between the men by the time of M’Mahon’s death in 1816. As Peter Hatch notes, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]’s notebook on gardening contains more than a few entries that precisely replicate M’Mahon’s specifications for layout and maintenance.<ref>Peter J. Hatch, ''“A Rich Spot of Earth”: Thomas Jefferson’s Revolutionary Garden at Monticello'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG/q/a%20rich%20spot%20of%20earth view on Zotero].</ref> In addition to following the guidance of the ''Calendar,'' [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] purchased a wide variety of seeds and plants from M’Mahon. In exchange, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] not only paid M’Mahon for his goods, but also created new professional opportunities for him. When the noted Parisian botanist André Thouin sent [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] a collection of international seeds in 1808, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] forwarded them on to M’Mahon to cultivate and sell as he saw fit.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Garden Book, 1766-1824, with Relevant Extracts from His Other Writings, Annotated by Edwin Morris Betts,'' ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 383, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>

In addition to his international connections, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] also helped M’Mahon secure his place within the American community of seedsmen and botanists. In the winter of 1806, just eight months after their correspondence had begun, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] arranged for M’Mahon to become one of two recipients of the botanic specimens collected by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark during their expedition to the Pacific Ocean.<ref>Jefferson 1944, 328, 337, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> The other designated recipient was [[William Hamilton]], also based in the Philadelphia area at his estate [[The Woodlands]]. M’Mahon received seeds and specimens from the expedition in early 1807, and by 1808 he was growing as many as twenty species and six genera that were previously undescribed in the botanical literature.<ref>As quoted in Jefferson 1944, 345, 373, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon hired a German botanist named Frederick Pursh to describe and illustrate the specimens collected by Lewis sometime in the winter of 1807–1808, but the project stalled when Lewis’s health declined in 1808. Lewis proved unable to visit Philadelphia and answer questions about damaged specimens before he died in 1809. Pursh left Philadelphia with his notes and drawings, unpaid, and eventually published a description of the discoveries in England in December of 1813 without the permission of the remaining expedition team.<ref> Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America,'' vol. 1, 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM/q/frederick%20pursh view on Zotero]. Cox 2004, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon finally began selling plants from the expedition in 1812, advertising a variety of fragrant currant (''Ribes odoratissimum'') “collected by Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, on the shores of the rivers ''Columbia'' and ''Jefferson,'' and in the ''Rocky Mountains.''”<ref>M’Mahon regularly advertised in the Philadelphia ''Aurora,'' and the currant appears in the edition of March 11, 1812, as quoted in Cox 2004, 127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="DemocraticPress_cite"></span>By the end of 1813 he had also relocated his shop from 39 South Second Street to 13 South Second Street, several blocks closer to the center of Philadelphia ([[#DemocraticPress|view text]]).

In 1808 M’Mahon purchased some land “on the township line road, near the Germantown road,” in the area of what is today Fotterall Square, where he opened a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] called Upsal [[Botanic Garden]].<ref>John William Harshberger, ''The Botanists of Philadelphia and Their Work'' (Philadelphia: Press of T. C. Davis & Son, 1899), 117, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V/q/harshberger view on Zotero].</ref> Referencing the [[botanic garden]] of Uppsala University in Sweden restored by the celebrated botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707– 1778), the name of M'Mahon's nursery and garden emphasized his knowledge of the history of botany and his scientific ambitions. Although no descriptions of Upsal survive from M’Mahon’s lifetime, early histories and guides to the city briefly mention it as an attraction, including James Mease’s 1811 ''The Picture of Philadelphia.''<ref>James Mease, ''The Picture of Philadelphia: Giving an Account of Its Origin, Increase, and Improvements in Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures, Commerce and Revenue. With a Compendious View of Its Societies ...'' (Philadelphia: Published by B. & T. Kite, 1811), 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5EXQKRJT/q/picture%20of%20philadelphia view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Poulsons1818_cite"></span>The earliest extant description, written in 1818, two years after M’Mahon’s death, records about twenty acres of “variegated” land, with “an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring” on the property, and several buildings including a “two-storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house, and out buildings” ([[#Poulsons1818|view text]]). With its [[pond]], mixed soils, and [[green house]], the land at Upsal must have afforded M’Mahon with diverse growing conditions for a wide variety of species. The garden continued to attract botanically-minded visitors in the decades following M’Mahon’s death, like the Scottish botanist David Douglas (1799–1834), who visited the property in 1823. <span id="Douglas_cite"></span>In his journal, Douglas briefly described Upsal’s Osage orange trees (''Maclura pomifera''), which were among the most celebrated specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition ([[#Douglas|view text]]). <span id="Report1831_cite"></span>As late as 1830, visitors remarked on the “[[green house]] 60 feet long,” the “beautiful fish and water plants” with which the [[pond]] was stocked, and “a row of native oaks, planted by him [M’Mahon], containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion” ([[#Report1831|view text]]).

''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' also outlived M’Mahon by several decades, reprinted in a total of eleven editions between 1806 and 1857 in Philadelphia. The ''Calendar'' provided readers with month-by-month instructions for the care and maintenance of [[kitchen garden]]s, [[orchard]]s, and [[nursery|nurseries]]. In both structure and content, it borrowed heavily from English garden manuals, and only lightly from American sources. M’Mahon himself admitted his admiration for the ''Gardener’s Dictionary'' by the English botanist Philip Miller (1691–1771).<ref>Sarah Pattee Stetson, “American Garden Books Transplanted and Native, before 1807,” ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 3, ser. 3 (1946): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QIREGNVP/q/transplanted%20and%20native view on Zotero].</ref> Other sources included John Abercrombie’s ''Every Many His Own Gardener,'' which provided a general structure for the work.<ref>For the most comprehensive analysis of his sources to date, see Brenda Bullion, “The Science and Art of Plants and Gardens in the Development of an American Landscape Aesthetic” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 1990), 293–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon was not, however, completely beholden to these English models. He cited Philadelphian John Beale Bordley’s 1799 ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' in his discussions of animal husbandry. The distinctly American perspective of the text appears most clearly in his discussion of indigenous flowering plants. <span id="Indigenous_cite"></span>Even before M’Mahon received specimens from the Lewis and Clark expedition, he pleaded with American gardeners to incorporate indigenous species in their ornamental plantings: “In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature” ([[#Indigenous|view text]]).

Within M’Mahon’s lifetime, he became especially known for his championing of [[hedge]]s as live fences, and his calendar may have helped popularize them wherever it was read. <span id="Aurora1816_cite"></span> In 1816, his obituary singled out his innovative approach to planting “Quickset [[hedge]]s” from European white thorn (''Crataegus laevigata''), based on observation of the weathering and germination of Hawthorn seeds in the wild ([[#Aurora1816|view text]]). As Brenda Bullion points out, M’Mahon himself understood these live fences as a response to the deforestation of the American countryside, recommending them “particularly in those parts of the Union in which timber has got scarce, and must inevitably become more so in a very rapid progression.”<ref>Bullion 1990, 304–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> Here, as elsewhere, his ''Calendar'' had both practical and aesthetic implications for the development of American landscape design.

Landscape design principles formed a small but significant part of the book’s content, and in 1841, the landscape gardener [[A.J. Downing]] described the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' as the “only American work previously published which treats directly of landscape gardening.”<ref> A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences... with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1841), 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PGUEKHNG? view on Zotero].</ref> Squeezed into the month of January, M’Mahon’s introductory overview of “The [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure]], or [[Flower Garden]]” quotes extensively from ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' by John Abercrombie.<ref>See the entry on Pleasure-Garden in the 1778 and, even more similar, 1797 editions of Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al, 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM/q/abercrombie view on Zotero].</ref> This overview effectively popularized a design vocabulary drawn from earlier English works for American audiences, employing terms for plantings like [[lawn]], [[hedge]], and [[parterre]]; architectural elements such as [[temple]], pyramid, and [[obelisk]]; and earthworks including [[slope]], [[terrace]], and [[eminence]].<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s taste and those of his sources subtly shaped this vocabulary. <span id="Modern_cite"></span>He expressed a preference for the “[[Modern style/Natural style|modern]] garden” in imitation of nature rather than the “too formal works” that characterized the [[Ancient style]] ([[#Modern|view text]]).<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 66 (perspective), 55–56 (modern garden), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].
</ref> <span id="Variety_cite"></span>Lifting passages from Abercrombie’s ''Universal Gardener and Botanist'' verbatim, he advocated variety in garden design, rather than single-minded adherence to any individual design principle ([[#Variety|view text]]).

The ''Calendar'' quickly gained a wide readership among the agricultural, botanical, and even medical communities (an early copy is listed in the New York Hospital library inventory of 1811).<ref>See the catalog of books in ''An Account of the New-York Hospital'' (New York: Collins & Co., 1811), 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/64Q6DV2I/q/an%20account%20of%20the%20new-york view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s horticultural and agricultural guidelines were excerpted in a variety of gardening manuals and almanacs like Fessenden’s 1828 ''The New American Gardener,'' which contains roughly twenty short passages attributed to M’Mahon.<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener,'' 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7/q/the%20new%20american%20gardener view on Zotero]. Fessenden also quoted liberally from M’Mahon in several of his later works.</ref> In 1819, one unscrupulous publisher named Fielding Lucas Jr. went so far as to reproduce the work nearly in its entirety, retitled ''The Practical American Gardener.''<ref>Ewan 1960, 378, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>The book was also known in Europe, where [[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|John Claudius Loudon]] praised its pioneering subject and completeness in the 1822 edition of his ''Encyclopaedia of Gardening,'' but expressed skepticism concerning just how widespread the horticultural and agricultural techniques described within really were: “We cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars” ([[#Loudon|view text]]). ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' was so successful that in 1846, some thirty years after M’Mahon’s death, his acquaintance Darlington cited it in his ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society,'' claiming that “although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”<ref>William Darlington, ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society, at Their First Annual Exhibition, in the Borough of West Chester, Sept. 11, 1846'' (West Chester, PA, 1846), 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Alexander Brey''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Modern"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing designs for a [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure ground]] (1806: 55)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Modern_cite|back up to History]]
:“In designs for a [[Pleasure-ground]], according to [[Modern style/Natural style|modern gardening]]; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished, such as long straight [[walk]]s, regular intersections, square [[Plot/Plat|grass-plats]], corresponding [[parterre]]s, quadrangular and angular spaces, and other uniformities, as in [[Ancient style|ancient designs]]; instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bounded with [[plantation]]s of trees, shrubs, and flowers, in various [[clump]]s; other compartments are exhibited in a variety of imitative rural forms; such as curves, projections, openings, and closings, in imitation of a natural assemblage; having all the various [[plantation]]s and [[border]]s, open to the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s.”

*<div id="Variety"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the monotonous quality of [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]] imitating rural design “to an extreme” (1806: 56)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Variety_cite|back up to History]]
:“In these rural works, however, we should not abolish entirely, the appearance of art and uniformity; for these when properly applied, give an additional beauty and peculiar grace, to all our natural productions, and sets [sic] nature in the fairest and most beautiful point of view.
:“But some modern [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure-grounds]], in which rural design is copied to an extreme, are often very barren of variety and entertainment, as they frequently consist only of a grass-[[lawn]], like a great field; having a running [[plantation]] of trees and shrubs all round it, just broad enough, to admit a gravel-walk winding through it, in the serpentine way, in many short twists and turns, and bordering at every turn alternately, upon the outward [[fence]] and the [[lawn]]; which are continually obtruded upon the sight, exhibiting the same prospect over and over, without the least variation; so as that after having traversed the [[walk]]s all round this sort of [[pleasure-ground]], we find no more variety or entertainment than at our first entrance, the whole having presented itself at the first view.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the usefulness of formal gardens to “diversify” landscapes (1806: 69)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The perpetual show of stiff formality, displayed by this kind of fancy, has induced many to discontinue it; but some of these run into the contrary extreme, by excluding all formal regularity and uniform appearances; and substituting various dissimilar arrangements, in the formation of the different compartments, in fancied imitation of natural rurality as much as possible.
:“However, for the sake of diversity, some of the more elegant regular works, ought still to be admitted, which would form a beautiful contrast with the general rural improvements, and diversify the whole scene, so as to have a most enchanting effect.”

*<div id="Indigenous"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, endorsing the ornamental use of “indigenous” flowers (1806: 72)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Indigenous_cite|back up to History]]
:“Here I cannot avoid remarking, that many [[flower-garden]]s, &c. Are almost destitute of bloom, during a great part of the season; which could be easily avoided, and a blaze of flowers kept up, both in this department, and in the borders of the [[pleasure ground]], from March to November, by introducing from our woods and fields, the various beautiful ornaments with which nature has so profusely decorated them. Is it because they are indigenous, that we should reject them? ought we not rather to cultivate and improve them? what can be more beautiful than our Lobelias, Orchis’, Asclepias’ and Asters; Dracocephalums, Gerardias, Monardas and Ipomoeas; Liliums, Podalyrias, Rhexias, Solidagos and Hibiscus’; Phlox’s, Gentianas, Spigelias, Chironias and Sisyrinchiums, Cassias, Ophrys’, Coreopsis’ and Cypripediums; Fumarias, Violas, Rudbeckias and Liatris’; with our charming Limadorum, fragrant Arethusa and a thousand other lovely plants, which if introduced would grace our plantations, and delight our senses?
:“In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature.”

*Anonymous, 1807, Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (''The Medical Repository'' vol. 4: 177-180)<ref>“Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'',” ''The Medical Repository'' 4 (1807): 174–80. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UR9I39RN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. M’Mahon has parcelled his work into twelve great divisions. These correspond to the months of the year. In each he prescribes the work to be done, and the way of doing it. In this manner he has constructed a Calendar, beginning with January, and proceeding regularly to June, and thence forward to December. By attending to this arrangement, the person who consults the volume can readily find the months, by casting his eye to the top of the pages, and below them the labour and preparation during each.
:“Besides this distribution of his precepts and directions, according to the sun’s place in the zodiacal signs, the author has made a methodical disposition of the business of every month. The operations in the [[kitchen-garden]], fruit-garden, [[orchard]], vineyard, [[nursery]], [[flower-garden]], [[green-house]], and [[hot-house]], are placed under distinct heads; and its is easy to find under one or another of these titles, whatever the Calendar contains for all the months of the year. By adverting thus to a division of his publication, into twelve parts or months, and these again into a subdivision of each into eight sections, Mr. M. has rendered it very easy to find any thing it contains. And, by attending to this, it is scarcely more difficult to examine the directions for the [[pleasure garden]] in September, the orchard in March, or the [[hot-house]] in December, &c. &c. Than to search for a word and its correlatives in the Encyclopaedia, or to examine passages in the Bible by the aid of a Concordance.
:“The reader is not to expect that the work should be wholly original. The author does not pretend to this. A candid acknowledgement is made, that in writing the treatise, he consulted the best publications in the American States, and in the transatlantic countries, especially those extant in the English, French, and Latin tongues. To bring into one compendious tract the information scattered in many books, composed in different languages, hard and costly to procure, laborious to examine when procured, and requiring more literature than falls to the lot of the great body of cultivators, is a very laudable and useful undertaking. Our fellow citizens, we confidently believe, will concur with us in opinion, that he has done them worthy and acceptable service. He is perfectly aware that in some cases he may be mistaken, and in others may have made omissions; and these he is ready to amend as soon as they shall be discovered. But he has employed a good share of judgment in the directions he has given for the rearing of thorn-quicks and other plants for live [[fence]]s; for cultivating liquorice, manna-ash, and rhubarb for medicines; planting madder and weld for dyeing; cork tree, fuller’s teazel, tanner’s-sumac, and paper mulberry for the economical arts; sea-kale for the dining table; grapes for the preparation of wine; and mulberry trees and insects for the manufacture of silk. And, in addition to all his knowledge derived from preceding authors, Mr. M. lays claim to the attention of his readers, by the experimental skill derived from a large and extensive course of practical gardening, pursued for almost thirty years. . . .
:“We were pleased to find that the American plants which beautify the woods, fields, and swamps, had not been overlooked or neglected by our author. Many of them are duly noticed, and the cultivator’s attention called to them among the instructions for the [[flower-garden]] in the month of August. And we were gratified also with a piece of convenient economy, by substituting oak leaves newly fallen in autumn, instead of tanner’s bark, as described in the section which relates to the [[hot-house]] department for October.
:“But we forbear any further comments or criticisms. A book of such great extent, and various contents, cannot be easily analized [''sic''] in a general way further than we have gone. And to proceed more deeply into particulars would be inconsistent with our plan and limits: we therefore observe, that as the taste for gardening is increasing, and the appearance of the book is opportune, we expect it will be sought with avidity, and thereby become the incentive and the guide to capital improvements in that interesting art. And we shall be disappointed, if nursery-men, florists, and gentlemen of taste, leisure, and fortune, do not add to their libraries, however select and small, M’Mahon’s American Calendar.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 3 January 1809, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]] describing a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Jefferson 1944: 401)<ref>Jefferson 1944, 401, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Last month I purchased in the vicinity of this City [Philadelphia] 20 Acres of ground, well adapted for a [[Nursery]] & [[Botanic Garden]], and hope that, in a few years, I shall enrich that spot, and through it, in some measure, the country in general, with as extensive and useful a collection of vegetable productions, as can reasonably be expected from the small means of which I am possessed.”

*Anonymous, 1811, Description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] published in the ''Census Directory for 1811,'' reprinted in various newspapers (1811: 426-27)<ref>''Census Directory for 1811,'' 426–427, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “From the True American. Botany,” ''Concord Gazette,'' April 23, 1811, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/84CNB3KN/q/from%20the%20true%20american view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Upsal [[Botanic Garden]]
:“A [[Botanic Garden]] and [[Nursery]] was commenced in the spring of 1809 in the immediate vicinity of this city [Philadelphia], near the junction of the Germantown and township line roads; the extent of the ground is 20 acres, well and advantageously watered, the varieties of soils and exposures which it produces and exhibits, is of considerable importance in an institution of this kind.
:“In the summer of the last year, the proprietor erected an elegant building for the preservation of exotics, which is now furnished with an immense variety; and the garden generally, at this time, is said to contain several thousand species and varieties of plants, foreign and indigenous, many of which are of considerable importance in medicine, agriculture, horticulture and the arts.—The proprietor of this garden, Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, a few years ago, published in this city a work on horticulture in general, entitled “The American Gardeners’ Calendar,” which appears to have thrown a new light on our former system of gardening; the good effects of which are here generally acknowledged, and are visible in the superabundance of fine fruits and vegetables, annually accumulating in the markets of this city.”

*<div id="DemocraticPress"></div>Anonymous, December 28, 1813, advertisement in the ''Democratic Press'' for M’Mahon’s new store at No. 13, South Second Street, Philadelphia<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, “Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.,” Democratic Press, December 28, 1813, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HYB8WB7Z/q/grass%20and%20garden%20seeds view on Zotero].</ref> [[#DemocraticPress_cite|back up to History]]
:“Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.
:“BERNARD M’MAHON
:“[[Nursery]] & Seedsman.
:“HAS recently moved his stock in trade from No. 39, to No. 13, South Second street where he intends permanently to reside. He is amply supplied, as usual with an extensive variety of Grass Garden and Flower Seeds; Bulbous Flower Roots, of numerous species and varieties, Garden Tools, Agricultural, Gardening and Botanical Books, &c. He has also for sale at his [[Botanic Garden]] [Upsal] near this city, a numerous variety of the most beautiful hardy perennial, tuberous and fibrous FLOWER ROOTS, ornamental Trees and Shrubs as well as [[Green House]] Plants, collected from various parts of the Globe, with some very valuable Fruit Trees, such as superior English Gooseberries, large red and white Antwerp Raspberries, red white and black Currants, Apples, Pears, Peaches, Nectarines and German Medlars, &c. with superior Strawberry and Asparagus Plants.
:“Dec. 22—if w10t”

*<div id="Aurora1816"></div>Anonymous, September 19, 1816, obituary in the ''Aurora'' for Bernard M’Mahon<ref>“Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Aurora,'' September 19, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LY9RB34Z/q/1816 view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' September 20, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/B9PBEY5G/q/1816 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Aurora1816_cite|back up to History]]
:“Died—On Wednesday Morning, at his [[Botanical Garden]], called Upsal, two and a half miles from this city, Mr. BERNARD M’MAHON, well known throughout the Continent and among the Botanists of the Old World. Mr. M’Mahon came to this city, from Ireland, about twenty years since, and from his previous experience and industry, and great enthusiasm in the profession to which he was bred, he has rendered very eminent services to the United States, (more, indeed, than all who had preceded him,) by applying the principles of Agricultural Science to the varieties of the climates of this continent; pointing out the errors which had retarded improvement, he contributed to the comforts, and the most delightful of human recreations, planting the shrub, and nursing the buds into bloom, and tendril into vigor. His Book of Gardening is a precious treasure, and ought to occupy a place in every house in this country; its principles are eternal, and its instruction fruitful of advantage. His theory of Planting, has removed the difficulties heretofore deemed insurmountable in the production of Quickset [[hedge]]s, from the white thorn—he urged, that he learned it from Nature, who scattering stone fruit on the surface of the earth opens the stone by the frost, and the earth to receive the kernel by the thaw—following this observation, he laid his white thorn seed, or the dried haw on the smooth surface of the ground upon which he proposed to plant, preparing the soil only to suit the operations of Nature. It was his desire, while living, to be useful; and it is in conformity with his usual mode of thinking, that we think fit to notice, at the same time that we notice his demise, his practice in an invaluable branch of knowledge, which many may see on this occasion, who have not before heard of it.
:“His funeral will take place at Upsal, this morning at ten o’clock, where his friends are requested to attend.”

*<div id="Poulsons1818"></div>Anonymous, April 4, 1818, auction notice and description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] in ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser''<ref> “Botanic Garden. Real Estate, &c.,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' April 4, 1818, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7487U853/q/botanic%20garden.%20real%20estate view on Zotero]. See also Cox 2004, 132, note 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Poulsons1818_cite|back up to History]]
:“[[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]].
:“REAL ESTATE, &c.
:“PURSUANT to an Order of the Orphans’ Court, held at Philadelphia, for the city and county of Philadelphia, on the 20th day of March, A.D. 1818, before the Honourable Jacob Rush, William Moulder, and Thomas Armstrong, Esquires, Justices of the said Court,
:“Will be Exposed to Public Sale,
:“On Tuesday, the 12th day of May, at seven o’clock in the evening, at the Merchants’ Coffee House, the following described Real Estate, late of James M’Mahon, deceased, to wit:
:“All that tract or piece of Land situate in Penn township, in the county of Philadelphia, on the township line road, near the Germantown road, and about two and a half miles from the city—adjoining lands of Charles Wharton, Esq. and others; containing 19 acres and 128 perches, on which is erected a two storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house and out buildings. The ground is variegated, and in high cultivation. Terms at sale.
:“By order of the Court,
:“Thomas F. Gordon, Clerk.
:“Ann M’Mahon, Widow and Administratrix of James M’Mahon, deceased.
:“AT THE SAME TIME AND PLACE,
:“Will also be exposed to Public Sale, either collectively or separately, as may best suit the purchaser or purchasers. The whole of the [[Green House]] plants, (about three thousand) and other articles, very many of which are peculiar, valuable, and far sought for. The ground is sufficiently variegated, to admit of every species of Botany, and is probably the best [[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]] in the country. It contains an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring, having therein Gold and Silver fish, in great variety and quantity. There is a great variety of Scots Fir, Silver Spruce, Larch, with other trees and shrubs—A pump of the finest water, &c. &c.
:“Catalogues will be made out, and the property may be viewed at any time previous to sale.
:“John Dorsey, Auc’r.”

*<div id="Loudon"></div>Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius), 1822, describing Bernard M’Mahon and the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1822, I: 106)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening,'' 1st ed. (London: Longman et al, 1822), 106, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Y638SNRW/q/loudon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]
:“M’Mahon, already mentioned, is a seedsman at Philadelphia, and ‘has connected with the seed-trade a botanical, agricultural, and horticultural book-store.’ His work is the first of the kind which has appeared in America, and includes every department to be found in our calendars. Ample instructions are given for growing the pine, vine, melon, and other delicate fruits, and also for the forcing departments both of the [[Flower garden|flower]] and [[kitchen garden]]s; but we cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars.”

*<div id="Douglas"></div>Douglas, David, August 22, 1823, describing his visit to Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] (1914: 8)<ref>David Douglas, ''Journal Kept by David Douglas During His Travels in North America 1823–1827 Together with a Particular Description of Thirty-Three Species of American Oaks and Eighteen Species of Pinus, with Appendices Containing a List of the Plants Introduced by Douglas and an Account of His Death in 1834'' (London: W. Wesley & Son, for the Royal Historical Society, 1914), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVY4XWI3/q/david%20douglas view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Douglas_cite|back up to History]]
:“Friday, August 22nd.
:“. . . . I made a journey to Mr. McMahon, which is three miles north of the city. I did not find him at home; I looked round the garden, and after a patient search found Maclura, two plants, height about seventeen feet, bushy and rugged; they had a few fruits on the trees; it is well described in Pursh’s Preface of his ‘Flora Amer.’ Then I called at [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s old place]], but found no person at home.”

*<div id="Report1831"></div>Anonymous, c. 1831, Report on the condition of Upsal for the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania, maintained after M’Mahon’s death by his wife (1831: 10–11)<ref>''Report of the Committee Appointed by the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania for Visiting the Nurseries and Gardens in the Vicinity of Philadelphia'' (Philadelphia: W. Geddes, 1831), 10–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SSQIGDZR/q/report%20of%20the%20committee view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Report1831_cite|back up to History]]
:“Mrs. M’Mahon’s Garden is about 3 miles north of Philadelphia. It contains a [[green house]] 60 feet long and calculated to hold a great many plants. The collection is good. The establishment is 19 years old, and was founded by that enterprising and distinguished horticulturist, Mr. B. M’Mahon, husband of the present proprietor.
:“Here is the largest Portlandia that we have seen, and a good selection of the succulent family, with many oranges, lemons, shaddock, etc. A very large tree of Maclura aurantiaca or osage orange; a highly ornamental tree, with bright green foliage, and standing longer in the fall than any other of the deciduous tribe. It bears a large green fruit, not unlike an orange. We think that Mr. M’Mahon was the first to introduce this tree, brought back by Lewis and Clark. Here we saw an uncommon large shrub of the Lonicera tartarica, or tartarian honeysuckle; it is twenty feet in diameter, and high in proportion.
:“The ground contains about 20 acres, distributed in [[nursery]] stock, and growing vegetable seeds.
:“Those two beautiful shrubs, the Symphoricarpos racemosus and Ribes aureum, were propagated in this [[nursery]] before any other in our vicinity; and this was the case, too, with many other shrubs and trees. Of European trees there are several valuable specimens, such as Fraxinus, Tilia, Ulmus, Fagus, Betula, Carpinus, Platanus and Pinus. On these grounds are [[pond]]s well stocked with beautiful fish and water plants, among these last is the Nymphaea odorata, with its showy white flowers, yellow anthers and sweet fragrance.
:“Mr. M’Mahon was an indefatigable arborist, and his garden now exhibits a row of native oaks, planted by him, containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion. The willow-leaved oak is the most conspicuous, and forms a very handsome conical tree.
:“Perhaps we owe as much to the late Mr. M’Mahon, as a horticulturist, as to any individual in America. Besides his efforts in collecting and propagating we are indebted to him for his excellent book on “American Gardening,” which has passed through many editions.
:“There is a small [[nursery]] connected with this, in Camac street.
:“Attached to this establishment is a Seed Store, in Second below Market street, where there is sold an extensive variety of seeds, foreign and native, to the amount of 2,000 kinds; with a variety of horticultural implements, and a collection of botanical and horticultural books.”

*Wynne, William, 1832, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia,” describing Hibbert [[Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 273)<ref>William Wynne, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia, with Remarks on the Subject of the Emigration of British Gardens to the United States,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 273, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CKN7ZG86/q/william%20wynne view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A Mr. Hibbert keeps a small [[nursery]], in which he grows roses and other plants in pots, which he sells chiefly in the city market. I understand Mr. Hibbert has taken a piece of ground formerly occupied as a [[nursery]] by Mr. M’Mahon, and has taken into partnership [[Robert Buist|Mr. Buist]], a gardener in the neighbourhood.”

*Darlington, William, 1846, on the significance of M’Mahon’s ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1846: 13)<ref>Darlington 1846, 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].
</ref>
:“To instruct us in the management of the [[Flower garden|Flower]] and [[Kitchen Garden]], we have “The American Gardener’s Calendar,” by the late Bernard M’Mahon—one of the pioneers among us, in the good work of teaching horticulture. Although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”

*<div id="Darlington"></div>Darlington, William, 1857, on his recollections of Bernard M’Mahon (in M’Mahon 1857: xii-xiii)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....,'' 11th ed. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company, 1857), xii–xiii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4CL25KHJ/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Darlington_cite|back up to History]]
:“I am much gratified to learn that a new edition of M’Mahon’s “American Gardener’s Calendar” is in press. That work was among the earliest of its kind in our country, and I have always regarded it as among the best. It is at once comprehensive and complete; and, moreover, remarkable for its judicious, practical, common sense views of the subject.
:“I had the pleasure of knowing Bernard M’Mahon, in my youthful days. He was, I believe, one of those Exiles of Erin who sought and found a refuge in our country, near the close of the last century. In the autumn, I think of 1799, he passed some weeks at my native village of Dilworthtown, in Chester County, in order to avoid the ravages of yellow fever, in Philadelphia, where he resided; and in that rural retreat I first knew him. I renewed the acquaintance in 1802, 3, and 4, while attending the medical lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, by which time he had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants: and I ever found him an obliging, intelligent, and instructive friend. He was a regularly educated gardener, of much experience, and great enterprise. He gave the first decisive impulse to scientific horticulture in our State; and to him we are mainly indebted among other favors, for the successful culture and dissemination of the interesting novelties collected by Lewis and Clarke, in their journey to the Pacific. When, in 1818, Mr. Nuttall published his Genera of North American Plants, he named a beautiful shrub “in memory of the late Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, whose ardent attachment to Botany, and successful introduction of useful and ornamental Horticulture into the United States, lay claim to public esteem:” and although the genus has been reduced by later botanists to a section of Berberis, it is generally known by—and I trust will long retain—the popular name of Mahonia.
:“It was a well-deserved tribute of respect, from one who intimately knew, and could justly appreciate the merits it commemorated: and I am happy in the opportunity, even at this late day, to add my own humble and inadequate testimonial to that of so accomplished a judge of botanical worth, as Thomas Nuttall.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
Image:2191.jpg|Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)
Image:2192.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806
Image:2193.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806
</gallery>
<hr>

==Other Resources==

[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/nr97032038 Library of Congress Authority File]

[https://www.monticello.org/site/house-and-gardens/bernard-mcmahon-pioneer-american-gardener “Monticello's Twinleaf Journal Online: Bernard McMahon, Pioneer American Gardener”]

[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b117016 Hathitrust Digital Library: 1806 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20141404#page/7/mode/1up Biodiversity Heritage Library: 1857 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|M'Mahon, Bernard]]

Bernard M’Mahon

2019-06-18T15:46:12Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ adding links to keywords in 1807 review text

'''Bernard M’Mahon''' (before 1765–September 18, 1816), self-described “[[Nursery]], Seedsman, and Florist,” wrote a popular calendar for American gardeners in 1806, ran a successful [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, corresponded with [[Thomas Jefferson]] about his gardening and agricultural endeavours, and cultivated previously undescribed botanic specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition.
==History==
The details of Bernard M’Mahon’s birth and youth in Ireland prior to his immigration to the United States remain largely unknown. While Appleton’s ''Cyclopedia of American Biography'' gives his birth date “about 1775,” historian Robert Cox has pointed out that that the 1810 census records list him as one of two men in his household over 45 years of age, suggesting a birth no later than 1765, and probably several years earlier.<ref>Robert S. Cox, ed., “‘I Never Yet Parted’: Bernard McMahon and the Seeds of the Corps of Discovery,” in ''The Shortest and Most Convenient Route: Lewis and Clark in Context,'' Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 5 (American Philosophical Society, 2004), 131, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> By 1806, he claimed already to have had experience “of near thirty years, in practical gardening,” so he must have begun an apprenticeship as a gardener or horticulturist around the year 1776.<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), v, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> The precise reasons for and year of his immigration are also unknown, but the botanist, physician, and congressman William Darlington (1782–1863) attributed his motivation to political unrest in Ireland, which came to a head with the failed French invasion of 1796 and the Irish rebellion of 1798.

[[Image:2191.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)]]
Knowledge of his life after his arrival in Philadelphia rests on firmer foundations. <span id="Darlington_cite"></span>By 1799 he was residing in the city, where he first met Darlington during an outbreak of yellow fever. As of 1802, M’Mahon “had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants” ([[#Darlington|view text]]).<ref>Joseph Ewan, “Bernard M’Mahon (c. 1775–1816), Pioneer Philadelphia Nurseryman, and His American Gardener’s Calendar,” ''Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History'' 3, no. 7 (October 1960): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> He recognized a need for pamphlets and books about plants tailored to American climates and species, which he set out to satisfy. In 1804 he published the first American seed catalog in booklet form.<ref> Bernard M’Mahon, ''A Catalogue of American Seeds'' (Philadelphia: Printed by William Duane, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4PHBM2KF/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> This was followed in 1806 by his most significant work, ''The American Gardener's Calendar,'' which broke up the seasonal labors of gardening into monthly lists of tasks over the course of 648 pages [Fig. 1]. By 1807, he ran a successful flower shop, [[nursery]] and seed business at 39 South 2nd Street in Philadelphia.<ref>See “M’Mahon, Bernard” in James Robinson, ''The Philadelphia Directory for 1807: Containing the Names, Trades, and Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark, and Northern Liberties: Also, a Calendar, from the 1st of February, 1807 to the 1st of February 1808, and Other Useful Information'' (Philadelphia: Printed for the publisher and sold by W. Woodhouse, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Image:2192.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806]]
[[Image:2193.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806]]
In addition to his publishing and commercial activities, M’Mahon was an active member of the Philadelphia horticultural and scientific communities. A receipt in M’Mahon’s handwriting [Fig. 2–3] reveals that he sold seeds and plants to the American Philosophical Society, which shipped them to Amsterdam.<ref>Now in the American Philosophical Society Archives, reproduced in Ewan 1960, 366–67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> Perhaps the most intriguing but least successful of his professional organizations and business interests was a viticulture endeavor known as the Pennsylvania Vine Company, run by Peter Legaux (1748–1827), which M’Mahon helped govern from 1807 to 1811.<ref>For his membership in the Vine Company see Robinson 1807, xlvii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero]; ''Census Directory for 1811: Containing the Names, Occupations, & Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark & Northern Liberties, a Separate Division Being Allotted to Persons of Colour; to Which Is Annexed an Appendix Containing Much Useful Information, and a Perpetual Calendar'' (Philadelphia: Printed by Jane Aitken, No. 71, North Third Street, 1811), 426, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero].
The society, which floundered throughout the first decade of the nineteenth century, is discussed in Thomas Pinney, ''A History of Wine in America: From the Beginnings to Prohibition'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 113, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HHVCQQVU/q/a%20history%20of%20wine view on Zotero].</ref> He also participated in the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, which listed him as a member in 1812.<ref>Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, ''Laws of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, as Revised and Enacted at the Annual Meeting, Held on the 14th January, 1812. To Which Is Prefixed, a List of the Members of the Society. Incorporated February 14, 1809.'' (Lydia R. Bailey, 1812), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVCQ42ZX/q/laws%20of%20the%20philadelphia%20society view on Zotero].</ref> As a member of the Philadelphia community of seedsmen and botanists, M’Mahon likely met many of the preeminent figures in these fields. Two undated letters attest to his correspondence and acquaintance with the botanist and physician Benjamin Smith Barton (1766–1815).<ref>American Philosophical Society Archives, Violetta Delafield-Benjamin Smith Barton Papers, ALS, 1p. (letter from M’Mahon to Barton inviting him to a meeting), and AMsS, 1p. (letter from Barton to M’Mahon about fish).
</ref> He must also have visited [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s Garden]], another celebrated [[botanic garden]] outside of Philadelphia, although no direct evidence of such a visit survives. The botanist Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859) named a genus of evergreen shrubs ''Mahonia'' after him (known today as ''Berberis aquifolium'' after Frederick Pursh’s earlier naming). Following M’Mahon’s death in September of 1816, his wife Ann and son Thomas took over the [[nursery]]. After an unsuccessful attempt to auction the land and its contents in 1818, Ann M’Mahon ran the garden until 1830, when Thomas Hibbert, business partner of [[Robert Buist]], purchased the property.<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Notices of Some of the Principal Nurseries and Private Gardens in the United States of America, Made during a Tour through the Country, in the Summer of 1831; with Some Hints on Emigration,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 284, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2TVP4JIX/q/notices%20of%20some%20of%20the%20principal view on Zotero].
</ref>

Bernard M’Mahon’s practical impact on early American landscape design is revealed by his correspondence with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who sought useful new American species to plant at [[Monticello]]. In 1806, M’Mahon sent a letter offering a copy of his ''Calendar'' to [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], who gladly accepted. This gift inaugurated the exchange of what would amount to thirty-seven letters between the men by the time of M’Mahon’s death in 1816. As Peter Hatch notes, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]’s notebook on gardening contains more than a few entries that precisely replicate M’Mahon’s specifications for layout and maintenance.<ref>Peter J. Hatch, ''“A Rich Spot of Earth”: Thomas Jefferson’s Revolutionary Garden at Monticello'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG/q/a%20rich%20spot%20of%20earth view on Zotero].</ref> In addition to following the guidance of the ''Calendar,'' [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] purchased a wide variety of seeds and plants from M’Mahon. In exchange, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] not only paid M’Mahon for his goods, but also created new professional opportunities for him. When the noted Parisian botanist André Thouin sent [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] a collection of international seeds in 1808, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] forwarded them on to M’Mahon to cultivate and sell as he saw fit.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Garden Book, 1766-1824, with Relevant Extracts from His Other Writings, Annotated by Edwin Morris Betts,'' ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 383, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>

In addition to his international connections, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] also helped M’Mahon secure his place within the American community of seedsmen and botanists. In the winter of 1806, just eight months after their correspondence had begun, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] arranged for M’Mahon to become one of two recipients of the botanic specimens collected by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark during their expedition to the Pacific Ocean.<ref>Jefferson 1944, 328, 337, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> The other designated recipient was [[William Hamilton]], also based in the Philadelphia area at his estate [[The Woodlands]]. M’Mahon received seeds and specimens from the expedition in early 1807, and by 1808 he was growing as many as twenty species and six genera that were previously undescribed in the botanical literature.<ref>As quoted in Jefferson 1944, 345, 373, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon hired a German botanist named Frederick Pursh to describe and illustrate the specimens collected by Lewis sometime in the winter of 1807–1808, but the project stalled when Lewis’s health declined in 1808. Lewis proved unable to visit Philadelphia and answer questions about damaged specimens before he died in 1809. Pursh left Philadelphia with his notes and drawings, unpaid, and eventually published a description of the discoveries in England in December of 1813 without the permission of the remaining expedition team.<ref> Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America,'' vol. 1, 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM/q/frederick%20pursh view on Zotero]. Cox 2004, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon finally began selling plants from the expedition in 1812, advertising a variety of fragrant currant (''Ribes odoratissimum'') “collected by Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, on the shores of the rivers ''Columbia'' and ''Jefferson,'' and in the ''Rocky Mountains.''”<ref>M’Mahon regularly advertised in the Philadelphia ''Aurora,'' and the currant appears in the edition of March 11, 1812, as quoted in Cox 2004, 127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="DemocraticPress_cite"></span>By the end of 1813 he had also relocated his shop from 39 South Second Street to 13 South Second Street, several blocks closer to the center of Philadelphia ([[#DemocraticPress|view text]]).

In 1808 M’Mahon purchased some land “on the township line road, near the Germantown road,” in the area of what is today Fotterall Square, where he opened a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] called Upsal [[Botanic Garden]].<ref>John William Harshberger, ''The Botanists of Philadelphia and Their Work'' (Philadelphia: Press of T. C. Davis & Son, 1899), 117, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V/q/harshberger view on Zotero].</ref> Referencing the [[botanic garden]] of Uppsala University in Sweden restored by the celebrated botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707– 1778), the name of M'Mahon's nursery and garden emphasized his knowledge of the history of botany and his scientific ambitions. Although no descriptions of Upsal survive from M’Mahon’s lifetime, early histories and guides to the city briefly mention it as an attraction, including James Mease’s 1811 ''The Picture of Philadelphia.''<ref>James Mease, ''The Picture of Philadelphia: Giving an Account of Its Origin, Increase, and Improvements in Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures, Commerce and Revenue. With a Compendious View of Its Societies ...'' (Philadelphia: Published by B. & T. Kite, 1811), 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5EXQKRJT/q/picture%20of%20philadelphia view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Poulsons1818_cite"></span>The earliest extant description, written in 1818, two years after M’Mahon’s death, records about twenty acres of “variegated” land, with “an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring” on the property, and several buildings including a “two-storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house, and out buildings” ([[#Poulsons1818|view text]]). With its [[pond]], mixed soils, and [[green house]], the land at Upsal must have afforded M’Mahon with diverse growing conditions for a wide variety of species. The garden continued to attract botanically-minded visitors in the decades following M’Mahon’s death, like the Scottish botanist David Douglas (1799–1834), who visited the property in 1823. <span id="Douglas_cite"></span>In his journal, Douglas briefly described Upsal’s Osage orange trees (''Maclura pomifera''), which were among the most celebrated specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition ([[#Douglas|view text]]). <span id="Report1831_cite"></span>As late as 1830, visitors remarked on the “[[green house]] 60 feet long,” the “beautiful fish and water plants” with which the [[pond]] was stocked, and “a row of native oaks, planted by him [M’Mahon], containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion” ([[#Report1831|view text]]).

''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' also outlived M’Mahon by several decades, reprinted in a total of eleven editions between 1806 and 1857 in Philadelphia. The ''Calendar'' provided readers with month-by-month instructions for the care and maintenance of [[kitchen garden]]s, [[orchard]]s, and [[nursery|nurseries]]. In both structure and content, it borrowed heavily from English garden manuals, and only lightly from American sources. M’Mahon himself admitted his admiration for the ''Gardener’s Dictionary'' by the English botanist Philip Miller (1691–1771).<ref>Sarah Pattee Stetson, “American Garden Books Transplanted and Native, before 1807,” ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 3, ser. 3 (1946): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QIREGNVP/q/transplanted%20and%20native view on Zotero].</ref> Other sources included John Abercrombie’s ''Every Many His Own Gardener,'' which provided a general structure for the work.<ref>For the most comprehensive analysis of his sources to date, see Brenda Bullion, “The Science and Art of Plants and Gardens in the Development of an American Landscape Aesthetic” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 1990), 293–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon was not, however, completely beholden to these English models. He cited Philadelphian John Beale Bordley’s 1799 ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' in his discussions of animal husbandry. The distinctly American perspective of the text appears most clearly in his discussion of indigenous flowering plants. <span id="Indigenous_cite"></span>Even before M’Mahon received specimens from the Lewis and Clark expedition, he pleaded with American gardeners to incorporate indigenous species in their ornamental plantings: “In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature” ([[#Indigenous|view text]]).

Within M’Mahon’s lifetime, he became especially known for his championing of [[hedge]]s as live fences, and his calendar may have helped popularize them wherever it was read. <span id="Aurora1816_cite"></span> In 1816, his obituary singled out his innovative approach to planting “Quickset [[hedge]]s” from European white thorn (''Crataegus laevigata''), based on observation of the weathering and germination of Hawthorn seeds in the wild ([[#Aurora1816|view text]]). As Brenda Bullion points out, M’Mahon himself understood these live fences as a response to the deforestation of the American countryside, recommending them “particularly in those parts of the Union in which timber has got scarce, and must inevitably become more so in a very rapid progression.”<ref>Bullion 1990, 304–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> Here, as elsewhere, his ''Calendar'' had both practical and aesthetic implications for the development of American landscape design.

Landscape design principles formed a small but significant part of the book’s content, and in 1841, the landscape gardener [[A.J. Downing]] described the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' as the “only American work previously published which treats directly of landscape gardening.”<ref> A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences... with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1841), 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PGUEKHNG? view on Zotero].</ref> Squeezed into the month of January, M’Mahon’s introductory overview of “The [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure]], or [[Flower Garden]]” quotes extensively from ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' by John Abercrombie.<ref>See the entry on Pleasure-Garden in the 1778 and, even more similar, 1797 editions of Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al, 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM/q/abercrombie view on Zotero].</ref> This overview effectively popularized a design vocabulary drawn from earlier English works for American audiences, employing terms for plantings like [[lawn]], [[hedge]], and [[parterre]]; architectural elements such as [[temple]], pyramid, and [[obelisk]]; and earthworks including [[slope]], [[terrace]], and [[eminence]].<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s taste and those of his sources subtly shaped this vocabulary. <span id="Modern_cite"></span>He expressed a preference for the “[[Modern style/Natural style|modern]] garden” in imitation of nature rather than the “too formal works” that characterized the [[Ancient style]] ([[#Modern|view text]]).<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 66 (perspective), 55–56 (modern garden), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].
</ref> <span id="Variety_cite"></span>Lifting passages from Abercrombie’s ''Universal Gardener and Botanist'' verbatim, he advocated variety in garden design, rather than single-minded adherence to any individual design principle ([[#Variety|view text]]).

The ''Calendar'' quickly gained a wide readership among the agricultural, botanical, and even medical communities (an early copy is listed in the New York Hospital library inventory of 1811).<ref>See the catalog of books in ''An Account of the New-York Hospital'' (New York: Collins & Co., 1811), 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/64Q6DV2I/q/an%20account%20of%20the%20new-york view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s horticultural and agricultural guidelines were excerpted in a variety of gardening manuals and almanacs like Fessenden’s 1828 ''The New American Gardener,'' which contains roughly twenty short passages attributed to M’Mahon.<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener,'' 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7/q/the%20new%20american%20gardener view on Zotero]. Fessenden also quoted liberally from M’Mahon in several of his later works.</ref> In 1819, one unscrupulous publisher named Fielding Lucas Jr. went so far as to reproduce the work nearly in its entirety, retitled ''The Practical American Gardener.''<ref>Ewan 1960, 378, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>The book was also known in Europe, where [[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|John Claudius Loudon]] praised its pioneering subject and completeness in the 1822 edition of his ''Encyclopaedia of Gardening,'' but expressed skepticism concerning just how widespread the horticultural and agricultural techniques described within really were: “We cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars” ([[#Loudon|view text]]). ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' was so successful that in 1846, some thirty years after M’Mahon’s death, his acquaintance Darlington cited it in his ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society,'' claiming that “although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”<ref>William Darlington, ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society, at Their First Annual Exhibition, in the Borough of West Chester, Sept. 11, 1846'' (West Chester, PA, 1846), 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Alexander Brey''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Modern"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing designs for a [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure ground]] (1806: 55)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Modern_cite|back up to History]]
:“In designs for a [[Pleasure-ground]], according to [[Modern style/Natural style|modern gardening]]; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished, such as long straight [[walk]]s, regular intersections, square [[Plot/Plat|grass-plats]], corresponding [[parterre]]s, quadrangular and angular spaces, and other uniformities, as in [[Ancient style|ancient designs]]; instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bounded with [[plantation]]s of trees, shrubs, and flowers, in various [[clump]]s; other compartments are exhibited in a variety of imitative rural forms; such as curves, projections, openings, and closings, in imitation of a natural assemblage; having all the various [[plantation]]s and [[border]]s, open to the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s.”

*<div id="Variety"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the monotonous quality of [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]] imitating rural design “to an extreme” (1806: 56)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Variety_cite|back up to History]]
:“In these rural works, however, we should not abolish entirely, the appearance of art and uniformity; for these when properly applied, give an additional beauty and peculiar grace, to all our natural productions, and sets [sic] nature in the fairest and most beautiful point of view.
:“But some modern [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure-grounds]], in which rural design is copied to an extreme, are often very barren of variety and entertainment, as they frequently consist only of a grass-[[lawn]], like a great field; having a running [[plantation]] of trees and shrubs all round it, just broad enough, to admit a gravel-walk winding through it, in the serpentine way, in many short twists and turns, and bordering at every turn alternately, upon the outward [[fence]] and the [[lawn]]; which are continually obtruded upon the sight, exhibiting the same prospect over and over, without the least variation; so as that after having traversed the [[walk]]s all round this sort of [[pleasure-ground]], we find no more variety or entertainment than at our first entrance, the whole having presented itself at the first view.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the usefulness of formal gardens to “diversify” landscapes (1806: 69)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The perpetual show of stiff formality, displayed by this kind of fancy, has induced many to discontinue it; but some of these run into the contrary extreme, by excluding all formal regularity and uniform appearances; and substituting various dissimilar arrangements, in the formation of the different compartments, in fancied imitation of natural rurality as much as possible.
:“However, for the sake of diversity, some of the more elegant regular works, ought still to be admitted, which would form a beautiful contrast with the general rural improvements, and diversify the whole scene, so as to have a most enchanting effect.”

*<div id="Indigenous"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, endorsing the ornamental use of “indigenous” flowers (1806: 72)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Indigenous_cite|back up to History]]
:“Here I cannot avoid remarking, that many [[flower-garden]]s, &c. Are almost destitute of bloom, during a great part of the season; which could be easily avoided, and a blaze of flowers kept up, both in this department, and in the borders of the [[pleasure ground]], from March to November, by introducing from our woods and fields, the various beautiful ornaments with which nature has so profusely decorated them. Is it because they are indigenous, that we should reject them? ought we not rather to cultivate and improve them? what can be more beautiful than our Lobelias, Orchis’, Asclepias’ and Asters; Dracocephalums, Gerardias, Monardas and Ipomoeas; Liliums, Podalyrias, Rhexias, Solidagos and Hibiscus’; Phlox’s, Gentianas, Spigelias, Chironias and Sisyrinchiums, Cassias, Ophrys’, Coreopsis’ and Cypripediums; Fumarias, Violas, Rudbeckias and Liatris’; with our charming Limadorum, fragrant Arethusa and a thousand other lovely plants, which if introduced would grace our plantations, and delight our senses?
:“In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature.”

*Anonymous, 1807, Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (The Medical Repository vol. 4: 177-180)<ref>“Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'',” ''The Medical Repository'' 4 (1807): 174–80. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UR9I39RN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. M’Mahon has parcelled his work into twelve great divisions. These correspond to the months of the year. In each he prescribes the work to be done, and the way of doing it. In this manner he has constructed a Calendar, beginning with January, and proceeding regularly to June, and thence forward to December. By attending to this arrangement, the person who consults the volume can readily find the months, by casting his eye to the top of the pages, and below them the labour and preparation during each.
:“Besides this distribution of his precepts and directions, according to the sun’s place in the zodiacal signs, the author has made a methodical disposition of the business of every month. The operations in the [[kitchen-garden]], fruit-garden, [[orchard]], vineyard, [[nursery]], [[flower-garden]], [[green-house]], and [[hot-house]], are placed under distinct heads; and its is easy to find under one or another of these titles, whatever the Calendar contains for all the months of the year. By adverting thus to a division of his publication, into twelve parts or months, and these again into a subdivision of each into eight sections, Mr. M. has rendered it very easy to find any thing it contains. And, by attending to this, it is scarcely more difficult to examine the directions for the [[pleasure garden]] in September, the orchard in March, or the [[hot-house]] in December, &c. &c. Than to search for a word and its correlatives in the Encyclopaedia, or to examine passages in the Bible by the aid of a Concordance.
:“The reader is not to expect that the work should be wholly original. The author does not pretend to this. A candid acknowledgement is made, that in writing the treatise, he consulted the best publications in the American States, and in the transatlantic countries, especially those extant in the English, French, and Latin tongues. To bring into one compendious tract the information scattered in many books, composed in different languages, hard and costly to procure, laborious to examine when procured, and requiring more literature than falls to the lot of the great body of cultivators, is a very laudable and useful undertaking. Our fellow citizens, we confidently believe, will concur with us in opinion, that he has done them worthy and acceptable service. He is perfectly aware that in some cases he may be mistaken, and in others may have made omissions; and these he is ready to amend as soon as they shall be discovered. But he has employed a good share of judgment in the directions he has given for the rearing of thorn-quicks and other plants for live [[fence]]s; for cultivating liquorice, manna-ash, and rhubarb for medicines; planting madder and weld for dyeing; cork tree, fuller’s teazel, tanner’s-sumac, and paper mulberry for the economical arts; sea-kale for the dining table; grapes for the preparation of wine; and mulberry trees and insects for the manufacture of silk. And, in addition to all his knowledge derived from preceding authors, Mr. M. lays claim to the attention of his readers, by the experimental skill derived from a large and extensive course of practical gardening, pursued for almost thirty years. . . .
:“We were pleased to find that the American plants which beautify the woods, fields, and swamps, had not been overlooked or neglected by our author. Many of them are duly noticed, and the cultivator’s attention called to them among the instructions for the [[flower-garden]] in the month of August. And we were gratified also with a piece of convenient economy, by substituting oak leaves newly fallen in autumn, instead of tanner’s bark, as described in the section which relates to the [[hot-house]] department for October.
:“But we forbear any further comments or criticisms. A book of such great extent, and various contents, cannot be easily analized [''sic''] in a general way further than we have gone. And to proceed more deeply into particulars would be inconsistent with our plan and limits: we therefore observe, that as the taste for gardening is increasing, and the appearance of the book is opportune, we expect it will be sought with avidity, and thereby become the incentive and the guide to capital improvements in that interesting art. And we shall be disappointed, if nursery-men, florists, and gentlemen of taste, leisure, and fortune, do not add to their libraries, however select and small, M’Mahon’s American Calendar.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 3 January 1809, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]] describing a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Jefferson 1944: 401)<ref>Jefferson 1944, 401, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Last month I purchased in the vicinity of this City [Philadelphia] 20 Acres of ground, well adapted for a [[Nursery]] & [[Botanic Garden]], and hope that, in a few years, I shall enrich that spot, and through it, in some measure, the country in general, with as extensive and useful a collection of vegetable productions, as can reasonably be expected from the small means of which I am possessed.”

*Anonymous, 1811, Description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] published in the ''Census Directory for 1811,'' reprinted in various newspapers (1811: 426-27)<ref>''Census Directory for 1811,'' 426–427, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “From the True American. Botany,” ''Concord Gazette,'' April 23, 1811, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/84CNB3KN/q/from%20the%20true%20american view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Upsal [[Botanic Garden]]
:“A [[Botanic Garden]] and [[Nursery]] was commenced in the spring of 1809 in the immediate vicinity of this city [Philadelphia], near the junction of the Germantown and township line roads; the extent of the ground is 20 acres, well and advantageously watered, the varieties of soils and exposures which it produces and exhibits, is of considerable importance in an institution of this kind.
:“In the summer of the last year, the proprietor erected an elegant building for the preservation of exotics, which is now furnished with an immense variety; and the garden generally, at this time, is said to contain several thousand species and varieties of plants, foreign and indigenous, many of which are of considerable importance in medicine, agriculture, horticulture and the arts.—The proprietor of this garden, Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, a few years ago, published in this city a work on horticulture in general, entitled “The American Gardeners’ Calendar,” which appears to have thrown a new light on our former system of gardening; the good effects of which are here generally acknowledged, and are visible in the superabundance of fine fruits and vegetables, annually accumulating in the markets of this city.”

*<div id="DemocraticPress"></div>Anonymous, December 28, 1813, advertisement in the ''Democratic Press'' for M’Mahon’s new store at No. 13, South Second Street, Philadelphia<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, “Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.,” Democratic Press, December 28, 1813, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HYB8WB7Z/q/grass%20and%20garden%20seeds view on Zotero].</ref> [[#DemocraticPress_cite|back up to History]]
:“Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.
:“BERNARD M’MAHON
:“[[Nursery]] & Seedsman.
:“HAS recently moved his stock in trade from No. 39, to No. 13, South Second street where he intends permanently to reside. He is amply supplied, as usual with an extensive variety of Grass Garden and Flower Seeds; Bulbous Flower Roots, of numerous species and varieties, Garden Tools, Agricultural, Gardening and Botanical Books, &c. He has also for sale at his [[Botanic Garden]] [Upsal] near this city, a numerous variety of the most beautiful hardy perennial, tuberous and fibrous FLOWER ROOTS, ornamental Trees and Shrubs as well as [[Green House]] Plants, collected from various parts of the Globe, with some very valuable Fruit Trees, such as superior English Gooseberries, large red and white Antwerp Raspberries, red white and black Currants, Apples, Pears, Peaches, Nectarines and German Medlars, &c. with superior Strawberry and Asparagus Plants.
:“Dec. 22—if w10t”

*<div id="Aurora1816"></div>Anonymous, September 19, 1816, obituary in the ''Aurora'' for Bernard M’Mahon<ref>“Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Aurora,'' September 19, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LY9RB34Z/q/1816 view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' September 20, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/B9PBEY5G/q/1816 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Aurora1816_cite|back up to History]]
:“Died—On Wednesday Morning, at his [[Botanical Garden]], called Upsal, two and a half miles from this city, Mr. BERNARD M’MAHON, well known throughout the Continent and among the Botanists of the Old World. Mr. M’Mahon came to this city, from Ireland, about twenty years since, and from his previous experience and industry, and great enthusiasm in the profession to which he was bred, he has rendered very eminent services to the United States, (more, indeed, than all who had preceded him,) by applying the principles of Agricultural Science to the varieties of the climates of this continent; pointing out the errors which had retarded improvement, he contributed to the comforts, and the most delightful of human recreations, planting the shrub, and nursing the buds into bloom, and tendril into vigor. His Book of Gardening is a precious treasure, and ought to occupy a place in every house in this country; its principles are eternal, and its instruction fruitful of advantage. His theory of Planting, has removed the difficulties heretofore deemed insurmountable in the production of Quickset [[hedge]]s, from the white thorn—he urged, that he learned it from Nature, who scattering stone fruit on the surface of the earth opens the stone by the frost, and the earth to receive the kernel by the thaw—following this observation, he laid his white thorn seed, or the dried haw on the smooth surface of the ground upon which he proposed to plant, preparing the soil only to suit the operations of Nature. It was his desire, while living, to be useful; and it is in conformity with his usual mode of thinking, that we think fit to notice, at the same time that we notice his demise, his practice in an invaluable branch of knowledge, which many may see on this occasion, who have not before heard of it.
:“His funeral will take place at Upsal, this morning at ten o’clock, where his friends are requested to attend.”

*<div id="Poulsons1818"></div>Anonymous, April 4, 1818, auction notice and description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] in ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser''<ref> “Botanic Garden. Real Estate, &c.,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' April 4, 1818, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7487U853/q/botanic%20garden.%20real%20estate view on Zotero]. See also Cox 2004, 132, note 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Poulsons1818_cite|back up to History]]
:“[[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]].
:“REAL ESTATE, &c.
:“PURSUANT to an Order of the Orphans’ Court, held at Philadelphia, for the city and county of Philadelphia, on the 20th day of March, A.D. 1818, before the Honourable Jacob Rush, William Moulder, and Thomas Armstrong, Esquires, Justices of the said Court,
:“Will be Exposed to Public Sale,
:“On Tuesday, the 12th day of May, at seven o’clock in the evening, at the Merchants’ Coffee House, the following described Real Estate, late of James M’Mahon, deceased, to wit:
:“All that tract or piece of Land situate in Penn township, in the county of Philadelphia, on the township line road, near the Germantown road, and about two and a half miles from the city—adjoining lands of Charles Wharton, Esq. and others; containing 19 acres and 128 perches, on which is erected a two storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house and out buildings. The ground is variegated, and in high cultivation. Terms at sale.
:“By order of the Court,
:“Thomas F. Gordon, Clerk.
:“Ann M’Mahon, Widow and Administratrix of James M’Mahon, deceased.
:“AT THE SAME TIME AND PLACE,
:“Will also be exposed to Public Sale, either collectively or separately, as may best suit the purchaser or purchasers. The whole of the [[Green House]] plants, (about three thousand) and other articles, very many of which are peculiar, valuable, and far sought for. The ground is sufficiently variegated, to admit of every species of Botany, and is probably the best [[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]] in the country. It contains an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring, having therein Gold and Silver fish, in great variety and quantity. There is a great variety of Scots Fir, Silver Spruce, Larch, with other trees and shrubs—A pump of the finest water, &c. &c.
:“Catalogues will be made out, and the property may be viewed at any time previous to sale.
:“John Dorsey, Auc’r.”

*<div id="Loudon"></div>Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius), 1822, describing Bernard M’Mahon and the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1822, I: 106)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening,'' 1st ed. (London: Longman et al, 1822), 106, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Y638SNRW/q/loudon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]
:“M’Mahon, already mentioned, is a seedsman at Philadelphia, and ‘has connected with the seed-trade a botanical, agricultural, and horticultural book-store.’ His work is the first of the kind which has appeared in America, and includes every department to be found in our calendars. Ample instructions are given for growing the pine, vine, melon, and other delicate fruits, and also for the forcing departments both of the [[Flower garden|flower]] and [[kitchen garden]]s; but we cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars.”

*<div id="Douglas"></div>Douglas, David, August 22, 1823, describing his visit to Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] (1914: 8)<ref>David Douglas, ''Journal Kept by David Douglas During His Travels in North America 1823–1827 Together with a Particular Description of Thirty-Three Species of American Oaks and Eighteen Species of Pinus, with Appendices Containing a List of the Plants Introduced by Douglas and an Account of His Death in 1834'' (London: W. Wesley & Son, for the Royal Historical Society, 1914), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVY4XWI3/q/david%20douglas view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Douglas_cite|back up to History]]
:“Friday, August 22nd.
:“. . . . I made a journey to Mr. McMahon, which is three miles north of the city. I did not find him at home; I looked round the garden, and after a patient search found Maclura, two plants, height about seventeen feet, bushy and rugged; they had a few fruits on the trees; it is well described in Pursh’s Preface of his ‘Flora Amer.’ Then I called at [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s old place]], but found no person at home.”

*<div id="Report1831"></div>Anonymous, c. 1831, Report on the condition of Upsal for the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania, maintained after M’Mahon’s death by his wife (1831: 10–11)<ref>''Report of the Committee Appointed by the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania for Visiting the Nurseries and Gardens in the Vicinity of Philadelphia'' (Philadelphia: W. Geddes, 1831), 10–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SSQIGDZR/q/report%20of%20the%20committee view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Report1831_cite|back up to History]]
:“Mrs. M’Mahon’s Garden is about 3 miles north of Philadelphia. It contains a [[green house]] 60 feet long and calculated to hold a great many plants. The collection is good. The establishment is 19 years old, and was founded by that enterprising and distinguished horticulturist, Mr. B. M’Mahon, husband of the present proprietor.
:“Here is the largest Portlandia that we have seen, and a good selection of the succulent family, with many oranges, lemons, shaddock, etc. A very large tree of Maclura aurantiaca or osage orange; a highly ornamental tree, with bright green foliage, and standing longer in the fall than any other of the deciduous tribe. It bears a large green fruit, not unlike an orange. We think that Mr. M’Mahon was the first to introduce this tree, brought back by Lewis and Clark. Here we saw an uncommon large shrub of the Lonicera tartarica, or tartarian honeysuckle; it is twenty feet in diameter, and high in proportion.
:“The ground contains about 20 acres, distributed in [[nursery]] stock, and growing vegetable seeds.
:“Those two beautiful shrubs, the Symphoricarpos racemosus and Ribes aureum, were propagated in this [[nursery]] before any other in our vicinity; and this was the case, too, with many other shrubs and trees. Of European trees there are several valuable specimens, such as Fraxinus, Tilia, Ulmus, Fagus, Betula, Carpinus, Platanus and Pinus. On these grounds are [[pond]]s well stocked with beautiful fish and water plants, among these last is the Nymphaea odorata, with its showy white flowers, yellow anthers and sweet fragrance.
:“Mr. M’Mahon was an indefatigable arborist, and his garden now exhibits a row of native oaks, planted by him, containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion. The willow-leaved oak is the most conspicuous, and forms a very handsome conical tree.
:“Perhaps we owe as much to the late Mr. M’Mahon, as a horticulturist, as to any individual in America. Besides his efforts in collecting and propagating we are indebted to him for his excellent book on “American Gardening,” which has passed through many editions.
:“There is a small [[nursery]] connected with this, in Camac street.
:“Attached to this establishment is a Seed Store, in Second below Market street, where there is sold an extensive variety of seeds, foreign and native, to the amount of 2,000 kinds; with a variety of horticultural implements, and a collection of botanical and horticultural books.”

*Wynne, William, 1832, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia,” describing Hibbert [[Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 273)<ref>William Wynne, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia, with Remarks on the Subject of the Emigration of British Gardens to the United States,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 273, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CKN7ZG86/q/william%20wynne view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A Mr. Hibbert keeps a small [[nursery]], in which he grows roses and other plants in pots, which he sells chiefly in the city market. I understand Mr. Hibbert has taken a piece of ground formerly occupied as a [[nursery]] by Mr. M’Mahon, and has taken into partnership [[Robert Buist|Mr. Buist]], a gardener in the neighbourhood.”

*Darlington, William, 1846, on the significance of M’Mahon’s ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1846: 13)<ref>Darlington 1846, 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].
</ref>
:“To instruct us in the management of the [[Flower garden|Flower]] and [[Kitchen Garden]], we have “The American Gardener’s Calendar,” by the late Bernard M’Mahon—one of the pioneers among us, in the good work of teaching horticulture. Although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”

*<div id="Darlington"></div>Darlington, William, 1857, on his recollections of Bernard M’Mahon (in M’Mahon 1857: xii-xiii)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....,'' 11th ed. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company, 1857), xii–xiii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4CL25KHJ/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Darlington_cite|back up to History]]
:“I am much gratified to learn that a new edition of M’Mahon’s “American Gardener’s Calendar” is in press. That work was among the earliest of its kind in our country, and I have always regarded it as among the best. It is at once comprehensive and complete; and, moreover, remarkable for its judicious, practical, common sense views of the subject.
:“I had the pleasure of knowing Bernard M’Mahon, in my youthful days. He was, I believe, one of those Exiles of Erin who sought and found a refuge in our country, near the close of the last century. In the autumn, I think of 1799, he passed some weeks at my native village of Dilworthtown, in Chester County, in order to avoid the ravages of yellow fever, in Philadelphia, where he resided; and in that rural retreat I first knew him. I renewed the acquaintance in 1802, 3, and 4, while attending the medical lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, by which time he had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants: and I ever found him an obliging, intelligent, and instructive friend. He was a regularly educated gardener, of much experience, and great enterprise. He gave the first decisive impulse to scientific horticulture in our State; and to him we are mainly indebted among other favors, for the successful culture and dissemination of the interesting novelties collected by Lewis and Clarke, in their journey to the Pacific. When, in 1818, Mr. Nuttall published his Genera of North American Plants, he named a beautiful shrub “in memory of the late Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, whose ardent attachment to Botany, and successful introduction of useful and ornamental Horticulture into the United States, lay claim to public esteem:” and although the genus has been reduced by later botanists to a section of Berberis, it is generally known by—and I trust will long retain—the popular name of Mahonia.
:“It was a well-deserved tribute of respect, from one who intimately knew, and could justly appreciate the merits it commemorated: and I am happy in the opportunity, even at this late day, to add my own humble and inadequate testimonial to that of so accomplished a judge of botanical worth, as Thomas Nuttall.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
Image:2191.jpg|Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)
Image:2192.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806
Image:2193.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806
</gallery>
<hr>

==Other Resources==

[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/nr97032038 Library of Congress Authority File]

[https://www.monticello.org/site/house-and-gardens/bernard-mcmahon-pioneer-american-gardener “Monticello's Twinleaf Journal Online: Bernard McMahon, Pioneer American Gardener”]

[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b117016 Hathitrust Digital Library: 1806 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20141404#page/7/mode/1up Biodiversity Heritage Library: 1857 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|M'Mahon, Bernard]]

Bernard M’Mahon

2019-06-18T15:41:05Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ added 1807 review to texts

'''Bernard M’Mahon''' (before 1765–September 18, 1816), self-described “[[Nursery]], Seedsman, and Florist,” wrote a popular calendar for American gardeners in 1806, ran a successful [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, corresponded with [[Thomas Jefferson]] about his gardening and agricultural endeavours, and cultivated previously undescribed botanic specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition.
==History==
The details of Bernard M’Mahon’s birth and youth in Ireland prior to his immigration to the United States remain largely unknown. While Appleton’s ''Cyclopedia of American Biography'' gives his birth date “about 1775,” historian Robert Cox has pointed out that that the 1810 census records list him as one of two men in his household over 45 years of age, suggesting a birth no later than 1765, and probably several years earlier.<ref>Robert S. Cox, ed., “‘I Never Yet Parted’: Bernard McMahon and the Seeds of the Corps of Discovery,” in ''The Shortest and Most Convenient Route: Lewis and Clark in Context,'' Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 5 (American Philosophical Society, 2004), 131, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> By 1806, he claimed already to have had experience “of near thirty years, in practical gardening,” so he must have begun an apprenticeship as a gardener or horticulturist around the year 1776.<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), v, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> The precise reasons for and year of his immigration are also unknown, but the botanist, physician, and congressman William Darlington (1782–1863) attributed his motivation to political unrest in Ireland, which came to a head with the failed French invasion of 1796 and the Irish rebellion of 1798.

[[Image:2191.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)]]
Knowledge of his life after his arrival in Philadelphia rests on firmer foundations. <span id="Darlington_cite"></span>By 1799 he was residing in the city, where he first met Darlington during an outbreak of yellow fever. As of 1802, M’Mahon “had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants” ([[#Darlington|view text]]).<ref>Joseph Ewan, “Bernard M’Mahon (c. 1775–1816), Pioneer Philadelphia Nurseryman, and His American Gardener’s Calendar,” ''Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History'' 3, no. 7 (October 1960): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> He recognized a need for pamphlets and books about plants tailored to American climates and species, which he set out to satisfy. In 1804 he published the first American seed catalog in booklet form.<ref> Bernard M’Mahon, ''A Catalogue of American Seeds'' (Philadelphia: Printed by William Duane, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4PHBM2KF/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> This was followed in 1806 by his most significant work, ''The American Gardener's Calendar,'' which broke up the seasonal labors of gardening into monthly lists of tasks over the course of 648 pages [Fig. 1]. By 1807, he ran a successful flower shop, [[nursery]] and seed business at 39 South 2nd Street in Philadelphia.<ref>See “M’Mahon, Bernard” in James Robinson, ''The Philadelphia Directory for 1807: Containing the Names, Trades, and Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark, and Northern Liberties: Also, a Calendar, from the 1st of February, 1807 to the 1st of February 1808, and Other Useful Information'' (Philadelphia: Printed for the publisher and sold by W. Woodhouse, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Image:2192.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806]]
[[Image:2193.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806]]
In addition to his publishing and commercial activities, M’Mahon was an active member of the Philadelphia horticultural and scientific communities. A receipt in M’Mahon’s handwriting [Fig. 2–3] reveals that he sold seeds and plants to the American Philosophical Society, which shipped them to Amsterdam.<ref>Now in the American Philosophical Society Archives, reproduced in Ewan 1960, 366–67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> Perhaps the most intriguing but least successful of his professional organizations and business interests was a viticulture endeavor known as the Pennsylvania Vine Company, run by Peter Legaux (1748–1827), which M’Mahon helped govern from 1807 to 1811.<ref>For his membership in the Vine Company see Robinson 1807, xlvii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero]; ''Census Directory for 1811: Containing the Names, Occupations, & Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark & Northern Liberties, a Separate Division Being Allotted to Persons of Colour; to Which Is Annexed an Appendix Containing Much Useful Information, and a Perpetual Calendar'' (Philadelphia: Printed by Jane Aitken, No. 71, North Third Street, 1811), 426, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero].
The society, which floundered throughout the first decade of the nineteenth century, is discussed in Thomas Pinney, ''A History of Wine in America: From the Beginnings to Prohibition'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 113, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HHVCQQVU/q/a%20history%20of%20wine view on Zotero].</ref> He also participated in the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, which listed him as a member in 1812.<ref>Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, ''Laws of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, as Revised and Enacted at the Annual Meeting, Held on the 14th January, 1812. To Which Is Prefixed, a List of the Members of the Society. Incorporated February 14, 1809.'' (Lydia R. Bailey, 1812), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVCQ42ZX/q/laws%20of%20the%20philadelphia%20society view on Zotero].</ref> As a member of the Philadelphia community of seedsmen and botanists, M’Mahon likely met many of the preeminent figures in these fields. Two undated letters attest to his correspondence and acquaintance with the botanist and physician Benjamin Smith Barton (1766–1815).<ref>American Philosophical Society Archives, Violetta Delafield-Benjamin Smith Barton Papers, ALS, 1p. (letter from M’Mahon to Barton inviting him to a meeting), and AMsS, 1p. (letter from Barton to M’Mahon about fish).
</ref> He must also have visited [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s Garden]], another celebrated [[botanic garden]] outside of Philadelphia, although no direct evidence of such a visit survives. The botanist Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859) named a genus of evergreen shrubs ''Mahonia'' after him (known today as ''Berberis aquifolium'' after Frederick Pursh’s earlier naming). Following M’Mahon’s death in September of 1816, his wife Ann and son Thomas took over the [[nursery]]. After an unsuccessful attempt to auction the land and its contents in 1818, Ann M’Mahon ran the garden until 1830, when Thomas Hibbert, business partner of [[Robert Buist]], purchased the property.<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Notices of Some of the Principal Nurseries and Private Gardens in the United States of America, Made during a Tour through the Country, in the Summer of 1831; with Some Hints on Emigration,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 284, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2TVP4JIX/q/notices%20of%20some%20of%20the%20principal view on Zotero].
</ref>

Bernard M’Mahon’s practical impact on early American landscape design is revealed by his correspondence with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who sought useful new American species to plant at [[Monticello]]. In 1806, M’Mahon sent a letter offering a copy of his ''Calendar'' to [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], who gladly accepted. This gift inaugurated the exchange of what would amount to thirty-seven letters between the men by the time of M’Mahon’s death in 1816. As Peter Hatch notes, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]’s notebook on gardening contains more than a few entries that precisely replicate M’Mahon’s specifications for layout and maintenance.<ref>Peter J. Hatch, ''“A Rich Spot of Earth”: Thomas Jefferson’s Revolutionary Garden at Monticello'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG/q/a%20rich%20spot%20of%20earth view on Zotero].</ref> In addition to following the guidance of the ''Calendar,'' [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] purchased a wide variety of seeds and plants from M’Mahon. In exchange, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] not only paid M’Mahon for his goods, but also created new professional opportunities for him. When the noted Parisian botanist André Thouin sent [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] a collection of international seeds in 1808, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] forwarded them on to M’Mahon to cultivate and sell as he saw fit.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Garden Book, 1766-1824, with Relevant Extracts from His Other Writings, Annotated by Edwin Morris Betts,'' ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 383, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>

In addition to his international connections, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] also helped M’Mahon secure his place within the American community of seedsmen and botanists. In the winter of 1806, just eight months after their correspondence had begun, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] arranged for M’Mahon to become one of two recipients of the botanic specimens collected by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark during their expedition to the Pacific Ocean.<ref>Jefferson 1944, 328, 337, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> The other designated recipient was [[William Hamilton]], also based in the Philadelphia area at his estate [[The Woodlands]]. M’Mahon received seeds and specimens from the expedition in early 1807, and by 1808 he was growing as many as twenty species and six genera that were previously undescribed in the botanical literature.<ref>As quoted in Jefferson 1944, 345, 373, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon hired a German botanist named Frederick Pursh to describe and illustrate the specimens collected by Lewis sometime in the winter of 1807–1808, but the project stalled when Lewis’s health declined in 1808. Lewis proved unable to visit Philadelphia and answer questions about damaged specimens before he died in 1809. Pursh left Philadelphia with his notes and drawings, unpaid, and eventually published a description of the discoveries in England in December of 1813 without the permission of the remaining expedition team.<ref> Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America,'' vol. 1, 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM/q/frederick%20pursh view on Zotero]. Cox 2004, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon finally began selling plants from the expedition in 1812, advertising a variety of fragrant currant (''Ribes odoratissimum'') “collected by Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, on the shores of the rivers ''Columbia'' and ''Jefferson,'' and in the ''Rocky Mountains.''”<ref>M’Mahon regularly advertised in the Philadelphia ''Aurora,'' and the currant appears in the edition of March 11, 1812, as quoted in Cox 2004, 127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="DemocraticPress_cite"></span>By the end of 1813 he had also relocated his shop from 39 South Second Street to 13 South Second Street, several blocks closer to the center of Philadelphia ([[#DemocraticPress|view text]]).

In 1808 M’Mahon purchased some land “on the township line road, near the Germantown road,” in the area of what is today Fotterall Square, where he opened a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] called Upsal [[Botanic Garden]].<ref>John William Harshberger, ''The Botanists of Philadelphia and Their Work'' (Philadelphia: Press of T. C. Davis & Son, 1899), 117, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V/q/harshberger view on Zotero].</ref> Referencing the [[botanic garden]] of Uppsala University in Sweden restored by the celebrated botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707– 1778), the name of M'Mahon's nursery and garden emphasized his knowledge of the history of botany and his scientific ambitions. Although no descriptions of Upsal survive from M’Mahon’s lifetime, early histories and guides to the city briefly mention it as an attraction, including James Mease’s 1811 ''The Picture of Philadelphia.''<ref>James Mease, ''The Picture of Philadelphia: Giving an Account of Its Origin, Increase, and Improvements in Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures, Commerce and Revenue. With a Compendious View of Its Societies ...'' (Philadelphia: Published by B. & T. Kite, 1811), 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5EXQKRJT/q/picture%20of%20philadelphia view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Poulsons1818_cite"></span>The earliest extant description, written in 1818, two years after M’Mahon’s death, records about twenty acres of “variegated” land, with “an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring” on the property, and several buildings including a “two-storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house, and out buildings” ([[#Poulsons1818|view text]]). With its [[pond]], mixed soils, and [[green house]], the land at Upsal must have afforded M’Mahon with diverse growing conditions for a wide variety of species. The garden continued to attract botanically-minded visitors in the decades following M’Mahon’s death, like the Scottish botanist David Douglas (1799–1834), who visited the property in 1823. <span id="Douglas_cite"></span>In his journal, Douglas briefly described Upsal’s Osage orange trees (''Maclura pomifera''), which were among the most celebrated specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition ([[#Douglas|view text]]). <span id="Report1831_cite"></span>As late as 1830, visitors remarked on the “[[green house]] 60 feet long,” the “beautiful fish and water plants” with which the [[pond]] was stocked, and “a row of native oaks, planted by him [M’Mahon], containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion” ([[#Report1831|view text]]).

''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' also outlived M’Mahon by several decades, reprinted in a total of eleven editions between 1806 and 1857 in Philadelphia. The ''Calendar'' provided readers with month-by-month instructions for the care and maintenance of [[kitchen garden]]s, [[orchard]]s, and [[nursery|nurseries]]. In both structure and content, it borrowed heavily from English garden manuals, and only lightly from American sources. M’Mahon himself admitted his admiration for the ''Gardener’s Dictionary'' by the English botanist Philip Miller (1691–1771).<ref>Sarah Pattee Stetson, “American Garden Books Transplanted and Native, before 1807,” ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 3, ser. 3 (1946): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QIREGNVP/q/transplanted%20and%20native view on Zotero].</ref> Other sources included John Abercrombie’s ''Every Many His Own Gardener,'' which provided a general structure for the work.<ref>For the most comprehensive analysis of his sources to date, see Brenda Bullion, “The Science and Art of Plants and Gardens in the Development of an American Landscape Aesthetic” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 1990), 293–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon was not, however, completely beholden to these English models. He cited Philadelphian John Beale Bordley’s 1799 ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' in his discussions of animal husbandry. The distinctly American perspective of the text appears most clearly in his discussion of indigenous flowering plants. <span id="Indigenous_cite"></span>Even before M’Mahon received specimens from the Lewis and Clark expedition, he pleaded with American gardeners to incorporate indigenous species in their ornamental plantings: “In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature” ([[#Indigenous|view text]]).

Within M’Mahon’s lifetime, he became especially known for his championing of [[hedge]]s as live fences, and his calendar may have helped popularize them wherever it was read. <span id="Aurora1816_cite"></span> In 1816, his obituary singled out his innovative approach to planting “Quickset [[hedge]]s” from European white thorn (''Crataegus laevigata''), based on observation of the weathering and germination of Hawthorn seeds in the wild ([[#Aurora1816|view text]]). As Brenda Bullion points out, M’Mahon himself understood these live fences as a response to the deforestation of the American countryside, recommending them “particularly in those parts of the Union in which timber has got scarce, and must inevitably become more so in a very rapid progression.”<ref>Bullion 1990, 304–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> Here, as elsewhere, his ''Calendar'' had both practical and aesthetic implications for the development of American landscape design.

Landscape design principles formed a small but significant part of the book’s content, and in 1841, the landscape gardener [[A.J. Downing]] described the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' as the “only American work previously published which treats directly of landscape gardening.”<ref> A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences... with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1841), 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PGUEKHNG? view on Zotero].</ref> Squeezed into the month of January, M’Mahon’s introductory overview of “The [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure]], or [[Flower Garden]]” quotes extensively from ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' by John Abercrombie.<ref>See the entry on Pleasure-Garden in the 1778 and, even more similar, 1797 editions of Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al, 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM/q/abercrombie view on Zotero].</ref> This overview effectively popularized a design vocabulary drawn from earlier English works for American audiences, employing terms for plantings like [[lawn]], [[hedge]], and [[parterre]]; architectural elements such as [[temple]], pyramid, and [[obelisk]]; and earthworks including [[slope]], [[terrace]], and [[eminence]].<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s taste and those of his sources subtly shaped this vocabulary. <span id="Modern_cite"></span>He expressed a preference for the “[[Modern style/Natural style|modern]] garden” in imitation of nature rather than the “too formal works” that characterized the [[Ancient style]] ([[#Modern|view text]]).<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 66 (perspective), 55–56 (modern garden), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].
</ref> <span id="Variety_cite"></span>Lifting passages from Abercrombie’s ''Universal Gardener and Botanist'' verbatim, he advocated variety in garden design, rather than single-minded adherence to any individual design principle ([[#Variety|view text]]).

The ''Calendar'' quickly gained a wide readership among the agricultural, botanical, and even medical communities (an early copy is listed in the New York Hospital library inventory of 1811).<ref>See the catalog of books in ''An Account of the New-York Hospital'' (New York: Collins & Co., 1811), 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/64Q6DV2I/q/an%20account%20of%20the%20new-york view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s horticultural and agricultural guidelines were excerpted in a variety of gardening manuals and almanacs like Fessenden’s 1828 ''The New American Gardener,'' which contains roughly twenty short passages attributed to M’Mahon.<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener,'' 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7/q/the%20new%20american%20gardener view on Zotero]. Fessenden also quoted liberally from M’Mahon in several of his later works.</ref> In 1819, one unscrupulous publisher named Fielding Lucas Jr. went so far as to reproduce the work nearly in its entirety, retitled ''The Practical American Gardener.''<ref>Ewan 1960, 378, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>The book was also known in Europe, where [[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|John Claudius Loudon]] praised its pioneering subject and completeness in the 1822 edition of his ''Encyclopaedia of Gardening,'' but expressed skepticism concerning just how widespread the horticultural and agricultural techniques described within really were: “We cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars” ([[#Loudon|view text]]). ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' was so successful that in 1846, some thirty years after M’Mahon’s death, his acquaintance Darlington cited it in his ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society,'' claiming that “although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”<ref>William Darlington, ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society, at Their First Annual Exhibition, in the Borough of West Chester, Sept. 11, 1846'' (West Chester, PA, 1846), 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Alexander Brey''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Modern"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing designs for a [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure ground]] (1806: 55)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Modern_cite|back up to History]]
:“In designs for a [[Pleasure-ground]], according to [[Modern style/Natural style|modern gardening]]; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished, such as long straight [[walk]]s, regular intersections, square [[Plot/Plat|grass-plats]], corresponding [[parterre]]s, quadrangular and angular spaces, and other uniformities, as in [[Ancient style|ancient designs]]; instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bounded with [[plantation]]s of trees, shrubs, and flowers, in various [[clump]]s; other compartments are exhibited in a variety of imitative rural forms; such as curves, projections, openings, and closings, in imitation of a natural assemblage; having all the various [[plantation]]s and [[border]]s, open to the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s.”

*<div id="Variety"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the monotonous quality of [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]] imitating rural design “to an extreme” (1806: 56)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Variety_cite|back up to History]]
:“In these rural works, however, we should not abolish entirely, the appearance of art and uniformity; for these when properly applied, give an additional beauty and peculiar grace, to all our natural productions, and sets [sic] nature in the fairest and most beautiful point of view.
:“But some modern [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure-grounds]], in which rural design is copied to an extreme, are often very barren of variety and entertainment, as they frequently consist only of a grass-[[lawn]], like a great field; having a running [[plantation]] of trees and shrubs all round it, just broad enough, to admit a gravel-walk winding through it, in the serpentine way, in many short twists and turns, and bordering at every turn alternately, upon the outward [[fence]] and the [[lawn]]; which are continually obtruded upon the sight, exhibiting the same prospect over and over, without the least variation; so as that after having traversed the [[walk]]s all round this sort of [[pleasure-ground]], we find no more variety or entertainment than at our first entrance, the whole having presented itself at the first view.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the usefulness of formal gardens to “diversify” landscapes (1806: 69)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The perpetual show of stiff formality, displayed by this kind of fancy, has induced many to discontinue it; but some of these run into the contrary extreme, by excluding all formal regularity and uniform appearances; and substituting various dissimilar arrangements, in the formation of the different compartments, in fancied imitation of natural rurality as much as possible.
:“However, for the sake of diversity, some of the more elegant regular works, ought still to be admitted, which would form a beautiful contrast with the general rural improvements, and diversify the whole scene, so as to have a most enchanting effect.”

*<div id="Indigenous"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, endorsing the ornamental use of “indigenous” flowers (1806: 72)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Indigenous_cite|back up to History]]
:“Here I cannot avoid remarking, that many [[flower-garden]]s, &c. Are almost destitute of bloom, during a great part of the season; which could be easily avoided, and a blaze of flowers kept up, both in this department, and in the borders of the [[pleasure ground]], from March to November, by introducing from our woods and fields, the various beautiful ornaments with which nature has so profusely decorated them. Is it because they are indigenous, that we should reject them? ought we not rather to cultivate and improve them? what can be more beautiful than our Lobelias, Orchis’, Asclepias’ and Asters; Dracocephalums, Gerardias, Monardas and Ipomoeas; Liliums, Podalyrias, Rhexias, Solidagos and Hibiscus’; Phlox’s, Gentianas, Spigelias, Chironias and Sisyrinchiums, Cassias, Ophrys’, Coreopsis’ and Cypripediums; Fumarias, Violas, Rudbeckias and Liatris’; with our charming Limadorum, fragrant Arethusa and a thousand other lovely plants, which if introduced would grace our plantations, and delight our senses?
:“In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature.”

*Anonymous, 1807, Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (The Medical Repository vol. 4: 177-180)<ref>“Review of ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'',” ''The Medical Repository'' 4 (1807): 174–80. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UR9I39RN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. M’Mahon has parcelled his work into twelve great divisions. These correspond to the months of the year. In each he prescribes the work to be done, and the way of doing it. In this manner he has constructed a Calendar, beginning with January, and proceeding regularly to June, and thence forward to December. By attending to this arrangement, the person who consults the volume can readily find the months, by casting his eye to the top of the pages, and below them the labour and preparation during each.
:“Besides this distribution of his precepts and directions, according to the sun’s place in the zodiacal signs, the author has made a methodical disposition of the business of every month. The operations in the kitchen-garden, fruit-garden, orchard, vineyard, nursery, flower-garden, green-house, and hot-house, are placed under distinct heads; and its is easy to find under one or another of these titles, whatever the Calendar contains for all the months of the year. By adverting thus to a division of his publication, into twelve parts or months, and these again into a subdivision of each into eight sections, Mr. M. has rendered it very easy to find any thing it contains. And, by attending to this, it is scarcely more difficult to examine the directions for the pleasure garden in September, the orchard in March, or the hot-house in December, &c. &c. Than to search for a word and its correlatives in the Encyclopaedia, or to examine passages in the Bible by the aid of a Concordance.
:“The reader is not to expect that the work should be wholly original. The author does not pretend to this. A candid acknowledgement is made, that in writing the treatise, he consulted the best publications in the American States, and in the transatlantic countries, especially those extant in the English, French, and Latin tongues. To bring into one compendious tract the information scattered in many books, composed in different languages, hard and costly to procure, laborious to examine when procured, and requiring more literature than falls to the lot of the great body of cultivators, is a very laudable and useful undertaking. Our fellow citizens, we confidently believe, will concur with us in opinion, that he has done them worthy and acceptable service. He is perfectly aware that in some cases he may be mistaken, and in others may have made omissions; and these he is ready to amend as soon as they shall be discovered. But he has employed a good share of judgment in the directions he has given for the rearing of thorn-quicks and other plants for live fences; for cultivating liquorice, manna-ash, and rhubarb for medicines; planting madder and weld for dyeing; cork tree, fuller’s teazel, tanner’s-sumac, and paper mulberry for the economical arts; sea-kale for the dining table; grapes for the preparation of wine; and mulberry trees and insects for the manufacture of silk. And, in addition to all his knowledge derived from preceding authors, Mr. M. lays claim to the attention of his readers, by the experimental skill derived from a large and extensive course of practical gardening, pursued for almost thirty years. . . .
:“We were pleased to find that the American plants which beautify the woods, fields, and swamps, had not been overlooked or neglected by our author. Many of them are duly noticed, and the cultivator’s attention called to them among the instructions for the flower-garden in the month of August. And we were gratified also with a piece of convenient economy, by substituting oak leaves newly fallen in autumn, instead of tanner’s bark, as described in the section which relates to the hot-house department for October.
:“But we forbear any further comments or criticisms. A book of such great extent, and various contents, cannot be easily analized [sic] in a general way further than we have gone. And to proceed more deeply into particulars would be inconsistent with our plan and limits: we therefore observe, that as the taste for gardening is increasing, and the appearance of the book is opportune, we expect it will be sought with avidity, and thereby become the incentive and the guide to capital improvements in that interesting art. And we shall be disappointed, if nursery-men, florists, and gentlemen of taste, leisure, and fortune, do not add to their libraries, however select and small, M’Mahon’s American Calendar.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 3 January 1809, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]] describing a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Jefferson 1944: 401)<ref>Jefferson 1944, 401, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Last month I purchased in the vicinity of this City [Philadelphia] 20 Acres of ground, well adapted for a [[Nursery]] & [[Botanic Garden]], and hope that, in a few years, I shall enrich that spot, and through it, in some measure, the country in general, with as extensive and useful a collection of vegetable productions, as can reasonably be expected from the small means of which I am possessed.”

*Anonymous, 1811, Description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] published in the ''Census Directory for 1811,'' reprinted in various newspapers (1811: 426-27)<ref>''Census Directory for 1811,'' 426–427, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “From the True American. Botany,” ''Concord Gazette,'' April 23, 1811, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/84CNB3KN/q/from%20the%20true%20american view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Upsal [[Botanic Garden]]
:“A [[Botanic Garden]] and [[Nursery]] was commenced in the spring of 1809 in the immediate vicinity of this city [Philadelphia], near the junction of the Germantown and township line roads; the extent of the ground is 20 acres, well and advantageously watered, the varieties of soils and exposures which it produces and exhibits, is of considerable importance in an institution of this kind.
:“In the summer of the last year, the proprietor erected an elegant building for the preservation of exotics, which is now furnished with an immense variety; and the garden generally, at this time, is said to contain several thousand species and varieties of plants, foreign and indigenous, many of which are of considerable importance in medicine, agriculture, horticulture and the arts.—The proprietor of this garden, Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, a few years ago, published in this city a work on horticulture in general, entitled “The American Gardeners’ Calendar,” which appears to have thrown a new light on our former system of gardening; the good effects of which are here generally acknowledged, and are visible in the superabundance of fine fruits and vegetables, annually accumulating in the markets of this city.”

*<div id="DemocraticPress"></div>Anonymous, December 28, 1813, advertisement in the ''Democratic Press'' for M’Mahon’s new store at No. 13, South Second Street, Philadelphia<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, “Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.,” Democratic Press, December 28, 1813, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HYB8WB7Z/q/grass%20and%20garden%20seeds view on Zotero].</ref> [[#DemocraticPress_cite|back up to History]]
:“Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.
:“BERNARD M’MAHON
:“[[Nursery]] & Seedsman.
:“HAS recently moved his stock in trade from No. 39, to No. 13, South Second street where he intends permanently to reside. He is amply supplied, as usual with an extensive variety of Grass Garden and Flower Seeds; Bulbous Flower Roots, of numerous species and varieties, Garden Tools, Agricultural, Gardening and Botanical Books, &c. He has also for sale at his [[Botanic Garden]] [Upsal] near this city, a numerous variety of the most beautiful hardy perennial, tuberous and fibrous FLOWER ROOTS, ornamental Trees and Shrubs as well as [[Green House]] Plants, collected from various parts of the Globe, with some very valuable Fruit Trees, such as superior English Gooseberries, large red and white Antwerp Raspberries, red white and black Currants, Apples, Pears, Peaches, Nectarines and German Medlars, &c. with superior Strawberry and Asparagus Plants.
:“Dec. 22—if w10t”

*<div id="Aurora1816"></div>Anonymous, September 19, 1816, obituary in the ''Aurora'' for Bernard M’Mahon<ref>“Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Aurora,'' September 19, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LY9RB34Z/q/1816 view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' September 20, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/B9PBEY5G/q/1816 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Aurora1816_cite|back up to History]]
:“Died—On Wednesday Morning, at his [[Botanical Garden]], called Upsal, two and a half miles from this city, Mr. BERNARD M’MAHON, well known throughout the Continent and among the Botanists of the Old World. Mr. M’Mahon came to this city, from Ireland, about twenty years since, and from his previous experience and industry, and great enthusiasm in the profession to which he was bred, he has rendered very eminent services to the United States, (more, indeed, than all who had preceded him,) by applying the principles of Agricultural Science to the varieties of the climates of this continent; pointing out the errors which had retarded improvement, he contributed to the comforts, and the most delightful of human recreations, planting the shrub, and nursing the buds into bloom, and tendril into vigor. His Book of Gardening is a precious treasure, and ought to occupy a place in every house in this country; its principles are eternal, and its instruction fruitful of advantage. His theory of Planting, has removed the difficulties heretofore deemed insurmountable in the production of Quickset [[hedge]]s, from the white thorn—he urged, that he learned it from Nature, who scattering stone fruit on the surface of the earth opens the stone by the frost, and the earth to receive the kernel by the thaw—following this observation, he laid his white thorn seed, or the dried haw on the smooth surface of the ground upon which he proposed to plant, preparing the soil only to suit the operations of Nature. It was his desire, while living, to be useful; and it is in conformity with his usual mode of thinking, that we think fit to notice, at the same time that we notice his demise, his practice in an invaluable branch of knowledge, which many may see on this occasion, who have not before heard of it.
:“His funeral will take place at Upsal, this morning at ten o’clock, where his friends are requested to attend.”

*<div id="Poulsons1818"></div>Anonymous, April 4, 1818, auction notice and description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] in ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser''<ref> “Botanic Garden. Real Estate, &c.,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' April 4, 1818, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7487U853/q/botanic%20garden.%20real%20estate view on Zotero]. See also Cox 2004, 132, note 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Poulsons1818_cite|back up to History]]
:“[[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]].
:“REAL ESTATE, &c.
:“PURSUANT to an Order of the Orphans’ Court, held at Philadelphia, for the city and county of Philadelphia, on the 20th day of March, A.D. 1818, before the Honourable Jacob Rush, William Moulder, and Thomas Armstrong, Esquires, Justices of the said Court,
:“Will be Exposed to Public Sale,
:“On Tuesday, the 12th day of May, at seven o’clock in the evening, at the Merchants’ Coffee House, the following described Real Estate, late of James M’Mahon, deceased, to wit:
:“All that tract or piece of Land situate in Penn township, in the county of Philadelphia, on the township line road, near the Germantown road, and about two and a half miles from the city—adjoining lands of Charles Wharton, Esq. and others; containing 19 acres and 128 perches, on which is erected a two storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house and out buildings. The ground is variegated, and in high cultivation. Terms at sale.
:“By order of the Court,
:“Thomas F. Gordon, Clerk.
:“Ann M’Mahon, Widow and Administratrix of James M’Mahon, deceased.
:“AT THE SAME TIME AND PLACE,
:“Will also be exposed to Public Sale, either collectively or separately, as may best suit the purchaser or purchasers. The whole of the [[Green House]] plants, (about three thousand) and other articles, very many of which are peculiar, valuable, and far sought for. The ground is sufficiently variegated, to admit of every species of Botany, and is probably the best [[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]] in the country. It contains an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring, having therein Gold and Silver fish, in great variety and quantity. There is a great variety of Scots Fir, Silver Spruce, Larch, with other trees and shrubs—A pump of the finest water, &c. &c.
:“Catalogues will be made out, and the property may be viewed at any time previous to sale.
:“John Dorsey, Auc’r.”

*<div id="Loudon"></div>Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius), 1822, describing Bernard M’Mahon and the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1822, I: 106)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening,'' 1st ed. (London: Longman et al, 1822), 106, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Y638SNRW/q/loudon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]
:“M’Mahon, already mentioned, is a seedsman at Philadelphia, and ‘has connected with the seed-trade a botanical, agricultural, and horticultural book-store.’ His work is the first of the kind which has appeared in America, and includes every department to be found in our calendars. Ample instructions are given for growing the pine, vine, melon, and other delicate fruits, and also for the forcing departments both of the [[Flower garden|flower]] and [[kitchen garden]]s; but we cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars.”

*<div id="Douglas"></div>Douglas, David, August 22, 1823, describing his visit to Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] (1914: 8)<ref>David Douglas, ''Journal Kept by David Douglas During His Travels in North America 1823–1827 Together with a Particular Description of Thirty-Three Species of American Oaks and Eighteen Species of Pinus, with Appendices Containing a List of the Plants Introduced by Douglas and an Account of His Death in 1834'' (London: W. Wesley & Son, for the Royal Historical Society, 1914), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVY4XWI3/q/david%20douglas view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Douglas_cite|back up to History]]
:“Friday, August 22nd.
:“. . . . I made a journey to Mr. McMahon, which is three miles north of the city. I did not find him at home; I looked round the garden, and after a patient search found Maclura, two plants, height about seventeen feet, bushy and rugged; they had a few fruits on the trees; it is well described in Pursh’s Preface of his ‘Flora Amer.’ Then I called at [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s old place]], but found no person at home.”

*<div id="Report1831"></div>Anonymous, c. 1831, Report on the condition of Upsal for the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania, maintained after M’Mahon’s death by his wife (1831: 10–11)<ref>''Report of the Committee Appointed by the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania for Visiting the Nurseries and Gardens in the Vicinity of Philadelphia'' (Philadelphia: W. Geddes, 1831), 10–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SSQIGDZR/q/report%20of%20the%20committee view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Report1831_cite|back up to History]]
:“Mrs. M’Mahon’s Garden is about 3 miles north of Philadelphia. It contains a [[green house]] 60 feet long and calculated to hold a great many plants. The collection is good. The establishment is 19 years old, and was founded by that enterprising and distinguished horticulturist, Mr. B. M’Mahon, husband of the present proprietor.
:“Here is the largest Portlandia that we have seen, and a good selection of the succulent family, with many oranges, lemons, shaddock, etc. A very large tree of Maclura aurantiaca or osage orange; a highly ornamental tree, with bright green foliage, and standing longer in the fall than any other of the deciduous tribe. It bears a large green fruit, not unlike an orange. We think that Mr. M’Mahon was the first to introduce this tree, brought back by Lewis and Clark. Here we saw an uncommon large shrub of the Lonicera tartarica, or tartarian honeysuckle; it is twenty feet in diameter, and high in proportion.
:“The ground contains about 20 acres, distributed in [[nursery]] stock, and growing vegetable seeds.
:“Those two beautiful shrubs, the Symphoricarpos racemosus and Ribes aureum, were propagated in this [[nursery]] before any other in our vicinity; and this was the case, too, with many other shrubs and trees. Of European trees there are several valuable specimens, such as Fraxinus, Tilia, Ulmus, Fagus, Betula, Carpinus, Platanus and Pinus. On these grounds are [[pond]]s well stocked with beautiful fish and water plants, among these last is the Nymphaea odorata, with its showy white flowers, yellow anthers and sweet fragrance.
:“Mr. M’Mahon was an indefatigable arborist, and his garden now exhibits a row of native oaks, planted by him, containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion. The willow-leaved oak is the most conspicuous, and forms a very handsome conical tree.
:“Perhaps we owe as much to the late Mr. M’Mahon, as a horticulturist, as to any individual in America. Besides his efforts in collecting and propagating we are indebted to him for his excellent book on “American Gardening,” which has passed through many editions.
:“There is a small [[nursery]] connected with this, in Camac street.
:“Attached to this establishment is a Seed Store, in Second below Market street, where there is sold an extensive variety of seeds, foreign and native, to the amount of 2,000 kinds; with a variety of horticultural implements, and a collection of botanical and horticultural books.”

*Wynne, William, 1832, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia,” describing Hibbert [[Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 273)<ref>William Wynne, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia, with Remarks on the Subject of the Emigration of British Gardens to the United States,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 273, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CKN7ZG86/q/william%20wynne view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A Mr. Hibbert keeps a small [[nursery]], in which he grows roses and other plants in pots, which he sells chiefly in the city market. I understand Mr. Hibbert has taken a piece of ground formerly occupied as a [[nursery]] by Mr. M’Mahon, and has taken into partnership [[Robert Buist|Mr. Buist]], a gardener in the neighbourhood.”

*Darlington, William, 1846, on the significance of M’Mahon’s ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1846: 13)<ref>Darlington 1846, 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].
</ref>
:“To instruct us in the management of the [[Flower garden|Flower]] and [[Kitchen Garden]], we have “The American Gardener’s Calendar,” by the late Bernard M’Mahon—one of the pioneers among us, in the good work of teaching horticulture. Although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”

*<div id="Darlington"></div>Darlington, William, 1857, on his recollections of Bernard M’Mahon (in M’Mahon 1857: xii-xiii)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....,'' 11th ed. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company, 1857), xii–xiii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4CL25KHJ/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Darlington_cite|back up to History]]
:“I am much gratified to learn that a new edition of M’Mahon’s “American Gardener’s Calendar” is in press. That work was among the earliest of its kind in our country, and I have always regarded it as among the best. It is at once comprehensive and complete; and, moreover, remarkable for its judicious, practical, common sense views of the subject.
:“I had the pleasure of knowing Bernard M’Mahon, in my youthful days. He was, I believe, one of those Exiles of Erin who sought and found a refuge in our country, near the close of the last century. In the autumn, I think of 1799, he passed some weeks at my native village of Dilworthtown, in Chester County, in order to avoid the ravages of yellow fever, in Philadelphia, where he resided; and in that rural retreat I first knew him. I renewed the acquaintance in 1802, 3, and 4, while attending the medical lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, by which time he had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants: and I ever found him an obliging, intelligent, and instructive friend. He was a regularly educated gardener, of much experience, and great enterprise. He gave the first decisive impulse to scientific horticulture in our State; and to him we are mainly indebted among other favors, for the successful culture and dissemination of the interesting novelties collected by Lewis and Clarke, in their journey to the Pacific. When, in 1818, Mr. Nuttall published his Genera of North American Plants, he named a beautiful shrub “in memory of the late Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, whose ardent attachment to Botany, and successful introduction of useful and ornamental Horticulture into the United States, lay claim to public esteem:” and although the genus has been reduced by later botanists to a section of Berberis, it is generally known by—and I trust will long retain—the popular name of Mahonia.
:“It was a well-deserved tribute of respect, from one who intimately knew, and could justly appreciate the merits it commemorated: and I am happy in the opportunity, even at this late day, to add my own humble and inadequate testimonial to that of so accomplished a judge of botanical worth, as Thomas Nuttall.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
Image:2191.jpg|Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)
Image:2192.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806
Image:2193.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806
</gallery>
<hr>

==Other Resources==

[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/nr97032038 Library of Congress Authority File]

[https://www.monticello.org/site/house-and-gardens/bernard-mcmahon-pioneer-american-gardener “Monticello's Twinleaf Journal Online: Bernard McMahon, Pioneer American Gardener”]

[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b117016 Hathitrust Digital Library: 1806 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20141404#page/7/mode/1up Biodiversity Heritage Library: 1857 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|M'Mahon, Bernard]]

Bernard M’Mahon

2019-06-18T13:33:01Z

A-brey: /* History */ fixed typo

'''Bernard M’Mahon''' (before 1765–September 18, 1816), self-described “[[Nursery]], Seedsman, and Florist,” wrote a popular calendar for American gardeners in 1806, ran a successful [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, corresponded with [[Thomas Jefferson]] about his gardening and agricultural endeavours, and cultivated previously undescribed botanic specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition.
==History==
The details of Bernard M’Mahon’s birth and youth in Ireland prior to his immigration to the United States remain largely unknown. While Appleton’s ''Cyclopedia of American Biography'' gives his birth date “about 1775,” historian Robert Cox has pointed out that that the 1810 census records list him as one of two men in his household over 45 years of age, suggesting a birth no later than 1765, and probably several years earlier.<ref>Robert S. Cox, ed., “‘I Never Yet Parted’: Bernard McMahon and the Seeds of the Corps of Discovery,” in ''The Shortest and Most Convenient Route: Lewis and Clark in Context,'' Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 5 (American Philosophical Society, 2004), 131, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> By 1806, he claimed already to have had experience “of near thirty years, in practical gardening,” so he must have begun an apprenticeship as a gardener or horticulturist around the year 1776.<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), v, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> The precise reasons for and year of his immigration are also unknown, but the botanist, physician, and congressman William Darlington (1782–1863) attributed his motivation to political unrest in Ireland, which came to a head with the failed French invasion of 1796 and the Irish rebellion of 1798.

[[Image:2191.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)]]
Knowledge of his life after his arrival in Philadelphia rests on firmer foundations. <span id="Darlington_cite"></span>By 1799 he was residing in the city, where he first met Darlington during an outbreak of yellow fever. As of 1802, M’Mahon “had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants” ([[#Darlington|view text]]).<ref>Joseph Ewan, “Bernard M’Mahon (c. 1775–1816), Pioneer Philadelphia Nurseryman, and His American Gardener’s Calendar,” ''Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History'' 3, no. 7 (October 1960): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> He recognized a need for pamphlets and books about plants tailored to American climates and species, which he set out to satisfy. In 1804 he published the first American seed catalog in booklet form.<ref> Bernard M’Mahon, ''A Catalogue of American Seeds'' (Philadelphia: Printed by William Duane, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4PHBM2KF/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> This was followed in 1806 by his most significant work, ''The American Gardener's Calendar,'' which broke up the seasonal labors of gardening into monthly lists of tasks over the course of 648 pages [Fig. 1]. By 1807, he ran a successful flower shop, [[nursery]] and seed business at 39 South 2nd Street in Philadelphia.<ref>See “M’Mahon, Bernard” in James Robinson, ''The Philadelphia Directory for 1807: Containing the Names, Trades, and Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark, and Northern Liberties: Also, a Calendar, from the 1st of February, 1807 to the 1st of February 1808, and Other Useful Information'' (Philadelphia: Printed for the publisher and sold by W. Woodhouse, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Image:2192.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806]]
[[Image:2193.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806]]
In addition to his publishing and commercial activities, M’Mahon was an active member of the Philadelphia horticultural and scientific communities. A receipt in M’Mahon’s handwriting [Fig. 2–3] reveals that he sold seeds and plants to the American Philosophical Society, which shipped them to Amsterdam.<ref>Now in the American Philosophical Society Archives, reproduced in Ewan 1960, 366–67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> Perhaps the most intriguing but least successful of his professional organizations and business interests was a viticulture endeavor known as the Pennsylvania Vine Company, run by Peter Legaux (1748–1827), which M’Mahon helped govern from 1807 to 1811.<ref>For his membership in the Vine Company see Robinson 1807, xlvii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QYKKKNXQ/q/philadelphia%20directory view on Zotero]; ''Census Directory for 1811: Containing the Names, Occupations, & Residence of the Inhabitants of the City, Southwark & Northern Liberties, a Separate Division Being Allotted to Persons of Colour; to Which Is Annexed an Appendix Containing Much Useful Information, and a Perpetual Calendar'' (Philadelphia: Printed by Jane Aitken, No. 71, North Third Street, 1811), 426, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero].
The society, which floundered throughout the first decade of the nineteenth century, is discussed in Thomas Pinney, ''A History of Wine in America: From the Beginnings to Prohibition'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 113, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HHVCQQVU/q/a%20history%20of%20wine view on Zotero].</ref> He also participated in the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, which listed him as a member in 1812.<ref>Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, ''Laws of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, as Revised and Enacted at the Annual Meeting, Held on the 14th January, 1812. To Which Is Prefixed, a List of the Members of the Society. Incorporated February 14, 1809.'' (Lydia R. Bailey, 1812), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVCQ42ZX/q/laws%20of%20the%20philadelphia%20society view on Zotero].</ref> As a member of the Philadelphia community of seedsmen and botanists, M’Mahon likely met many of the preeminent figures in these fields. Two undated letters attest to his correspondence and acquaintance with the botanist and physician Benjamin Smith Barton (1766–1815).<ref>American Philosophical Society Archives, Violetta Delafield-Benjamin Smith Barton Papers, ALS, 1p. (letter from M’Mahon to Barton inviting him to a meeting), and AMsS, 1p. (letter from Barton to M’Mahon about fish).
</ref> He must also have visited [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s Garden]], another celebrated [[botanic garden]] outside of Philadelphia, although no direct evidence of such a visit survives. The botanist Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859) named a genus of evergreen shrubs ''Mahonia'' after him (known today as ''Berberis aquifolium'' after Frederick Pursh’s earlier naming). Following M’Mahon’s death in September of 1816, his wife Ann and son Thomas took over the [[nursery]]. After an unsuccessful attempt to auction the land and its contents in 1818, Ann M’Mahon ran the garden until 1830, when Thomas Hibbert, business partner of [[Robert Buist]], purchased the property.<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Notices of Some of the Principal Nurseries and Private Gardens in the United States of America, Made during a Tour through the Country, in the Summer of 1831; with Some Hints on Emigration,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 284, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2TVP4JIX/q/notices%20of%20some%20of%20the%20principal view on Zotero].
</ref>

Bernard M’Mahon’s practical impact on early American landscape design is revealed by his correspondence with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who sought useful new American species to plant at [[Monticello]]. In 1806, M’Mahon sent a letter offering a copy of his ''Calendar'' to [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], who gladly accepted. This gift inaugurated the exchange of what would amount to thirty-seven letters between the men by the time of M’Mahon’s death in 1816. As Peter Hatch notes, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]’s notebook on gardening contains more than a few entries that precisely replicate M’Mahon’s specifications for layout and maintenance.<ref>Peter J. Hatch, ''“A Rich Spot of Earth”: Thomas Jefferson’s Revolutionary Garden at Monticello'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9DWZKRZG/q/a%20rich%20spot%20of%20earth view on Zotero].</ref> In addition to following the guidance of the ''Calendar,'' [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] purchased a wide variety of seeds and plants from M’Mahon. In exchange, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] not only paid M’Mahon for his goods, but also created new professional opportunities for him. When the noted Parisian botanist André Thouin sent [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] a collection of international seeds in 1808, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] forwarded them on to M’Mahon to cultivate and sell as he saw fit.<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Garden Book, 1766-1824, with Relevant Extracts from His Other Writings, Annotated by Edwin Morris Betts,'' ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 383, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>

In addition to his international connections, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] also helped M’Mahon secure his place within the American community of seedsmen and botanists. In the winter of 1806, just eight months after their correspondence had begun, [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] arranged for M’Mahon to become one of two recipients of the botanic specimens collected by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark during their expedition to the Pacific Ocean.<ref>Jefferson 1944, 328, 337, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> The other designated recipient was [[William Hamilton]], also based in the Philadelphia area at his estate [[The Woodlands]]. M’Mahon received seeds and specimens from the expedition in early 1807, and by 1808 he was growing as many as twenty species and six genera that were previously undescribed in the botanical literature.<ref>As quoted in Jefferson 1944, 345, 373, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon hired a German botanist named Frederick Pursh to describe and illustrate the specimens collected by Lewis sometime in the winter of 1807–1808, but the project stalled when Lewis’s health declined in 1808. Lewis proved unable to visit Philadelphia and answer questions about damaged specimens before he died in 1809. Pursh left Philadelphia with his notes and drawings, unpaid, and eventually published a description of the discoveries in England in December of 1813 without the permission of the remaining expedition team.<ref> Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America,'' vol. 1, 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM/q/frederick%20pursh view on Zotero]. Cox 2004, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon finally began selling plants from the expedition in 1812, advertising a variety of fragrant currant (''Ribes odoratissimum'') “collected by Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, on the shores of the rivers ''Columbia'' and ''Jefferson,'' and in the ''Rocky Mountains.''”<ref>M’Mahon regularly advertised in the Philadelphia ''Aurora,'' and the currant appears in the edition of March 11, 1812, as quoted in Cox 2004, 127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="DemocraticPress_cite"></span>By the end of 1813 he had also relocated his shop from 39 South Second Street to 13 South Second Street, several blocks closer to the center of Philadelphia ([[#DemocraticPress|view text]]).

In 1808 M’Mahon purchased some land “on the township line road, near the Germantown road,” in the area of what is today Fotterall Square, where he opened a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] called Upsal [[Botanic Garden]].<ref>John William Harshberger, ''The Botanists of Philadelphia and Their Work'' (Philadelphia: Press of T. C. Davis & Son, 1899), 117, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6C7I6V7V/q/harshberger view on Zotero].</ref> Referencing the [[botanic garden]] of Uppsala University in Sweden restored by the celebrated botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707– 1778), the name of M'Mahon's nursery and garden emphasized his knowledge of the history of botany and his scientific ambitions. Although no descriptions of Upsal survive from M’Mahon’s lifetime, early histories and guides to the city briefly mention it as an attraction, including James Mease’s 1811 ''The Picture of Philadelphia.''<ref>James Mease, ''The Picture of Philadelphia: Giving an Account of Its Origin, Increase, and Improvements in Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures, Commerce and Revenue. With a Compendious View of Its Societies ...'' (Philadelphia: Published by B. & T. Kite, 1811), 351, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5EXQKRJT/q/picture%20of%20philadelphia view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Poulsons1818_cite"></span>The earliest extant description, written in 1818, two years after M’Mahon’s death, records about twenty acres of “variegated” land, with “an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring” on the property, and several buildings including a “two-storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house, and out buildings” ([[#Poulsons1818|view text]]). With its [[pond]], mixed soils, and [[green house]], the land at Upsal must have afforded M’Mahon with diverse growing conditions for a wide variety of species. The garden continued to attract botanically-minded visitors in the decades following M’Mahon’s death, like the Scottish botanist David Douglas (1799–1834), who visited the property in 1823. <span id="Douglas_cite"></span>In his journal, Douglas briefly described Upsal’s Osage orange trees (''Maclura pomifera''), which were among the most celebrated specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition ([[#Douglas|view text]]). <span id="Report1831_cite"></span>As late as 1830, visitors remarked on the “[[green house]] 60 feet long,” the “beautiful fish and water plants” with which the [[pond]] was stocked, and “a row of native oaks, planted by him [M’Mahon], containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion” ([[#Report1831|view text]]).

''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' also outlived M’Mahon by several decades, reprinted in a total of eleven editions between 1806 and 1857 in Philadelphia. The ''Calendar'' provided readers with month-by-month instructions for the care and maintenance of [[kitchen garden]]s, [[orchard]]s, and [[nursery|nurseries]]. In both structure and content, it borrowed heavily from English garden manuals, and only lightly from American sources. M’Mahon himself admitted his admiration for the ''Gardener’s Dictionary'' by the English botanist Philip Miller (1691–1771).<ref>Sarah Pattee Stetson, “American Garden Books Transplanted and Native, before 1807,” ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 3, ser. 3 (1946): 366, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QIREGNVP/q/transplanted%20and%20native view on Zotero].</ref> Other sources included John Abercrombie’s ''Every Many His Own Gardener,'' which provided a general structure for the work.<ref>For the most comprehensive analysis of his sources to date, see Brenda Bullion, “The Science and Art of Plants and Gardens in the Development of an American Landscape Aesthetic” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 1990), 293–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon was not, however, completely beholden to these English models. He cited Philadelphian John Beale Bordley’s 1799 ''Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Affairs'' in his discussions of animal husbandry. The distinctly American perspective of the text appears most clearly in his discussion of indigenous flowering plants. <span id="Indigenous_cite"></span>Even before M’Mahon received specimens from the Lewis and Clark expedition, he pleaded with American gardeners to incorporate indigenous species in their ornamental plantings: “In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature” ([[#Indigenous|view text]]).

Within M’Mahon’s lifetime, he became especially known for his championing of [[hedge]]s as live fences, and his calendar may have helped popularize them wherever it was read. <span id="Aurora1816_cite"></span> In 1816, his obituary singled out his innovative approach to planting “Quickset [[hedge]]s” from European white thorn (''Crataegus laevigata''), based on observation of the weathering and germination of Hawthorn seeds in the wild ([[#Aurora1816|view text]]). As Brenda Bullion points out, M’Mahon himself understood these live fences as a response to the deforestation of the American countryside, recommending them “particularly in those parts of the Union in which timber has got scarce, and must inevitably become more so in a very rapid progression.”<ref>Bullion 1990, 304–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9XGG8N2W/q/brenda%20bullion view on Zotero].</ref> Here, as elsewhere, his ''Calendar'' had both practical and aesthetic implications for the development of American landscape design.

Landscape design principles formed a small but significant part of the book’s content, and in 1841, the landscape gardener [[A.J. Downing]] described the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' as the “only American work previously published which treats directly of landscape gardening.”<ref> A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences... with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1841), 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PGUEKHNG? view on Zotero].</ref> Squeezed into the month of January, M’Mahon’s introductory overview of “The [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure]], or [[Flower Garden]]” quotes extensively from ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' by John Abercrombie.<ref>See the entry on Pleasure-Garden in the 1778 and, even more similar, 1797 editions of Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al, 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM/q/abercrombie view on Zotero].</ref> This overview effectively popularized a design vocabulary drawn from earlier English works for American audiences, employing terms for plantings like [[lawn]], [[hedge]], and [[parterre]]; architectural elements such as [[temple]], pyramid, and [[obelisk]]; and earthworks including [[slope]], [[terrace]], and [[eminence]].<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s taste and those of his sources subtly shaped this vocabulary. <span id="Modern_cite"></span>He expressed a preference for the “[[Modern style/Natural style|modern]] garden” in imitation of nature rather than the “too formal works” that characterized the [[Ancient style]] ([[#Modern|view text]]).<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 66 (perspective), 55–56 (modern garden), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].
</ref> <span id="Variety_cite"></span>Lifting passages from Abercrombie’s ''Universal Gardener and Botanist'' verbatim, he advocated variety in garden design, rather than single-minded adherence to any individual design principle ([[#Variety|view text]]).

The ''Calendar'' quickly gained a wide readership among the agricultural, botanical, and even medical communities (an early copy is listed in the New York Hospital library inventory of 1811).<ref>See the catalog of books in ''An Account of the New-York Hospital'' (New York: Collins & Co., 1811), 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/64Q6DV2I/q/an%20account%20of%20the%20new-york view on Zotero].</ref> M’Mahon’s horticultural and agricultural guidelines were excerpted in a variety of gardening manuals and almanacs like Fessenden’s 1828 ''The New American Gardener,'' which contains roughly twenty short passages attributed to M’Mahon.<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener,'' 1st ed. (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7/q/the%20new%20american%20gardener view on Zotero]. Fessenden also quoted liberally from M’Mahon in several of his later works.</ref> In 1819, one unscrupulous publisher named Fielding Lucas Jr. went so far as to reproduce the work nearly in its entirety, retitled ''The Practical American Gardener.''<ref>Ewan 1960, 378, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GAHIWIAR/q/ewan view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Loudon_cite"></span>The book was also known in Europe, where [[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|John Claudius Loudon]] praised its pioneering subject and completeness in the 1822 edition of his ''Encyclopaedia of Gardening,'' but expressed skepticism concerning just how widespread the horticultural and agricultural techniques described within really were: “We cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars” ([[#Loudon|view text]]). ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' was so successful that in 1846, some thirty years after M’Mahon’s death, his acquaintance Darlington cited it in his ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society,'' claiming that “although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”<ref>William Darlington, ''Address Before the Chester County Horticultural Society, at Their First Annual Exhibition, in the Borough of West Chester, Sept. 11, 1846'' (West Chester, PA, 1846), 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Alexander Brey''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Modern"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing designs for a [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure ground]] (1806: 55)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Modern_cite|back up to History]]
:“In designs for a [[Pleasure-ground]], according to [[Modern style/Natural style|modern gardening]]; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished, such as long straight [[walk]]s, regular intersections, square [[Plot/Plat|grass-plats]], corresponding [[parterre]]s, quadrangular and angular spaces, and other uniformities, as in [[Ancient style|ancient designs]]; instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bounded with [[plantation]]s of trees, shrubs, and flowers, in various [[clump]]s; other compartments are exhibited in a variety of imitative rural forms; such as curves, projections, openings, and closings, in imitation of a natural assemblage; having all the various [[plantation]]s and [[border]]s, open to the [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s.”

*<div id="Variety"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the monotonous quality of [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|pleasure grounds]] imitating rural design “to an extreme” (1806: 56)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Variety_cite|back up to History]]
:“In these rural works, however, we should not abolish entirely, the appearance of art and uniformity; for these when properly applied, give an additional beauty and peculiar grace, to all our natural productions, and sets [sic] nature in the fairest and most beautiful point of view.
:“But some modern [[Pleasure ground/Pleasure garden|Pleasure-grounds]], in which rural design is copied to an extreme, are often very barren of variety and entertainment, as they frequently consist only of a grass-[[lawn]], like a great field; having a running [[plantation]] of trees and shrubs all round it, just broad enough, to admit a gravel-walk winding through it, in the serpentine way, in many short twists and turns, and bordering at every turn alternately, upon the outward [[fence]] and the [[lawn]]; which are continually obtruded upon the sight, exhibiting the same prospect over and over, without the least variation; so as that after having traversed the [[walk]]s all round this sort of [[pleasure-ground]], we find no more variety or entertainment than at our first entrance, the whole having presented itself at the first view.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, describing the usefulness of formal gardens to “diversify” landscapes (1806: 69)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The perpetual show of stiff formality, displayed by this kind of fancy, has induced many to discontinue it; but some of these run into the contrary extreme, by excluding all formal regularity and uniform appearances; and substituting various dissimilar arrangements, in the formation of the different compartments, in fancied imitation of natural rurality as much as possible.
:“However, for the sake of diversity, some of the more elegant regular works, ought still to be admitted, which would form a beautiful contrast with the general rural improvements, and diversify the whole scene, so as to have a most enchanting effect.”

*<div id="Indigenous"></div>M’Mahon, Bernard, 1806, endorsing the ornamental use of “indigenous” flowers (1806: 72)<ref>M’Mahon 1806, 72, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Indigenous_cite|back up to History]]
:“Here I cannot avoid remarking, that many [[flower-garden]]s, &c. Are almost destitute of bloom, during a great part of the season; which could be easily avoided, and a blaze of flowers kept up, both in this department, and in the borders of the [[pleasure ground]], from March to November, by introducing from our woods and fields, the various beautiful ornaments with which nature has so profusely decorated them. Is it because they are indigenous, that we should reject them? ought we not rather to cultivate and improve them? what can be more beautiful than our Lobelias, Orchis’, Asclepias’ and Asters; Dracocephalums, Gerardias, Monardas and Ipomoeas; Liliums, Podalyrias, Rhexias, Solidagos and Hibiscus’; Phlox’s, Gentianas, Spigelias, Chironias and Sisyrinchiums, Cassias, Ophrys’, Coreopsis’ and Cypripediums; Fumarias, Violas, Rudbeckias and Liatris’; with our charming Limadorum, fragrant Arethusa and a thousand other lovely plants, which if introduced would grace our plantations, and delight our senses?
:“In Europe plants are not rejected because they are indigenous, on the contrary they are cultivated with due care; and yet here, we cultivate many foreign trifles, and neglect the profusion of beauties so bountifully bestowed upon us by the hand of nature.”

*M’Mahon, Bernard, 3 January 1809, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]] describing a [[nursery]] and [[botanic garden]] in Philadelphia, Pa. (quoted in Jefferson 1944: 401)<ref>Jefferson 1944, 401, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/q/thomas%20jefferson's%20garden%20book view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Last month I purchased in the vicinity of this City [Philadelphia] 20 Acres of ground, well adapted for a [[Nursery]] & [[Botanic Garden]], and hope that, in a few years, I shall enrich that spot, and through it, in some measure, the country in general, with as extensive and useful a collection of vegetable productions, as can reasonably be expected from the small means of which I am possessed.”

*Anonymous, 1811, Description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] published in the ''Census Directory for 1811,'' reprinted in various newspapers (1811: 426-27)<ref>''Census Directory for 1811,'' 426–427, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UYA9SCPV/q/census%20directory view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “From the True American. Botany,” ''Concord Gazette,'' April 23, 1811, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/84CNB3KN/q/from%20the%20true%20american view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Upsal [[Botanic Garden]]
:“A [[Botanic Garden]] and [[Nursery]] was commenced in the spring of 1809 in the immediate vicinity of this city [Philadelphia], near the junction of the Germantown and township line roads; the extent of the ground is 20 acres, well and advantageously watered, the varieties of soils and exposures which it produces and exhibits, is of considerable importance in an institution of this kind.
:“In the summer of the last year, the proprietor erected an elegant building for the preservation of exotics, which is now furnished with an immense variety; and the garden generally, at this time, is said to contain several thousand species and varieties of plants, foreign and indigenous, many of which are of considerable importance in medicine, agriculture, horticulture and the arts.—The proprietor of this garden, Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, a few years ago, published in this city a work on horticulture in general, entitled “The American Gardeners’ Calendar,” which appears to have thrown a new light on our former system of gardening; the good effects of which are here generally acknowledged, and are visible in the superabundance of fine fruits and vegetables, annually accumulating in the markets of this city.”

*<div id="DemocraticPress"></div>Anonymous, December 28, 1813, advertisement in the ''Democratic Press'' for M’Mahon’s new store at No. 13, South Second Street, Philadelphia<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, “Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.,” Democratic Press, December 28, 1813, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HYB8WB7Z/q/grass%20and%20garden%20seeds view on Zotero].</ref> [[#DemocraticPress_cite|back up to History]]
:“Grass and Garden Seeds, &c.
:“BERNARD M’MAHON
:“[[Nursery]] & Seedsman.
:“HAS recently moved his stock in trade from No. 39, to No. 13, South Second street where he intends permanently to reside. He is amply supplied, as usual with an extensive variety of Grass Garden and Flower Seeds; Bulbous Flower Roots, of numerous species and varieties, Garden Tools, Agricultural, Gardening and Botanical Books, &c. He has also for sale at his [[Botanic Garden]] [Upsal] near this city, a numerous variety of the most beautiful hardy perennial, tuberous and fibrous FLOWER ROOTS, ornamental Trees and Shrubs as well as [[Green House]] Plants, collected from various parts of the Globe, with some very valuable Fruit Trees, such as superior English Gooseberries, large red and white Antwerp Raspberries, red white and black Currants, Apples, Pears, Peaches, Nectarines and German Medlars, &c. with superior Strawberry and Asparagus Plants.
:“Dec. 22—if w10t”

*<div id="Aurora1816"></div>Anonymous, September 19, 1816, obituary in the ''Aurora'' for Bernard M’Mahon<ref>“Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Aurora,'' September 19, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/LY9RB34Z/q/1816 view on Zotero]. Reprinted verbatim in “Died—on Wednesday Morning...,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' September 20, 1816, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/B9PBEY5G/q/1816 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Aurora1816_cite|back up to History]]
:“Died—On Wednesday Morning, at his [[Botanical Garden]], called Upsal, two and a half miles from this city, Mr. BERNARD M’MAHON, well known throughout the Continent and among the Botanists of the Old World. Mr. M’Mahon came to this city, from Ireland, about twenty years since, and from his previous experience and industry, and great enthusiasm in the profession to which he was bred, he has rendered very eminent services to the United States, (more, indeed, than all who had preceded him,) by applying the principles of Agricultural Science to the varieties of the climates of this continent; pointing out the errors which had retarded improvement, he contributed to the comforts, and the most delightful of human recreations, planting the shrub, and nursing the buds into bloom, and tendril into vigor. His Book of Gardening is a precious treasure, and ought to occupy a place in every house in this country; its principles are eternal, and its instruction fruitful of advantage. His theory of Planting, has removed the difficulties heretofore deemed insurmountable in the production of Quickset [[hedge]]s, from the white thorn—he urged, that he learned it from Nature, who scattering stone fruit on the surface of the earth opens the stone by the frost, and the earth to receive the kernel by the thaw—following this observation, he laid his white thorn seed, or the dried haw on the smooth surface of the ground upon which he proposed to plant, preparing the soil only to suit the operations of Nature. It was his desire, while living, to be useful; and it is in conformity with his usual mode of thinking, that we think fit to notice, at the same time that we notice his demise, his practice in an invaluable branch of knowledge, which many may see on this occasion, who have not before heard of it.
:“His funeral will take place at Upsal, this morning at ten o’clock, where his friends are requested to attend.”

*<div id="Poulsons1818"></div>Anonymous, April 4, 1818, auction notice and description of Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] in ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser''<ref> “Botanic Garden. Real Estate, &c.,” ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser,'' April 4, 1818, 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7487U853/q/botanic%20garden.%20real%20estate view on Zotero]. See also Cox 2004, 132, note 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CHM5IVVN/q/i%20never%20yet%20parted view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Poulsons1818_cite|back up to History]]
:“[[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]].
:“REAL ESTATE, &c.
:“PURSUANT to an Order of the Orphans’ Court, held at Philadelphia, for the city and county of Philadelphia, on the 20th day of March, A.D. 1818, before the Honourable Jacob Rush, William Moulder, and Thomas Armstrong, Esquires, Justices of the said Court,
:“Will be Exposed to Public Sale,
:“On Tuesday, the 12th day of May, at seven o’clock in the evening, at the Merchants’ Coffee House, the following described Real Estate, late of James M’Mahon, deceased, to wit:
:“All that tract or piece of Land situate in Penn township, in the county of Philadelphia, on the township line road, near the Germantown road, and about two and a half miles from the city—adjoining lands of Charles Wharton, Esq. and others; containing 19 acres and 128 perches, on which is erected a two storied stone dwelling; a brick and frame kitchen, a large stone building, [[Green House]], a frame stable, coach house and out buildings. The ground is variegated, and in high cultivation. Terms at sale.
:“By order of the Court,
:“Thomas F. Gordon, Clerk.
:“Ann M’Mahon, Widow and Administratrix of James M’Mahon, deceased.
:“AT THE SAME TIME AND PLACE,
:“Will also be exposed to Public Sale, either collectively or separately, as may best suit the purchaser or purchasers. The whole of the [[Green House]] plants, (about three thousand) and other articles, very many of which are peculiar, valuable, and far sought for. The ground is sufficiently variegated, to admit of every species of Botany, and is probably the best [[Botanic garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]] in the country. It contains an ample fish [[pond]] and island, supported by a never failing spring, having therein Gold and Silver fish, in great variety and quantity. There is a great variety of Scots Fir, Silver Spruce, Larch, with other trees and shrubs—A pump of the finest water, &c. &c.
:“Catalogues will be made out, and the property may be viewed at any time previous to sale.
:“John Dorsey, Auc’r.”

*<div id="Loudon"></div>Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius), 1822, describing Bernard M’Mahon and the ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1822, I: 106)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening,'' 1st ed. (London: Longman et al, 1822), 106, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Y638SNRW/q/loudon view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]
:“M’Mahon, already mentioned, is a seedsman at Philadelphia, and ‘has connected with the seed-trade a botanical, agricultural, and horticultural book-store.’ His work is the first of the kind which has appeared in America, and includes every department to be found in our calendars. Ample instructions are given for growing the pine, vine, melon, and other delicate fruits, and also for the forcing departments both of the [[Flower garden|flower]] and [[kitchen garden]]s; but we cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American practice in these particulars.”

*<div id="Douglas"></div>Douglas, David, August 22, 1823, describing his visit to Upsal [[Botanic Garden]] (1914: 8)<ref>David Douglas, ''Journal Kept by David Douglas During His Travels in North America 1823–1827 Together with a Particular Description of Thirty-Three Species of American Oaks and Eighteen Species of Pinus, with Appendices Containing a List of the Plants Introduced by Douglas and an Account of His Death in 1834'' (London: W. Wesley & Son, for the Royal Historical Society, 1914), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVY4XWI3/q/david%20douglas view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Douglas_cite|back up to History]]
:“Friday, August 22nd.
:“. . . . I made a journey to Mr. McMahon, which is three miles north of the city. I did not find him at home; I looked round the garden, and after a patient search found Maclura, two plants, height about seventeen feet, bushy and rugged; they had a few fruits on the trees; it is well described in Pursh’s Preface of his ‘Flora Amer.’ Then I called at [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s old place]], but found no person at home.”

*<div id="Report1831"></div>Anonymous, c. 1831, Report on the condition of Upsal for the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania, maintained after M’Mahon’s death by his wife (1831: 10–11)<ref>''Report of the Committee Appointed by the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania for Visiting the Nurseries and Gardens in the Vicinity of Philadelphia'' (Philadelphia: W. Geddes, 1831), 10–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SSQIGDZR/q/report%20of%20the%20committee view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Report1831_cite|back up to History]]
:“Mrs. M’Mahon’s Garden is about 3 miles north of Philadelphia. It contains a [[green house]] 60 feet long and calculated to hold a great many plants. The collection is good. The establishment is 19 years old, and was founded by that enterprising and distinguished horticulturist, Mr. B. M’Mahon, husband of the present proprietor.
:“Here is the largest Portlandia that we have seen, and a good selection of the succulent family, with many oranges, lemons, shaddock, etc. A very large tree of Maclura aurantiaca or osage orange; a highly ornamental tree, with bright green foliage, and standing longer in the fall than any other of the deciduous tribe. It bears a large green fruit, not unlike an orange. We think that Mr. M’Mahon was the first to introduce this tree, brought back by Lewis and Clark. Here we saw an uncommon large shrub of the Lonicera tartarica, or tartarian honeysuckle; it is twenty feet in diameter, and high in proportion.
:“The ground contains about 20 acres, distributed in [[nursery]] stock, and growing vegetable seeds.
:“Those two beautiful shrubs, the Symphoricarpos racemosus and Ribes aureum, were propagated in this [[nursery]] before any other in our vicinity; and this was the case, too, with many other shrubs and trees. Of European trees there are several valuable specimens, such as Fraxinus, Tilia, Ulmus, Fagus, Betula, Carpinus, Platanus and Pinus. On these grounds are [[pond]]s well stocked with beautiful fish and water plants, among these last is the Nymphaea odorata, with its showy white flowers, yellow anthers and sweet fragrance.
:“Mr. M’Mahon was an indefatigable arborist, and his garden now exhibits a row of native oaks, planted by him, containing 30 varieties; being all the kinds that he could collect in his day, either with money or zealous exertion. The willow-leaved oak is the most conspicuous, and forms a very handsome conical tree.
:“Perhaps we owe as much to the late Mr. M’Mahon, as a horticulturist, as to any individual in America. Besides his efforts in collecting and propagating we are indebted to him for his excellent book on “American Gardening,” which has passed through many editions.
:“There is a small [[nursery]] connected with this, in Camac street.
:“Attached to this establishment is a Seed Store, in Second below Market street, where there is sold an extensive variety of seeds, foreign and native, to the amount of 2,000 kinds; with a variety of horticultural implements, and a collection of botanical and horticultural books.”

*Wynne, William, 1832, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia,” describing Hibbert [[Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 273)<ref>William Wynne, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia, with Remarks on the Subject of the Emigration of British Gardens to the United States,” ''The Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 273, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CKN7ZG86/q/william%20wynne view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A Mr. Hibbert keeps a small [[nursery]], in which he grows roses and other plants in pots, which he sells chiefly in the city market. I understand Mr. Hibbert has taken a piece of ground formerly occupied as a [[nursery]] by Mr. M’Mahon, and has taken into partnership [[Robert Buist|Mr. Buist]], a gardener in the neighbourhood.”

*Darlington, William, 1846, on the significance of M’Mahon’s ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1846: 13)<ref>Darlington 1846, 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/P7C9TXRV/q/darlington view on Zotero].
</ref>
:“To instruct us in the management of the [[Flower garden|Flower]] and [[Kitchen Garden]], we have “The American Gardener’s Calendar,” by the late Bernard M’Mahon—one of the pioneers among us, in the good work of teaching horticulture. Although his book was published forty years ago, it is, in my opinion, about as well adapted to our wants—and as replete with practical common sense—as any thing of the kind which has yet appeared in our country.”

*<div id="Darlington"></div>Darlington, William, 1857, on his recollections of Bernard M’Mahon (in M’Mahon 1857: xii-xiii)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done... for Every Month of the Year....,'' 11th ed. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company, 1857), xii–xiii, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4CL25KHJ/q/the%20american%20gardener's%20calendar view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Darlington_cite|back up to History]]
:“I am much gratified to learn that a new edition of M’Mahon’s “American Gardener’s Calendar” is in press. That work was among the earliest of its kind in our country, and I have always regarded it as among the best. It is at once comprehensive and complete; and, moreover, remarkable for its judicious, practical, common sense views of the subject.
:“I had the pleasure of knowing Bernard M’Mahon, in my youthful days. He was, I believe, one of those Exiles of Erin who sought and found a refuge in our country, near the close of the last century. In the autumn, I think of 1799, he passed some weeks at my native village of Dilworthtown, in Chester County, in order to avoid the ravages of yellow fever, in Philadelphia, where he resided; and in that rural retreat I first knew him. I renewed the acquaintance in 1802, 3, and 4, while attending the medical lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, by which time he had established his nurseries of useful and ornamental plants: and I ever found him an obliging, intelligent, and instructive friend. He was a regularly educated gardener, of much experience, and great enterprise. He gave the first decisive impulse to scientific horticulture in our State; and to him we are mainly indebted among other favors, for the successful culture and dissemination of the interesting novelties collected by Lewis and Clarke, in their journey to the Pacific. When, in 1818, Mr. Nuttall published his Genera of North American Plants, he named a beautiful shrub “in memory of the late Mr. Bernard M’Mahon, whose ardent attachment to Botany, and successful introduction of useful and ornamental Horticulture into the United States, lay claim to public esteem:” and although the genus has been reduced by later botanists to a section of Berberis, it is generally known by—and I trust will long retain—the popular name of Mahonia.
:“It was a well-deserved tribute of respect, from one who intimately knew, and could justly appreciate the merits it commemorated: and I am happy in the opportunity, even at this late day, to add my own humble and inadequate testimonial to that of so accomplished a judge of botanical worth, as Thomas Nuttall.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
Image:2191.jpg|Title page for the first edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'' (1806)
Image:2192.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, recto, 1806
Image:2193.jpg|Receipt for payment received by Bernard M’Mahon from the American Philosophical Society, verso, 1806
</gallery>
<hr>

==Other Resources==

[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/nr97032038 Library of Congress Authority File]

[https://www.monticello.org/site/house-and-gardens/bernard-mcmahon-pioneer-american-gardener “Monticello's Twinleaf Journal Online: Bernard McMahon, Pioneer American Gardener”]

[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b117016 Hathitrust Digital Library: 1806 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20141404#page/7/mode/1up Biodiversity Heritage Library: 1857 Edition of ''The American Gardener's Calendar'']

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|M'Mahon, Bernard]]

Alcove

2019-06-17T16:29:14Z

A-brey: Linking M'Mahon

==History==

[[File:0461.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Bath (Berkeley Springs) Virginia [detail], 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June–September 1787.]]

[[File:1007.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “A Rustic Alcove,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.]]
As early as 1787, Americans recognized the alcove as a distinct garden feature that could follow one of two types: an ornamental building in a garden or a recessed niche cut into live plant material. As a garden building, an alcove could be a freestanding or semidetached structure, typically possessing three sides and housing a [[seat]]. Alcoves provided shelter from the sun in summer but were particularly welcome in the northern winter, since they were often enclosed against the winds and open to the sun.

As sheltered sun-catchers, alcoves were logical appendages to [[bathhouse]]s as indicated in [[Samuel Vaughan|Samuel Vaughan’s]] 1787 plan of [[Berkeley Springs]], Virginia (later West Virginia) [Fig. 1]. Like other garden buildings, such as [[summerhouse]]s and [[pavilion]]s, alcoves provided shade and gave visual and physical structure to the garden by serving “as terminations to grand [[walk]]s,” as <span id="Clitherall_cite"></span>Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall (active 1801) ([[#Clitherall|view text]]) and <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>[[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806) ([[#MMahon|view text]]) both explained. Alcoves, situated at the end of long [[walk]]s or [[avenue]]s, created visual focal points and secluded destinations for people using the garden [Fig. 2].

When conceived as a recessed niche, an alcove was typically set into or cut out of densely planted vegetation, such as privet. <span id="Walsh_cite"></span>[[Alexander Walsh|Alexander Walsh’s]] 1841 account of diminutive alcoves exemplifies this second type ([[#Walsh|view text]]). In [[Walsh’s]] plan, the alcoves act as portals between the ornamental [[pleasure ground]] and compartments devoted to flowers and culinary vegetables [Fig. 3] (see also [[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon]] 1806). These portals were elevated, much like those described in the <span id="Horticultural_Register_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' of 1837, and thus provided both enclosure and privacy as well as a vantage point from which to view the landscape ([[#Horticultural_Register|view text]]).

—''Anne Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===
[[File:0935.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Alexander Walsh]], “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308.]]
*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 415)<ref name=''Constantia_1790''>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At every turn shaded [[seat]]s are artfully contrived, and the ground abounds with [[arbor|arbours]], '''alcoves''', and [[summerhouse|summer houses]], which are handsomely adorned with odoriferous flowers. Among these the little federal [[temple]] claims the principal regard. It is the very edifice, that upon the celebration of the ratification of the constitution, was carried in triumphant procession through the streets of this metropolis; and, upon a gentle acclivity, upon the summit of a green [[mound]] infixed, it hath now obtained a basis. It is a Rotunda, its cupola is supported by thirteen [[pillar]]s handsomely finished; their base, is to receive the cypher of the several states, which they represent, with a star upon every capital, and its top is crowned with the figure of Plenty grasping the cornucopia and other insignia. The ascent to this [[Temple]] is easy, and we gain it by the semicircular steps neatly turned, and the [[view]] therefrom is truly interesting.”

*<div id="Clitherall"></div>Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin, active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 126)<ref>John Flowers, “People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited,” ''Eighteenth-Century Life'' 8, no. 2 (January 1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Clitherall_cite|back up to History]]

:“These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was '''alcoves''' and [[summerhouse|summer houses]] at the termination of each [[walk]], [[seat]]s under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the [[flower garden]] in front of the house.”

*<div id="Walsh"></div>[[Alexander Walsh|Walsh, Alexander]], March 31, 1841, “Remarks on Ornamental Gardening” (''New England Farmer'' 19: 309)<ref>Alexander Walsh, “Remarks on Ornamental Gardening, With a Plan of a Fruit, Flower and Vegetable Garden,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Register'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308–9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HD2AV62D view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Walsh_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . diminutive rustic '''alcoves''', from thrifty growing plants of upright privet, ''Ligustrum strictum'', formed by placing a platform of light boards 2 ft. 6 in. from the ground, and 3 ft. long, and 1 ft. 6 in. wide, on the twigs of the privet; those in the centre of the platform to be trimmed off close to it under side, and those on the back and sides to be led up round the platform, entwined and arched; the door to be constructed from the twigs in front, and an opening left 2 ft. 6 in. high, which is the height of the dome.” [Fig. 3]

===Citations===
[[File:1702.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], “Alcoves,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 356, fig. 331.]]
*<div id="MMahon"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 64)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/q/m'mahon view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“In some spacious [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]] various light ornamental buildings and erections are introduced, as ornaments to particular departments; such as [[temple]]s, [[bower]]s, banquetting houses, '''alcoves''', [[grotto]]s, rural [[seat]]s, cottages, [[fountain]]s, [[obelisk]]s, [[statue]]s, and other edifices; these and the like are usually erected in the different parts, in openings between the divisions of the ground, and contiguous to the terminations of grand [[walk]]s, &c.
:“Some of these kinds of ornaments, however, being very expensive, are rather sparingly introduced . . . other parts present '''alcoves''', [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]s, rural-[[seat]]s, &c. at the termination of different [[walk]]s.”

*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 356)<ref name="Loudon_1826">J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“1810. '''Alcoves''' . . . are used as winter resting places, as being fully exposed to the sun.” [Fig. 4]

[[File:0960.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8.]]
*<div id="Horticultural_Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero.]</ref> [[#Horticultural_Register_cite|back up to discussion]]

:“Architectural and other ornaments may be introduced, according to the means of the proprietor. When properly distributed they add much to the effect. [[Seat]]s and [[arbor]]s should be placed at points affording interesting [[view]]s, '''alcoves''' and rotundas on [[eminence]]s, and [[hermitage]]s in secluded places.”

*Thomas, John J., January 1842, “The Garden and the Orchard” (''Cultivator'' 9: 22)<ref>John J. Thomas, “The Garden and the Orchard,” ''Cultivator, A Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JX49FGI4 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The two finest [[view]]s are seen after entering the house; . . . The [[view]] from the dining room is towards the garden. Directly beneath is the [[parterre]], or flower [[bed]]s cut into the turf on the [[lawn]], at ''k''; beyond this is the light [[arch|archway]] [[gate]] to the garden, through which the [[view]] extends along the [[vista]] formed by flower [[bed]]s, ''h h'', and terminates at the [[greenhouse|green house]], (or '''alcove'''), at ''m''.” [Fig. 5]

*[[George William Johnson|Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 26)<ref name="Anonymous_1837">George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/q/johnson view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“'''ALCOVE''', is a [[seat]] in a recess, formed of stone, brick, or other dead material, and so constructed as to shelter the party seated from the north and other colder quarters, whilst it is open in front to the south.”

[[File:1007.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “A Rustic Alcove,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.]]
*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848: 32)<ref name="Webster_1848">[[Noah Webster]], ''An American Dictionary of the English Language . . . Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich. . . .'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero]</ref>

:'“'AL'COVE''', '''AL-COVE''', n. [Sp. ''alcoba'', composed of al, with the Ar. . . . ''kabba'', to [[arch]], to construct with an [[arch]], and its derivatives, an [[arch]], a rounded house; Eng. ''cubby''.] . . .

:“3. A covered building, or recess, in a garden.

:“4. A recess in a [[grove]].”

*Anonymous, February 1848, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 364)<ref>Anonymous, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“''Fig''. 4, is a [[rustic style|RUSTIC]] '''ALCOVE''', to be placed at the end of a garden [[walk]].” [Fig. 6]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1269.jpg|Solomon Drowne, Plan of a botanic garden at Brown University, n.d. “Alcove” is inscribed in the bottom right corner of the plan.

Image:1688.jpg|William and John Halfpenny, “A Chinese Alcove Seat Fronting Four Ways,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 8.

Image:0461.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of Bath (Berkeley Springs) Virginia, 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June—September 1787. In the plan to the right, the notation “cc” denotes three alcoves with seats, positioned between dressing rooms (“b”) and two long narrow [[piazza]]s (“bb”).

Image:1702.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Alcoves,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 356, fig. 331.

Image:1899.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Rustic Alcove,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''Gardener’s Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 644, fig. 160.

Image:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308. The notation “OO” near the juncture of the curved and straight paths (marked by “A”), designates “diminutive rustic alcoves” shaped from live privet, ''Ligustrum strictum'', that would have been constructed on top of a slightly raised platform.

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. “The view extends along the vista . . . and terminates at the green house, (or alcove,) at ''m''.”

Image:1007.jpg|Anonymous, “A Rustic Alcove,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Bower

2019-06-17T16:27:52Z

A-brey: linking M'Mahon

(Bowery) <br/>
See also: [[Nursery]]

==History==

[[File:1057.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Hannah Cohoon, “A Bower of Mulberry Trees,” September 13, 1854.]]

[[File:1270.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, Solomon Drowne, ''Botanic Garden, 1818'', 1818.]]
In 18th- and 19th-century landscape-design vocabulary, the term bower was closely related to [[arbor]]. The two features held several common characteristics: the use of intertwined trees and other vegetation, the creation of shaded areas, and their siting at the end of [[walk]]s. Further refinement of this definition is complicated by the lack of explicit descriptive language in related accounts. William Faux’s 1819 description of Nathaniel Russell’s garden in Charleston, in which he simply notes bowers of flowering and fruit trees, or [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey’s]] brief reference, in 1840, to a shady bower at James Arnold’s estate in New Bedford, Massachusetts, each represents this problem. In addition, a bower had similar functions to an [[arbor]], such as serving as an outdoor living or dining space.

Nonetheless, some writers made distinctions between bowers and [[arbor]]s. [[Noah Webster]], for example, in 1828 specified that a bower had a centralized plan—round or [[square]]—whereas an [[arbor]] was long in plan and arched in cross-section. [[Manasseh Cutler|Manasseh Cutler's]] mention in 1787 of encircled bowers preceded this distinction. It should be noted, however, that this rule was not always followed. For example, [[A. J. Downing]] labeled many structures as [[arbor]]s that were either round or [[square]] in form, and Fortescue Cuming, in 1810, described a “long frame bowery.” James E. Teschemacher’s 1835 definition of an [[arbor]] as an “artificial bower” indicated that for him the distinction was to be made between the man-made [[arbor]] and the natural bower.

In general, three different types of bowers can be identified. The first was composed of planted vegetation manipulated into a covered shelter, as described in 1755 by Samuel Johnson. An example of this type is a Shaker illustration of 1854 of a bower constructed of intertwined trees and used as a dining setting [Fig. 1].<ref>This image may allude to feast grounds built by Shaker communities at mid-century. For more about Shaker imagery, see Sally M. Promey, ''Spiritual Spectacles: Vision and Image in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Shakerism'' (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JMPTCMS8 view on Zotero].</ref> A bower described in the ''Virginia Argus'' (1799) as suitable “for the accommodation of company” may have been similar in form and size to this Shaker bower.

[[File:0579.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Lewis Miller, “A narrow vista carpeted with rich green grass . . . on each side shrinks the bowery shade . . .” [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), p. 100]]
[[File: 0323.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 4, [[William Russell Birch]], “View from the Elysian Bower, Springland, Pennsylvna the residence of Mr W. Birch,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), p. 81, pl. 20. ]]
The second type was a built structure over which vegetation was trained. William Byrd II’s 1728 description of a habitation of a “Marooner” is an early instance of a bower being defined as a constructed shelter. Teschemacher gives a detailed account (1835) of the construction of a 19th-century bower, one in which iron [[arch]]es were covered with climbing vines. In 1806, [[Bernard M’Mahon]] specified that bowers were “light ornamental buildings” suitable for terminating garden [[walk]]s [Fig. 2] or complementing open grassy areas in the garden. William Dickinson Martin, in 1809, referred to a “neatly built” bower and William Bailey Lang in 1845 noted a rustic bower that had a shingle roof, with a corner post of rough cedar, “to which that hardy-plant, the Virginia creeper, has been trained.” [[A. J. Downing]] also advised in 1848 that such bowers could be “easily and economically constructed,” an idea for rustic buildings that was shared by [[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon]] (1806).

An important difference, however, marks [[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon’s]] and [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] references to constructed bowers. [[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon]] argued that such features were appropriate for “spacious pleasure grounds,” while Downing limited their use to more “humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur.” [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] sentiments reflect the increasing attention paid to style and decorum by 19th-century treatise writers and suggest that bowers were associated with the [[rustic-style]] gardens that doubled as both aesthetic and utilitarian spaces. Such distinctions were not without precedent: In 1804 [[Thomas Jefferson]] commented that bowers were more suitable for a [[kitchen garden]] than for [[pleasure ground]]s.

The third type of bower, a naturally occurring and seemingly unmanipulated collection of trees and [[shrub]]s creating a shady enclave or space, is well documented in both descriptions and images of American gardens. For example, Lewis Miller’s mid-19th century poem about “bowery shade” is illustrated with an image of two girls nestled underneath the curving branches of a small tree, which constitutes such a bower [Fig. 3]. The “Elysian Bower” at Springland, near Bristol, Pennsylvania, illustrated in an 1808 view, exemplifies the application of this term to a secluded gathering of shade trees [Fig. 4].

As a final note, one of [[Noah Webster|Noah Webster's]] definitions for bower was for “a country [[seat]]; a cottage.” To date, no example of this use of bower has been found. This absence confirms the observation that although treatise writers and lexicographers set forth specific definitions of bower, observers of the American landscape tended to use the term to mean simply a specific natural or artificially constructed shady space occurring either in a garden or landscape.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Byrd, William, II, 1728, describing the border of Virginia and North Carolina (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 41)<ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . not far from the Inlet, dwelt a Marooner, that Modestly call’d himself a Hermit, tho’ he forfeited that Name by Suffering a wanton Female to cohabit with Him. His Habitation was a '''Bower''', cover’d with Bark after the Indian Fashion, which in that mild Situation protected him pretty well from the Weather.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], April 9, 1786, describing the gardens at Blenheim Palace, estate of the Duke of Marlborough, Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England (1944: 114)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Rosamund’s '''bower''' was near where is now a little [[grove]], about two hundred yards from the palace. The well is near where the '''bower''' was.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Tavern]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:275)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We then rambled over the Gardens, which are large—seemed to be in a number of detached areas, all different in size and form. The [[alley]]s were none of them straight, nor were there any two alike. At every end, side, and corner, there were [[Summerhouse|''summer-houses'']], [[arbor]]s covered with vines or flowers, or shady '''bowers''' encircled with trees and flowering [[shrub]]s, each of which was formed in a different taste.”

*Anonymous, June 7, 1799, describing a property for sale near Richmond, VA (''Virginia Argus'')

:“Valuable Property FOR Sale at the [[Bowling Green]], near Richmond, that much frequented Tavern and [[public Garden]]. . . . The garden is very extensive . . . with [[Summer House]]s, and '''bowers''' for the accommodation of company.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 110–11)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At the Rocks . . . a turning Tuscan temple . . . proportions of Pantheon, . . . at the Point, . . . build Demosthenes’s lantern. . . . The [[kitchen garden]] is not the place for ornaments of this kind. '''bowers''' and treillages suit that better, & these [[temple]]s will be better disposed in the [[pleasure ground]]s.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, c. 1809, describing the garden of a tavern keeper in Salisbury, NC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 41)<ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

:“In the centre of the Garden . . . was a handsome '''bower''', neatly built, & adorned with English Honey Suckle, Woodbine & a few Jessamine.”

*Cuming, Fortescue, 1810, describing Canonsburgh, PA (quoted in Cummings 1949: 217, 227)<ref name="Cumming">Richard O. Cummings, ''The American Ice Harvests: A Historical Study in Technology, 1800–1918'' (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1949), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3WX5T2BF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The most striking thing I saw here was my Landlord’s garden, which is both good and handsome, being laid out with taste, abounding in a variety of the best culinary vegetables, and having some very pleasant shady '''bowers''', where the student, or man of leisure, sheltered from the noonday sun, and inhaling the fragrance of the surrounding aromatick [''sic''] plants might luxuriantly roam into the realms of fancy.”

:“What adds to the beauty of Mr. Tannehill’s seat is, a handsome [[grove]] of about two acres of young black oaks, northwest of his dwelling, through the middle of which runs a long frame '''bowery''', on whose end fronting the road, is seen this motto, ‘''1808, Dedicated to Virtue, Liberty, and Independence’'' Here a portion of the citizens meet on each 4th of July, to hail with joyful hearts the day that gave birth to the liberties and happiness of their country.”

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, 1811, describing Sidney, summer retreat of Margaret Bayard Smith, near Washington, DC (1906: 88)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“When Mr. Tracy, (who was an important personage on the occasion) brought the cart to the door Lytleton and all the boys jump’d in it and went to the [[wood]]s for boughs. L. drove furiously along to the no small delight of the boys and soon return’d like the moving wood in Macbeth. The [[Piazza]] was soon transform’d into a '''bower''', —every hand was busy, —Mrs. Clay, Mr. Smith and all.”

*Wilson, Alexander, before 1813, describing [[Gray’s Garden]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Adams 1976: 339)<ref>William Howard Adams, ed., ''The Eye of Thomas Jefferson'' (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IWQT8BPV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“There market-maids in lovely row,
::With wallets white, were riding
:::home,
:“And thund’ring gigs, with powdered
:::beaux,
::Through Gray’s green festive
:::shade to roam.
:“Sweet flows the Schuylkill’s winding
:::tide
::By Bartram’s emblossomed
:::'''bowers'''.
:“Where nature sports in all her pride
::Of choicest plants and fruits and
:::flowers.”

*Faux, William, 1819, describing the garden of Nathaniel Russell, Charleston, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 41)<ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>

:“[An English visitor in Charleston] called on the venerable Nathaniel Russell, Esq., residing in a splendid mansion, surrounded by a [[wilderness]] of flowers and '''bowers''' of myrtles, oranges and lemons, smothered with fruit and flowers.”

*du Pont, Sophie Madeleine, 1828, describing Eleutherian Mills, estate of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, near Wilmington, DE (quoted in Low and Hinsley 1987: 38)<ref>Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, ''Sophie du Pont, A Young Lady in America: Sketches, Diaries, & Letters, 1823–1833'' (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U2EJBX3K view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I thought of other Maydays; long past, when you and I were little children—of our [[walk]]s, and our plays—our '''bowers''', mudhouses, and forts, and the little fleet of boats we used to sail upon the [[pond]]—I could not help feeling sad when I thought of how we were changed—we, that once played together, walked together, studied our little lessons in partnership.”

*Wailes, Benjamin L. C., December 29, 1829, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Moore 1954: 359)<ref>John Hebron Moore, “A View of Philadelphia in 1829: Selections from the Journal of B. L. C. Wailes of Natchez,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'', 78 (July 1954), 353–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z9IBV7A4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“But the most enchanting [[prospect]] is towards the grand pleasure [[grove]] & [[green house]] of a [[Henry Pratt|Mr. Prat[t]]], a gentleman of fortune, and to this we next proceeded by a circutous rout [''sic''], passing in view of the fish [[pond]]s, '''bowers''', rustic retreats, [[summer house]]s, [[fountain]]s, [[grotto]], &c., &c.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“There are some pretty '''bowers''', [[summer house]]s, [[grotto]]s and fish [[pond]]s in this garden—the latter well stored with gold and silver fish.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 68)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To those who mourn, what a consolation to visit the '''bower'''-sequestered monument of a much loved friend, under circumstances and with associations so favorably calculated to revive agreeable recollections of the past; and when those revolting ideas are excluded, which obtrude upon the mind, while standing in the usually dreary, desolate, and ruinous repositories of the dead.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], September 1840, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” describing the residence of James Arnold, New Bedford, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 364)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening, in New Bedford, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 9 (September 1840): 361–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QQC7WWZB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Continuing through the winding [[walk]]s, shady '''bowers''', and umbrageous retreats, through which rustic [[seat]]s were placed, we arrived at the shell [[grotto]].”

[[File: 1783.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 5, William Bailey Lang, “Rustic Bower,” ''Views With Ground Plans, of the Highland Cottages at Roxbury'', 1845.]]
*Lang, William Bailey, 1845, describing a rustic bower in Butte, MA, in ''Views with Ground Plans'' (1845: 18)<ref>William Bailey Lang, ''Views with Ground Plans, of the Highlands Cottages at Roxbury'' (Boston: L. H. Bridgham and H. E. Felch, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7KBFF9TR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Rustic '''Bower'''.—Shingle roof, painted black. The corner post of the rough cedder, to which that hardy-plant, the Virginia creeper, has been trained.” [Fig. 5]

*Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (''Journal of Medicine'' 10: 63)

:“''Airing Courts, or [[Yard|Yards]]''.—There are three of these courts for the men, and four for the women. They are, with one exception, well shaded with trees, and three of them have large '''bowers''' covered with roofs, and furnished with seats for all the patients admitted into the courts.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing the residence of James Arnold, New Bedford, MA (1849; repr.,1991: 57)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the environs of New Bedford are many beautiful residences. Among these, we desire particularly to notice the residence of James Arnold, Esq. There is scarcely a small place in New England, where the [[Pleasure ground|''pleasure-grounds'']] are so full of variety, and in such perfect order and keeping, as at this charming spot; and its winding [[walk]]s, open bits of [[lawn]], [[shrub]]s and plants grouped on turf, shady '''bowers''', and rustic [[seat]]s, all most agreeably combined, render this a very interesting and instructive suburban [[seat]].”

===Citations===

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BOWER'''. ''n''. s. [from ''bough'' or ''branch'', or from the verb to ''bow'' or ''bend''.]
:“1. An [[arbour]]; a sheltered place covered with green trees, twined and bent.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 64)<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In some spacious [[pleasure-ground]]s various light ornamental buildings and erections are introduced, as ornaments to particular departments; such as [[temple]]s, '''bowers''', banquetting houses, [[alcove]]s, [[grotto]]s, rural [[seat]]s, cottages, [[fountain]]s, [[obelisk]]s, [[statue]]s, and other edifices; these and the like are usually erected in the different parts, in openings between the divisions of the ground, and contiguous to the terminations of grand [[walk]]s, &c.
:“Some of these kinds of ornaments, however, being very expensive, are rather sparingly introduced; sometimes a [[temple]] is presented at the termination of a grand [[walk]] or opening, or sometimes a [[temple]], banqueting-house, or '''bower''' is erected in the centre of some spacious opening or grass-ground in the internal divisions; other parts present [[alcove]]s, '''bowers''', [[grotto]]s, rural-[[seat|seats]], &c. at the termination of different [[walk]]s.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 809)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6157. . . . Light '''bowers''' formed of lattice-work, and covered with climbers, are in general most suitable to [[parterre]]s; plain covered seats suit the general [[walk]]s of the [[shrubbery]].”

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 87, 88, 145–47, 149)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Clematis virginica, or Virginian Virgin’s '''Bower'''''.—This is of most rapid growth, and produces, in July and August, a great abundance of white flowers, which are very fragrant; it is well calculated to cover [[arbour]]s and '''bowers'''....
:“''Clematis viticella, or European Virgin’s '''Bower'''''.—This is a native of the south of Europe, and is greatly admired as a vine for covering '''bowers''', or training against the sides of houses, or in other situations where vines are wanted. . . .
:“''Sweetbriar, or Eglantine''.—This delightful species of the rose family is well calculated to train against the sides of houses, or up the [[pillar]]s of the [[piazza]], or to intermingle with the vines which entwine '''bowers''', &c....
:“The Champney, Noisette, [rose] and most of the varieties, may be trained against the sides of houses, over '''bowers''', &c. to a very considerable length, although not quite so rampant in their growth as the different varieties of the Multiflora. . . .
:“The climbing, or running roses, suitable to train against buildings, or on [[arbour]]s, '''bowers''', &c. are the following:—Common Multiflora, Roxburgh’s White Multiflora, Lady Banks’ Double White, Greville’s Superb, Champneys, Noisette, Boursaultian, Hybrid, Macartney’s, &c. ...”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BOW'ER''', ''n''. [Sax. ''bur'', a chamber or private apartment, a hut, a cottage; W. ''bwr'', an inclosure.]
:“1. A shelter or covered place in a garden, made with boughs of trees bent and twined together. It differs from ''[[arbor]]'' in that it may be round or [[square]], whereas an arbor is long and arched. ''Milton. Encyc.''
:“2. A bed-chamber; any room in a house except the hall. ''Spencer. Mason.''
:“3. A country [[seat]]; a cottage. ''Shenston., B. Johnson.''
:“4. A shady recess; a [[plantation]] for shade. ''W. Brown....''
:“'''BOW’ERY''', ''a''. Covering; shading as a '''bower'''; also, containing '''bowers'''. ''Thomson''.”

*Teschemacher, James E., August 1, 1835, “Extracts from Foreign Publications” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 308–9)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “Extracts from Foreign Publications,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (August 1, 1835), 304–9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CNPGMS5X/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From an article ''On the various form and character of Arbours as objects of use or ornament either in gardens or wild scenery [from Paxton’s Horticultural Register],'' we extract the following passages.
:“‘A singularly beautiful structure which may be classed with this kind of garden decoration has been made in Ireland.
:“‘A circular space of about sixty feet diameter, in the centre of dressed ground with scattered [[clump]]s of evergreen [[shrub]]s, surrounded by lofty trees, is wholly enclosed by a continued arcade of iron [[arch]]es. . . . All the [[arch]]es are thickly covered with climbing plants of strong rapid growth, which proceed along the wires to the top of the pole. . . .
:“‘The interior is an [[arbor]] of great magnitude, not so closely covered as everywhere absolutely to exclude the sun, but yet so as to render it always shady and agreeable. . . .
:“‘The entire effect is good, and this may be considered as one of the best specimens of the artificial '''bower''' of the present day.’”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1857: 98)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BOWER'''. See ''[[Arbor]]''.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, A. J.]], February 1848, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CPFBIUCV/q/hints%20and%20designs view on Zotero].</ref>

:“But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the ''[[ferme ornée]]'', and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.
:“These are the seats, '''bowers''', [[grotto]]es and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic_style|rustic work]]—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or [[picturesque]] expression of the scene.
:“Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 219)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

::“A. What place is that covered with roses and Honeysuckles?
::“B. That’s a shady '''bower''' with seats in it.
::“A. Is that another shady '''bower''', covered with sweet scented clematis and roses?
::“B. That’s a building for the use of the family.”

*Miller, Lewis, c. 1850, description on a drawing of an idealized scene in the ''Orbis Pictus'' (Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

::“While the fish, A narrow [[vista]], carpeted with rich— green grass. invites my tread: here Showers light in golden dots. So blended, that the very air
::Seems network as i enter there. On each Side Shrinks the '''bowery''' Shade: Before me Spreads an Emerald glade.” [See Fig. 3]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File: 1269.jpg|Solomon Drowne, Detailed plan of a [[botanic garden]] at Brown University, n.d.

File: 0323.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “View from the Elysian Bower, Springland, Pennsylvna the residence of Mr W. Birch,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), p. 81, pl. 20.

File: 1270.jpg|Solomon Drowne, ''[[Botanic Garden]], 1818'', 1818.

File: 1356.jpg|Bower formed of lattice-work, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 809, fig. 563.

File: 1783.jpg|William Bailey Lang, “Rustic Bower,” ''Views With Ground Plans, of the Highland Cottages at Roxbury'', 1845.

File: 0367.jpg|Anonymous, “View in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esq.” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 57.

File: 0579.jpg|Lewis Miller, “A narrow vista carpeted with rich green grass . . . on each side shrinks the bowery shade . . . ” [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'', c. 1850.

File: 1057.jpg|Hannah Cohoon, “A Bower of Mulberry Trees,” September 13, 1854.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File: 0005.jpg|[[Amy Cox]], ''Box Grove'', c. 1800.

File: 0713.jpg|Jacob Marling, ''The May Queen (The Crowning of Flora)'', 1816.

File: 0489.jpg|John William Hill (artist), William James Bennett (engraver), ''New York, from Brooklyn Heights'', 1837.

File: 0891.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Joseph H. Jennings’ House, 1841–44.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Plant Support]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Border

2019-06-17T16:26:15Z

A-brey: linking M'Mahon

(Bordure) <br/>
See also: [[Edging]], [[Espalier]], [[Hedge]], [[Shrubbery]]

==History==

[[File:1050.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Richard Dolben]], “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847.]]
Because William Cobbett believed that American readers were unfamiliar with the term border, he included a footnote defining it in the American edition of William Forsyth’s treatise about fruit trees (1802). Nevertheless, earlier 18th-century American accounts and depictions of gardens evince a relative degree of familiarity with what Cobbett described: a ten-foot-wide space, used for growing espaliered fruit trees, situated between a [[walk]] and a [[wall]].
[[File:0464.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, [[Nicolino Calyo]], ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834]]

In the broadest sense, borders indicated clearly defined spaces in which plant material was grown, a concept that was common in American usage. Less frequently, “border” was a term used to designate [[edging]] of [[bed]]s, such as those made from boards. The term “plate-bandes,” found in 16th-and 17th-century European treatises and referring to the borders used alongside “broidery” [[parterre]]s, was not commonly used in colonial or federal America.

[[File:0073.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of serpentine walk and flower beds at [[Monticello]], May 23, 1808.]]

The use of border to refer to a specific area of the designed landscape devoted to the display of plants and trees changed little during the period between 1600 and 1850. Yet several different, albeit related, meanings of border are found in the American context. A border could refer to the demarcated, outer edge of a discrete and often relatively large garden feature, such as a [[parterre]], [[lawn]], or grass [[plat]] [Figs. 1 and 2]. [[Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d’Argenville]] (1712) employed this sense of border while counseling readers to enclose [[parterre]]s to protect the plants within. [[George Washington]], in 1785, requested that several apricot and peach trees be moved to the borders of his grass [[plat]]s. The ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and Miscellaneous Literature'' (1798) recommended three-to four-foot borders for the outer boundary of a gravel [[walk]] surrounding a [[lawn]].

[[File:0078.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century.]]
[[File:0114.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Rubens Peale, ''Old Museum'', 1858–60]]
The use of borders as boundaries and enclosures is closely related to their use along the [[edging|edges]] of [[walk]]s, a common practice throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. Lining the [[edging|edges]] of [[walk]]s with borders, which were often three- to four-feet wide, created an elongated space that could accommodate a greater variety of plant material than could [[bed]]s, which were often limited in diameter for ease of maintenance. In 1807, [[Thomas Jefferson]] described his garden at [[Monticello]] in a letter and a sketch, with just such an argument for borders, allowing him “to indulge” in a “variety of flowers” [Fig. 3]. The 1832 plans for [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] in Cambridge, Massachusetts, likewise included ten-foot borders filled with [[shrub]]s, perennials, and bulb flowers. George William Johnson, writing in 1847, cautioned against overly narrow borders that would convey a sense of “meanness” to the scene as opposed to the “grandeur” of an ample border.

Borders could frame [[walk]]s, [[avenue]]s, or [[drive]]s (as at Rosewell, on the York River, Virginia [Fig. 4]; the Lilacs, the residence of Thomas Kidder in Medford, Massachusetts; and [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]), or they could skirt [[wall]]s, [[espalier]]s, [[shrubberies]], or other related structures (as at [[The Woodlands]] and Peale’s Museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania [Fig. 5]; and the Elias Hasket Derby House in Salem, Massachusetts [Fig. 6]). Johnson, in fact, pointed to these uses when defining border in his 1847 dictionary. There he noted that, in addition to offering extensive space for the display of plants, framing borders also acted as screening devices, to cloak [[wall]]s, for example.

The notion of a border as a bank raised around a garden, as described by Samuel Johnson (1755) and echoed by [[Noah Webster]] (1828), seems to have been little-documented in American garden design. No descriptions or depictions of this practice have yet been identified.

[[File:0095.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “Plan of Mr. Derby[’s] Land,” 1800. “Plantation of Shrubs to be faced with a three foot Border of Flowers.”]]

Plant material within borders varied widely. Fruit trees, dwarf trees, specimen trees, shrubs, and perennial and annual flowers all appear in descriptions of borders. Borders could also house vegetables, especially when placed within the confines of a [[kitchen garden]]. As discrete units set within a larger garden complex, borders were useful for separating different kinds of plant material, as at [[Lemon Hill]] in Philadelphia, where borders of pinks and other flowers enclosed [[square]]s that were planted with vegetables and fruits.

A general shift, however, can be detected in the arrangement of plants within flower borders, from the “judicious” mixing that allowed individual specimens to be highlighted in the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries to the use of masses of plants to create broad swatches of color by the mid-19th century. William Hamilton’s border at [[The Woodlands]] corresponds to the latter type in his desire to display a great variety of plants while maintaining “distinctions of the sorts.” [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], less interested in curious exotics, used his border to grow “handsome” or “fragrant” plants, and his 1811 letter to [[Bernard M’Mahon]] indicates that he had hoped to grow plants recognized then as “florist’s flowers,” plants appreciated for the unique beauty of their blossoms. By contrast, [[Jane Loudon]] (1845) and Joseph Breck (1851) both advocated massing plants and choosing plants for a constant display of color rather than for the flowers’ unique qualities. Throughout this shift, the notion of arranging plants in graduated rows from lowest to highest appears to have remained relatively unchanged. See, for example, the recommendations of English treatise writer Richard Bradley (1719–20) and [[Jane Loudon]] (1845).

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*[[Washington, George]], February 9, 12, and 18, and March 12 and 14, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:87, 89, 92; 101–2)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Transplanted an English Walnut tree . . . but from their size and age I have little expectation of their living. Also moved the Apricots & Peach Trees which stood in the '''borders''' of the grass [[plat]]s which from the same causes little expectation is entertained of their living. . . .
:“Planted Eight young Pair Trees sent me by Doctr. Craik in the following places—viz.
:“2 Orange Burgamots in the No. Garden, under the back [[wall]]—3d. tree from the [[Green House]] at each end of it.
:“1 Burgamot at the Corner of the '''border''' in the South Garden just below the necessary.
:“2 St. Germains, one in each '''border''' (middle thereof) of the upper Squares by the Asparagas Bed & Artichoake Ditto upper bordr.
:“3 Brown Beuries in the west square in the Second flat—viz. 1 on the '''border''' (middle thereof) next the Fall or [[slope]]—the other two on the '''border''' above the walk next the old Stone Wall. . . .
:“Planted '''border''' of Ivy under the No. side of the So. Garden wall. . . .
:“Laid the '''borders''' of the gravel [[walk]] to the No. Necessary—from the circle in the Court yard. . . .
:“Planted the 9 young peach Trees which I brought from Mr. Cockburns in the No. Garden—viz.—4 on the South '''border''' of the second [[walk]] (two on each side of the middle walk)—2 in the '''border''' of the [[Walk]] leading from the [[Espalier]] [[hedge]] towards the other cross [[walk]] and 3 under the South [[wall]] of the Garden; that is two on the right as we enter the [[gate]] & one on the left. The other Peach tree to answer it on that side & the two on the West [[Walk]], parrallel to the Walnut trees were taken from the [[nursery]] in the Garden.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray’s Tavern]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:275)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the '''borders''' were arranged every kind of flower, one would think, that nature had ever produced, and with the utmost display of fancy, as well as variety.”

*[[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, discussing plans for [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4, A5)<ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” (paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I would have Hilton dig a piece of the '''Border''' on the East side of the House somewhere about the front of the paper Birch or double Peach. It should be french dug & three or four Inches thickness of fine mould put on the surface & they [exotic bulbous roots] should be planted at six or eight Inches from each other & about 5 or 6 inches deep taking care to preserve the distinctions of the sorts which can be easily done as they were all laid in ranges by themselves. . . .
:“[2 May] I would have you mark all the ''polianthos snow drops'' in the '''Bord’rs''' of the Ice H. Hill walk. . . .
:“[1 June] I meant to have made a small 3 feet wide '''Border''' in front of the necessary skreen of cedars & Lombardy populars & to have planted some of these Runners at the foot of them to run up and hide the dead cedars. What was not used of them I meant to have sown in such a manner as to have run over the [[Espalier]] as soon as the '''Border''' along it was cleand. If the '''Border''' is done you can have them sowd in such a manner as to produce the greatest variety.”

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 415)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Now, side long bends the path; then, pursues its winding way; now, in a straight line; then, in a pleasing [[labyrinth]] is lost, until, in every possible direction, it breaketh upon us, amid thick groves of pines, walnuts, chestnuts, mulberries, &c. &c. we seem to ramble, while at the same time, we are surprized [''sic''] by '''borders''' of the richest, and most highly cultivated flowers, in the greatest variety, which even from a royal [[parterre]] we might be led to expect. . . .
:“In the flower '''borders''', the silver pine, the turin poplar, bay tree, and a variety of ever greens, are judiciously interspersed.”

*Beebe, Lewis, 1800, describing a Mr. Pratt’s garden [undetermined location] (quoted in Martin 1991: 113)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“An [[ally]] of 13 feet wide runs the length of the garden thro’ the centre—. Two others of 10 feet wide equally distant run parallel with the main [[alley]]. These are intersected at right angles, by 4 other [[alley]]s of 8 feet wide—Another [[alley]] of 5 feet wide goes around the whole garden, leaving a '''border''' of 3 feet wide next to the pales. This lays the garden into 20 squares, each square has a '''border''' around it of 3 feet wide. The '''border''' of the main [[alley]], is ornamented with flowers of every description. Likewise the '''border''' of every [[square]], is decorated with pinks and a thousand other flowers, which it [is] impossible for me to describe. The remaining part of each [[square]], within the '''border''', is planted with beans, pease, cabbage, onions, Beets, carrots, Parsnips, Lettuce, Radishes, Strawberries, cucumbers, Potatoes, and many other articles. . . . Within the pales, on the out border, one planted, Quince, snowball, Laylock, and various other small trees, producing the most beautiful flowers.”

*Pintard, John, 1801, describing New Orleans, LA (quoted in Sterling 1951: 227–28)<ref>David Lee Sterling, ed., “New Orleans, 1801: An Account by John Pintard,” ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'', 34 (1951), 217–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8A58JVVT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Governours [''sic''] House fronts the river—is a large wooden building formerly the Treasury. . . . A very fine garden belongs to this house—at least as to Trees—Orange & etc but no great taste as yet prevails in the design of any garden—I have seen all that have any pretensions that way, being disposed in the old still formal style—the '''border''' and circles kept up with strips of board wh[ich] have a very mean effect.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 7, 1807, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Betts and Perkins 1986: 36)<ref>Edwin M. Betts and Hazlehurst Bolton Perkins, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Flower Garden at Monticello'' (Charlottesville: Thomas Jefferson Foundation, University of Virginia, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/53FZXDN6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I find that the limited number of our flower [[bed]]s will too much restrain the variety of flowers in which we might wish to indulge, and therefore I have resumed an idea . . of a winding [[walk]] surrounding the [[lawn]] . . . with a narrow '''border''' of flowers on each side.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], April 8, 1811, in a letter to [[Bernard M’Mahon]], describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 455)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have an extensive flower '''border''', in which I am fond of placing ''handsome'' plants or ''fragrant''. those of mere curiosity I do not aim at, having too many other cares to bestow more than a moderate attention to them. in this I have placed the seeds you were so kind as to send me last. in it I have also growing the fine tulips, hyacinths, tuberoses & Amaryllis you formerly sent me. my wants there are Anemones, Auriculas, Ranunculus, Crown Imperials & Carnations.”

*Forman, Martha Ogle, 1824 and 1827, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 176, 232)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[6 March 1824] I had the two '''borders''' to right and left of the Garden [[gate]] planted with [[shrubbery]] and several planted on the approach to the garden. . . .
:“[31 March 1827] A very pleasant day, dividing the crocuses on the left '''border''' of the garden.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., September 30, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 47, 80)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As the tract which has been solemnly consecrated, by religious ceremonies, as a burial-place forever, is so abundantly covered with forest trees, many of which are more than sixty years old, it only requires the [[avenue]]s to be formed, the '''borders''', for some ten feet in width, planted with [[shrub]]s, bulbous and perennial flowers . . . to put the grounds in a sufficiently complete state for the uses designed, and to render them at once beautiful and interesting. . . .
:“The upper Garden Pond has been excavated, to a sufficient depth to afford a constant sheet of water, with a [[Fall/Falling_garden|fall]] at the outlet of three feet, and being embanked, avenues with a '''border''' of six feet, for [[shrub]]s and flowers, have been made all round it.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], October 1839, “Some Remarks upon several Gardens and Nurseries in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” describing the residence of Horace Binney, Burlington, NJ (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 363)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Some Remarks upon Several Gardens and Nurseries, in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Balitmore,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 10 (October 1839): 361–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4I3HBZD view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[flower garden]] is nearly a [[square]], and is laid out with one main circular [[walk]], running round the whole, and a '''border''' for flowers on each side; the centre forming a [[lawn]] scattered over with several large fruit trees.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elias Hasket Derby House, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 410–11)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The garden lies to the south of the mansion, and is, we should judge, nearly a [[square]]. It is laid out with straight [[walk]]s, running at right angles, with flower '''borders''' on each side of the [[alley]]s, and the [[square]]s occupied by fruit trees.”

*Lyell, Sir Charles, 1846, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the [[English_style|English]], others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight walks with '''borders''' of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the [[pleasure grounds]] and farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 349)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The semi-circular [[yard]], on the western side of the main building is surrounded by flower '''borders''', contains the circular pleasure Rail-road, and is used at different hours, by patients of both sexes.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (1849: 443)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'' 4th ed. (New York: George P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64/q/treatise%20on%20the%20theory view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Those who have seen the [[shrubbery]] at ''[[Hyde Park]]'', the residence of the late [[David_Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], which '''borders''' the [[walk]] leading from the mansion to the hot-houses, will be able to recall a fine example of this mode of mingling woody and herbaceous plants. The belts or '''borders''' occupied by the [[shrubbery]] and [[flower-garden]] there, are perhaps from 25 to 35 feet in width, completely filled with a collection of [[shrub]]s and herbaceous plants; the smallest of the latter being quite near the [[walk]]; these succeeded by taller species receding from the front of the '''border''', then follow [[shrub]]s of moderate size, advancing in height until the background of the whole is a rich mass of tall [[shrub]]s and trees of moderate size. The effect of this belt on so large a scale, in high keeping, is remarkably striking and elegant.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 445)<ref>Londoniensis, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2/q/Notes%20and%20Recollections%20of%20a%20Visit%20to%20the%20Nurseries%20of%20Messrs.%20Hovey%20%26%20Co. view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the first place, the [[nursery]] is laid out in angular divisions, diverging from a common centre. These divisions are separated from each other by wide [[walk]]s and [[avenue]]s, on each side of which is a '''border''' some eight or nine feet wide. These '''borders''' are planted with specimen trees, inside of which are the [[quarter]]s for the [[nursery]] stock.”

===Citations===

*[Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d'Argenville|Dezallier d’Argenville, Antoine-Joseph], 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712: 35–36)<ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens . . . ,'' trans. John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BORDERS''' serve to bound and inclose [[Parterre]]s, that they be not hurt by walking in them, and become very ornamental by the Yews, [[Shrub]]s, and Flowers, that are raised in them. Four Foot is usually allowed for the Breadth of the lesser, and five or six Foot for that of the larger '''Borders'''; and they are always laid with a sharp Rising in the Middle, being no way agreeable to the Eye when they are flat.
:“OF '''Borders''' there are four Sorts: The most common are those that are continued about [[Parterre]]s without any Interruption, and are wrought with a sharp Rising in the Middle, like an Ass’s Back, and set out with Flowers, [[Shrub]]s, and Yews.
:“THE second Kind is a '''Border''' cut into Compartiment, at convenient Distances, by small Passages, and is likewise adorned with Flowers and [[Shrub]]s, being raised in the Middle as before-mentioned.
:“THE third Sort of '''Borders''', are all eaven [''sic''] and flat, without Flowers, having only a Verge of Grass in the Middle, edged by two small Paths raked smooth and sanded. These are sometimes garnished with Yews and flowering Shrubs, or with Vases and Flower-Pots set regularly along the Middle of the Verge of Grass.
:“THE fourth Sort of '''Borders''' are quite plain, and only sanded, as in the [[Parterre]]s of [[Orangery]], and are filled with Cases ranged regularly along the '''Borders''', which, on the Sides next the [[Walk]]s, are [[edging|edged]] with Box; and on the other, with the Verges and Grass-work of the [[Parterre]]. Sometimes Yews are planted between each Case, which makes the '''Borders''' look richer, and the [[Parterre]]s much handsomer, during the Winter.
:“'''BORDERS''' are made strait, circular, or in Cants, and are turned into Volutes, Scrolls, Knots, and other Compartiments.
:“FLORISTS likewise make use of '''Borders''' either detached or along [[Wall]]s, which they encompass with '''Border'''-boards painted green, that are exceeding neat, and in these they raise their finest and choicest Flowers; but this is not to be looked for in large [[Parterre]]s, where ‘tis sufficient to have them stocked with Flowers in their several Seasons as they succeed one another, that nothing appear bare and naked.”

*Bradley, Richard, 1719–20, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening'' (1719–20 1:63–64; 1720: 2:27)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical; Explaining the Motion of the Sapp and Generation of Plants. With Other Discoveries Never before Made in Publick, for the Improvement of Forest-Trees, Flower-Gardens or Parterres; with a New Invention Where by More Designs of Garden Platts May Be Made in an Hour, than Can Be Found in All the Books Now Extant. Likewise Several Rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit-Trees, Kitchen-Gardens, and Green-House Plants'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: W. Mears, 1719–20), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U8DEKNZ4/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:[vol. 1] “. . . in the Planting a '''Border''' or [[Bed]] of ''Flowers'', we may judiciously mix the several Sorts, so as to have not only some of them in ''Blossom'' every Month of the Year, but that they may be so disposed as to appear gradually one above the other, and add Beauty to each other by their Variety of Colours. . . .
:[vol. 2] “I must confess, was I to make an [[Orchard]] to please my self, I would first divide the Ground into parcels, allowing handsome [[Walk]]s between them, which should some of them be fenced on the Sides with [[Espalier]]s of Fruit, others left open with '''Borders''' only on their Sides, adorn’d with Rows of ''Standard-Apples''.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . . '', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[PLAT]]-BAND, in gardening, a '''border''', or [[bed]] of flowers, along a [[wall]], or the side of a [[parterre]]; frequently [[edging|edged]] with box, &c. See [[PARTERRE]], [[EDGING]], ''&c''.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BORDER'''. . . . ''n.s.'' [''bord'', Germ. ''bord'', Fr.] . . .
:“4. A bank raised round a garden, and set with flowers; a narrow rank of herbs or flowers.”

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (7:542)<ref>Anonymous, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“For the convenience of walking in damp weather, this lawn should be surrounded with a gravel-[[walk]], on the outside of which should be '''borders''' three or four feet wide for flowers.”

*Cobbett, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (quoted in Forsyth 1802: 4)<ref name="Forsyth">William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“*The American reader will not readily know what is here meant by the word '''''Borders'''''; it is therefore necessary to observe to him, that the finer kinds of fruit trees are, in England, trained against walls, and that there is generally a [[walk]] goes round the garden, running in a parallel line with the [[wall]], at the distance of about ten feet from it; the space between the [[walk]] and the [[wall]], is called the '''''Border'''''; so that, when the author speaks of the soil and tillage of the '''''Borders''''', he is merely speaking of the soil and tillage of the land, in which the several trees are, or may be, planted.”

*Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 146, 148)<ref name="Forsyth"></ref>

:“The garden should be surrounded with a '''border''', or slip, from forty to sixty feet wide or more, if the ground can be spared; and this again inclosed with an oak paling from six to eight feet high, with a cheval-de-frise at top. . . .
:“The '''borders''' under the [[wall]]s, in the inside, should be from ten to twenty feet wide, according to the size of the garden, to give full liberty to the roots of the trees to spread.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 16)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[Espalier]]s are [[hedge]]s of fruit-trees, which are trained up regularly to a lattice or trellis of wood work, and are commonly arranged in a single row in the '''borders''', round the boundaries of the principal divisions of the [[kitchen-garden]]; there, serving a double or treble purpose, both profitable, useful, and ornamental. They produce large fine fruit plentifully, without taking up much room, and being in a close range, [[hedge]]-like; they in some degree shelter the esculent crops in the quarters; and having '''borders''' immediately under them each side, afford different aspects for different plants.”

*[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 1st American ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“GARDENING. . . .
:“A wide '''border''' next the south [[wall]] [in a garden], as was said, is best for the trees; and moreover for the many uses that may be made of it for the smaller early, or late tender esculents, and a few early cauliflowers. For the sake of a pleasant warm [[walk]] in spring, to have the south '''border''' narrow may be desirable; but on no account let it be less than six feet. . . .
:“The [[bed]]s for tulips, hyacinths, anemonies, ranunculuses, &c. may be three and a half or four feet wide, and those for single flowers the same, or only two and a half feet wide in the '''borders''', which was the most usual breadth in the old [[flower garden]]s.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 4)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The margin [of the [[kitchen garden]]], all round, allot for '''borders''', from eight to twelve feet wide, and extended under the [[walk]]s by prepared soil. . . . As the '''borders''' and [[bed]]s are marked out, trench them two spits deep, if good soil reach so low. Next to the '''borders''', leave space for a [[walk]] entirely round the garden, from four to six feet wide. Some persons also choose to have a '''border''' on the inward side of the [[walk]], for the cultivation of [[espalier]]s, and esculents of dwarf growth.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1020)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“7258. ''Narrow terraces''. . . . Where the breadth is more than is requisite for [[walk]]s, the '''borders''' may be kept in turf with groups or marginal strips of flowers and low shrubs.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BORD'ER''', ''n.'' [Fr. ''bord''; Arm. id; Sp. ''bordo''; Port. ''borda''; It. ''bordo''. See ''Board''.]
:“the exterior part of a garden, and hence a bank raised at the side of a garden, for the cultivation of flowers, and a row of plants.”

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 1–2)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . some important matters essential to the good management of a [[Kitchen Garden]]. . . .
:“To this end, he [the gardener] may form a '''border''' round the whole garden, from five to ten feet wide, according to the size of the piece of land; next to this '''border''', a [[walk]] may be made from three to six feet wide; the centre part of the garden may be divided into [[square]]s, on the sides of which a '''border''' may be laid out three or four feet wide, in which the various flowering plants may be raised, unless a separate [[flower garden]] is intended. The centre [[bed]]s, may be planted with all the various kinds of vegetables as well as Gooseberries, Currants, Raspberries, Strawberries, &c. The outside '''borders''' facing the East, South and West, will be useful for raising the earliest fruits and vegetables, and the North '''border''' being shady and cool, will serve for raising, and pricking out such young plants, slips and cuttings as require to be screened from the intense heat of the sun.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], March 1840, “Some Remarks on the Formation of the Margins of Flower Beds on Grass Plots or Lawns” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 84–85)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Some Remarks on the Formation of the Margins of Flower Beds on Grass Plots or Lawns,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 3 (March 1840): 84–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ETMJJXR6/q/Some%20Remarks%20on%20the%20Formation view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We are glad to learn that our observations have been the means of drawing attention to the subject, and that they have, in some instances, induced amateurs to adopt the style of planting small grass [[plot]]s, and forming upon them circular, or other shaped [[bed]]s, for flowers. . . . the method is, generally, to be much preferred to the old, and almost universally followed system, of forming gravelled [[walk]]s, with board, grass, or box [[edging]]s, and dug '''borders'''.”

*Buist, Robert, 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 32)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Grass verges for [[walk]]s and '''borders''', although frequently used, are, by no means, desirable, except where variety is required; they are the most laborious to keep in order, and at best are inelegant, and the only object in their favour is, there being everywhere accessible.”

*[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 131–32)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BORDER'''.—A '''border''' differs from a [[bed]] in having a walk only on one side; and an ornamental border, in which flowers or [[shrub]]s, or both, are grown, ought to have the plants so arranged in regard to height and distance, as to have them seen to the greatest advantage from the [[walk]]. For this purpose the lowest-growing plants should be placed in front, and the highest kinds behind them, and the distance between the different plants should be proportioned to their breadth, not to their height. . . . With regard to the mode of arranging herbaceous plants in '''borders''' with reference to the colour of their flowers and time of flowering, the object ought to be to have an equal number of plants in flower in each of the floral months; and among the plants of each month to have as nearly as possible an equal number of each of the principal colours. This is the ''beau idéal'' that the cultivator should keep in view; but it is not easy to carry it out into practice without the assistance of a reserve garden, and a number of plants in [[pot]]s, that can be brought out when in flower on the shortest notice. . . .
:“'''BORDER''' FLOWERS.—Herbaceous plants of hardy constitution; showy in appearance, and of easy culture, and therefore well adapted for ornamenting the borders which accompany [[walk]]s in gardens.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 96, 165)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BORDER''', is a name applied to that narrow division of the garden which usually accompanies each side of a [[walk]] in the [[pleasure-ground]]s, and to the narrow [[bed]] which is close to the garden [[wall]] on one side, and abuts on a [[walk]] on the other. The [[wall]]s being mostly occupied by fruit trees, the latter may be considered as the fruit-'''borders''', and the first-named as the flower-'''borders'''.
:“1. ''Fruit-'''borders'''''.—Next to the [[wall]] should be a path three feet wide, for the convenience of pruning and gathering. Next to this path should be the border, eight or nine feet wide; and then the broad [[walk]], which should always encompass the main compartments of the [[kitchen garden]]. . . .
:“2. ''Flower '''borders'''''.—These, like the preceding, and indeed like every other part of the garden not devoted to aquatic and marsh plants, should be well drained. In plotting them it must also be remembered, that if narrow, no art will impart to them an aspect of boldness and grandeur. Indeed narrowness of surface is inseparably connected with an impression that the grounds are of limited extent, and no disposal of the plants will remove the littleness thus suggested. If the [[pleasure ground]]s are small, narrow '''borders''' are permissible, but even then the broader they are the less is the appearance of meanness. Neatness must be the presiding deity over flower '''borders''', and no application of the hoe and rake, no removal of decayed leaves, no tying up of struggling members, can be too unremitting. . . .
:“[[CONSERVATORY]]. This structure is a [[greenhouse]] communicating with the residence, having '''borders''' and beds in which to grow its tenant plants.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1849, “Design for a Suburban Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 380)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Suburban Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): 380, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HNE67CR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0942.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 7, Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353. “The “borders” are “under the vines, E.”]]
:“At the end of this [[wall]], we come to the semicircular ''Italian arbo''r, D. . . .
:“Beyond this [[arbor]], and at the termination of the central [[walk]], is a [[vase]], rustic basket, or other ornamental object, ''e''. The semi-circle, embraced within the [[arbor]], is a space laid with regular [[bed]]s. This is devoted to [[kitchen garden]] crops, as is also all the outside '''border''' behind it. The other '''borders''' (under the vines, E,) may be cropped with strawberries, or lettuces, and other small culinary vevetables [''sic''], with a narrow grouping of flowers near the [[walk]] or not, as the taste of the owner may dictate. The small trees, planted in rows on the '''border''', between the walk, E, and the ornamental lawn, are dwarf pears and apples.” [Fig. 7]

*Breck, Joseph, 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 19–20, 39)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . a [[walk]] should be carried round the outward boundary [of a [[flower garden]]], leaving a '''border''' to surround the whole ground. This outward '''border''' will be the most appropriate place for choice flowering [[shrub]]s, and tall herbaceous biennial and perennial plants. If the '''border''' be a wide one, groups of ornamental trees, of low growth, may be planted in the background, especially on the northern and western quarters, which will greatly protect the plants from cold winds, particularly if they be evergreens. . . .
:“Masses of annuals may be so arranged as to make a grand display in the common [[flower-garden]]. We have seen the walks of an extensive [[flower-garden]] deeply [[edging|edged]] with a wide '''border''' of crimson and scarlet Portulaccas; and, throughout the whole garden, all the annuals, and other plants, in fact, were planted in masses. We have never seen a better managed garden than this one. It contained about an acre of ground. Not more than twenty or thirty kinds of annuals were cultivated in the garden, and of this class of plants more than one half of the ground was filled. They consisted of every variety of Double Balsams, German Asters, Drummond Phlox, Coreopsis, Amaranths, Verbenas, Portulaccas, Double China Pinks, Petunias, Mignionette, Cockscombs, Gilliflowers, &c.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1055.jpg|[[Michael van der Gucht]], “Four Designs for Cloisters,” in A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. 9.

File:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century.

File:0095.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of Mr. Derby[’s] Land,” 1800. “Plantation of Shrubs to be faced with a three foot Border of Flowers.”

File:0166.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower beds at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “Oval beds of flowering shrubs” [written on reverse].

File:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819), p. 33, pl. 1. “The Hot-bed Ground, No. 1.”

File:1312.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Moveable edgings: basket edging and the earthenware border, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 296, figs. 219 and 220.

File:1346.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a flower garden with irregular borders, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 791, fig. 540.

File:0935.jpg|[[Alexander Walsh]], “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308.

File:1050.jpg|[[Richard Dolben]], “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847.

File:1097.jpg|[[Thomas S. Sinclair]], “Plan of the [[Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): pl. opp. 280.

File:0393.jpg|Anonymous, “English Flower-Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 434, fig. 78.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353. “The “borders” are “under the vines, E.”

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0073.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of serpentine walk and flower beds at Monticello, May 23, 1808.

File:0775.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground plot of a cottage, in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1849), vol 1, pl. 23.

File:0777.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot of 4-1/4 Acres,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. “[G]rape arbor, G.”

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1024.jpg|David J. Kennedy, ''The Cliffs, the country residence of Dr. Benjamin Say at Grays Ferry'', n.d.

File:1191.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of an unidentified garden, 18th century.

File:1192.jpg|Anonymous, Garden plan, 18th century.

File:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

File:0003.jpg|[[William Dering]], attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748–50.

File:0253.jpg|John Durand, ''Two Little Boys in a Garden'', c. 1765

File:0065.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West Prospect of the Seat of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth'', NH, 1774.

File:0256.jpg|The Beardsley Limner, ''Mrs. Hezekiah Beardsley (Elizabeth Davis)'', c. 1788–90.

File:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

File:0254.jpg|Reuben Moulthrop, ''Mrs. Daniel Truman and Child'', c. 1798–1810.

File:0226.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The Seat of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

File:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800–20.

File:0173.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel from the Bannister house, c. 1800–20.

File:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

File:0195.jpg|[[Francis Guy]], ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

File:0125.jpg|[[Mary Antrim]], Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812.

File:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''View of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

File:0404.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.

File:0006.jpg|Harriet De (?), ''The Duck Pond'', c. 1820.

File:1454.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Vale'', 1820–30.

File:1348.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plans of the surfaces of flower gardens, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 793, figs. 543 and 544.

File:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanical Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828. On the right of this plan, alleys are straight walk-ways that have been defined by plantings of several kinds of fruit trees (“L” through “P”).

File:0464.jpg|[[Nicolino Calyo]], ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

File:0114.jpg|Rubens Peale, ''Old Museum'', 1858–60.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Boundaries]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Bridge

2019-06-17T16:24:57Z

A-brey: linking M'Mahon

==History==

[[File:0849.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud.[son] riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.]]
[[File:1454.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, ''The Vale'', 1820–30.]]

Bridges had many applications beyond the bounds of the garden. The term bridge referred to structures that carried pedestrians, carriage, and rail traffic over obstacles such as water and ravines. In the context of the garden, however, bridges also took on ornamental roles, and their construction was dictated by aesthetics as well as load-bearing requirements.

Bridges were built by the earliest settlers along main transportation routes. It is not until the second half of the 18th century, a period of sharp increase in the construction of elaborate landscape gardens, that there is evidence of bridges constructed specifically for garden settings. Treatises such as William and John Halfpenny’s ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755) and [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. Loudon's]] ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826) demonstrate a wide variety of designs, styles, and materials used for bridges. Most American examples of garden bridges, however, appear to have followed relatively simple designs built of wood and stone.

[[File:0037.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772.]]

Garden bridges were built over waterways both natural, as with the [[cascade]] at Blithewood on the Hudson River [Fig. 1], and artificial, as at the Vale in Waltham, Massachusetts [Fig. 2]. At the garden of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it was said that a [[pond]] was created “as an apology for the bridge.” While water was the most common obstacle crossed, bridges were used also to span roads or depressions, such as fosses or ditches. Around 1804, [[Thomas Jefferson]] proposed a bridge to connect the [[park]] grounds of his estate, which lay on either side of a public road.

Bridges also were used as focal points and as viewing platforms. At [[Gray’s Garden]] in Philadelphia and William Paca’s garden in Annapolis, a bridge was used to signal movement from one part of a garden to another. In Paca’s garden, the bridge has been reconstructed using a combination of archaeological findings and [[Charles Willson Peale|Charles Willson Peale's]] portrait of Paca [Fig. 3]. Crossing the fish-shaped [[pond]], the bridge marks the transition between the regular geometric form of the [[parterre]]s and the relative naturalism of the [[wilderness]] at the base of the garden.

[[File:1021.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Charles B. Lawrence, ''Point Breeze'', c. 1820.]]

[[File:0276.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Ralph Earl, ''Landscape View of the Canfield House'', c. 1796.]]

The artistic convention of using a bridge to demarcate various zones in a landscape painting, a practice that can be traced back to 17th-century painters, explains the prominence of bridges in paintings of estate gardens. This compositional technique is particularly apparent in the work of artists who sought to model themselves after the pastoral painting traditions of Poussin, Claude, and the Carracci. A case in point is Charles B. Lawrence’s painting of the Bordentown, New Jersey, estate Point Breeze [Fig. 4], in which the artist used a bridge to define the middle ground between the Delaware River in the foreground and the distant prospect of the house. In his painting of Canfield House [Fig. 5], in Sharon, Connecticut, Ralph Earl took painterly poetic license by using a bridge to frame his [[view]] of the house, echo the line of the road, and lead the viewer to examine the wider landscape.<ref>Elizabeth Mankin Kornhauser, ''Ralph Earl: The Face of the Young Republic'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 208, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2PEFTR2P view on Zotero].</ref> 18th-century treatise writer Thomas Whately, a strong advocate of modeling designed landscapes after paintings, suggested using a ruined bridge in “wild and romantic scenes” as a [[picturesque]] object that would lend “antiquity to the passage.” His advice was repeated by later writers such as George William Johnson in ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847) who recommended bridges as a means to create the illusion that a pond was a river or [[lake]], visually amplifying the extent of the property.

[[File:1743.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, William and John Halfpenny, “A Single Truss’d Bridge in the Chinese Taste,” in ''Rural architecture in the Chinese taste'' (1755), pl. 27.]]

Although American garden bridges were generally simpler than many of the designs included in garden and architectural treatises, a clear change in style occurred through time. In the eighteenth century, bridges such as those described in [[Gray’s Garden]] in 1790 displayed the fashion for the exotic allure of China. William and John Halfpenny (1755) and [[Bernard M’Mahon]] (1806) articulated the “romantic and pleasing effect” of [[Chinese_manner|Chinese-style]] garden elements. The Halfpennys’ ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' included numerous designs for bridges, including a plan of a single-trussed timber bridge [Fig. 6] that strikingly resembles the bridge in the Paca portrait. In the 19th century, rustic bridges, such as those described by [[A. J. Downing]] (1847), became popular. Builders often used materials that appeared to be natural. For instance, the irregularly shaped branches with their original bark and the rugged stone used at Mr. V.’s residence in [[Hallowell, Maine]], were described by [[Timothy Dwight]] (1796) as resulting from an “accident, rather than the effect of human labour.” Such rustic bridges were in keeping with the irregular and naturalistic qualities associated with the [[picturesque]], and were particularly recommended for moving water and smaller streams. Johnson’s passage of 1847 argued for the suitability of a bridge’s scale, design, and materials to its setting. A bridge, he wrote, is “not a mere appendage to a river, but a kind of property which denotes its character.”

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . this [[avenue|[avenue]]], as well as all the smaller [[avenue]]s, alike produces us in the [[wilderness]], into which we enter, passing over a neat chinese '''bridge''', preparing with much pleasure to penetrate a recess so charming. It is indeed a [[wilderness]] of sweets, and the [[view]]s instantly become romantically enchanting, the scene is every moment changing. Now, side long bends the path; then, pursues its winding way; now, in a straight line; then, in a pleasing [[labyrinth]] is lost, until, in every possible direction, it breaketh upon us, amid thick [[grove]]s of pines, walnuts, chestnuts, mulberries, &c. &c. we seem to ramble, while at the same time, we are surprized [''sic''] by [[border]]s of the richest, and most highly cultivated flowers, in the greatest variety, which even from a royal [[parterre]] we might be led to expect.”

*[[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing the residence of Mr. V., [[Hallowell, ME]] (1821: 2:219)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels; in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: T. Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Behind the garden is a . . . small mill stream. . . . On either side, the banks, which are of considerable height, and sometimes steep, formed of rude forested grounds, and moss-grown rocks, are left absolutely in the state of nature. Along the brook Mr. V. has made a convenient foot-way, rather appearing to have been trodden out by the feet of wild animals, than to have been contrived by man, and winding over a succession of stone bridges, so rude and inartificial, as to seem the result of accident, rather than the effect of human labour.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing the improvements of [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection)

:“The north side of [[Monticello]] . . . and all Montalto above the thoroughfare to be converted into park & riding grounds, connected at the thoroughfare by a '''bridge''', open, under which the public road may be made to pass so as not to cut off the communication between the lower & upper park grounds.”

*Ripley, Samuel, 1815, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1815: 272)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January 1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Through the [[lawn]], in front of the mansion house, which is large and handsome, runs Beaver Brook, which it there formed into a serpentine [[canal]], and over which is erected a '''bridge''' of three arches, made of the Chelmsford white stone, which is both an ornament to the place, and a specimen of correct taste and workmanship.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, in a letter to his wife, Frances F. Bryant, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“He took me to the seat of Mr. Lyman. . . . It is a perfect paradise. . . . In front of the house, to the south was an artificial piece of water winding about and widening into a [[lake]], with a little island of pines in it, an elegant '''bridge''' crossing it, and swans swimming on the surface.”

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, “On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens” (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, “On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens,” ''New England Farmer'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier] by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and [[picturesque]] gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic '''Bridges''', Dutch, Chinese, Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to.”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of Dr. [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This [[avenue]] to the mansion is over a stone '''bridge''', crossing a rapid stream precipitated from the milldams above, and falls in a [[cascade]] below. The winding of the road, the varied surface of the ground, the '''bridge''', and the falling of the water, continually vary the [[prospect]] and render it a never tiring scene.”

[[File:1035.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 7, Anonymous, “Garden Pond,” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), p. 85.]]
*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 80)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the centre [of the upper garden [[pond]]] an island has been formed, having a path on the margin, which is connected with the [[avenue]] on the western side by a '''bridge''' twenty-four feet in length, neatly railed and painted; and another '''bridge''' of like form and extent thrown over the outlet, which affords a communication with the [[Cemetery]] ground by the way of the Indian Ridge Path.” [Fig. 7]

*Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt, 1839, describing Point Breeze, estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, NJ (quoted in Weber 1854: 186)<ref>Constance Weber, “A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte,” in ''Godey’s Lady’s Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several rustic '''bridges''' are erected.” [See Fig. 4]

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Bedford, PA (1843: 185–86)<ref>Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Near this town are the celebrated Bedford Springs, the water of which has been found to have a beneficial effect in many complaints. . . . The buildings for the accommodation of strangers are large and commodious; the grounds about the springs are tastefully ornamented with neat '''bridges''', railings and gravel [[walk]]s; and few places of the kind present more agreeable attractions to the invalid, the citizen, or the traveller.”

*Longfellow, Alexander W., January 1844, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were very busy planning the grounds & I laid out a linden avenue for the Professor’s private [[walk]]. I was often reminded of your fancy for such things. . . . The house is to be repaired but not essentially altered, the old out buildings to be removed, trees planted a [[pond]], & rustic '''bridge''', created the [[pond]] is an apology for the '''bridge'''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 49)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“He takes another path, passes by an airy looking rustic '''bridge''', and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]].”

*Notman, John, 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 143)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Five '''bridges''' are necessary on the whole route. These may be readily and simply constructed of the trunks of the white oaks that have been cut down, laid on abutments of dry stone walling on each side of the runs or brooks, built without mortar; the granite on the ground might be easily quarried to serve the purpose; a simple rustic railing made of the branches of the trees cut down (with the bark on) placed on each side, will be in better keeping with the place and purpose than the most expensive railing planed and painted.”

===Citations===

[[File:1780.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 8, William and John Halfpenny, “A Single Truss’d Bridge in the Chinese Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 25. 1755]]
*Halfpenny, William and John, 1755, ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755: 7)<ref>William Halfpenny and John Halfpenny, ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (Bronx, NY, and London: Benjamin Blom, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9JKMEXVU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Represents the Plan of a single truss’d Timber '''Bridge''', whose Span is 30 Feet and Width in the Clear 9 Feet. The Posts tend to the Center of the Curve, and the Floor of the '''Bridge''', with the Rails, &c. answerable thereto; for the Length and Scantling of the Timbers see the Scale. This '''Bridge''' contains 380 Cube Feet of Timber.” [Fig. 8]

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:561)<ref>Anonymous, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“‘IV. The '''BRIDGE''' should never be seen where it is not wanted: a useless bridge is a deception; deceptions are frauds; and fraud is always hateful, unless when practised to avert some greater evil. A bridge without water is an absurdity; and half an one stuck up as an eye-trap is a paltry trick, which, though it may strike the stranger, cannot fail of disgusting when the fraud is found out. . . .
:“In the construction of '''bridges''' also, regard must be had to ornament and utility. A '''bridge''' is an artificial production, and as such it ought to appear. It ranks among the noblest of human inventions; the ship and the fortress alone excel it. Simplicity and firmness are the leading principles in its construction.’ ''Practical Treatise on Planting and Gardening p. 593 &c.''”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 6)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The same reasoning induced me to prefer at STOKE POGIES a bridge of more [[arch]]es than one over a river which is the work of art, whilst in natural rivers a single arch is often preferable, because in the latter we wish to increase the magnitude of the '''bridge''', whilst in the former we endeavour to give importance to the artificial river.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 61, 65)<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . if it [water] should be continued to any considerable length, one or more ornamental Chinese '''bridges''', may be carried over it at convenient places, which will have a beautiful effect, and serve for communication with the opposite divisions, on each side of the rivulet. . . .
:“Ornamental '''bridges''' over artificial rivers, or any rural piece of water in some magnificent opening, so as to admit of a [[prospect]] thereof, at some distance from the habitation, have charming effects. . . .
:“It being absolutely necessary to have the whole of the [[Pleasure ground|pleasure ground]] surrounded with a good [[fence]] of some kind, as a defence against cattle, &c. a foss being a kind of concealed [[fence]], will answer that purpose where it can conveniently be made, without interrupting the view of such neighbouring parts as are beautified by art or nature, and at the same time affect an appearance that these are only a continuation of the [[pleasure-ground]]. Over the foss in various parts may be made Chinese and other curious and fanciful '''bridges''', which will have a romantic and pleasing effect.”

[[File:1328.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 9, [[J. C. Loudon]], "The Swiss bridge," in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 350, fig. 312.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 348, 350–51)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
[[File:1329.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 10, [[J. C. Loudon]], "The Swiss bridge," in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 351, fig. 313.]]
:“1769. ''Useful decorations'' are such as while they serve as ornaments, or to heighten the effect of a scene, are also applied to some real use, as in the case of cottages and '''bridges'''. They are the class of decorative buildings most general and least liable to objection. . . .
:“1782. ''The '''bridge''''' is one of the grandest decorations of garden-scenery, where really useful. None require so little architectural elaboration, because every mind recognises the object in [[view]], and most minds are pleased with the means employed to attain that object in proportion to their simplicity. There are an immense variety of '''bridges''', which may be classed according to the mechanical principles of their structure; the style of architecture, or the materials used. . . .
:“1783. ''The fallen tree'' is the original form, and may sometimes be admitted in garden-scenery, with such additions as will render it safe, and somewhat commodious.
:“1784. ''The foot-plank'' is the next form, and may or may not be supported in the middle, or at different distances by posts.
:“1785. ''The Swiss '''bridge''''' . . . is a rude composition of trees unbarked, and not hewn or polished. . . . [Figs. 9 and 10]
:“1787. ''A very light and strong '''bridge''''' may be formed by screwing together thin boards in the form of a segment, or by screwing together a system of triangles of timber. . . .
:“1788. '''''Bridges''' of common carpentry'' . . . admit of every variety of form, and either of rustic workmanship or with unpolished materials, or of polished timber alone, or of dressed timber and abutments of masonry.
:“1789. '''''Bridges''' of masonry'' . . . may either have raised or flat roads; but in all cases those are the most beautiful (because most consistent with utility) in which the road on the arch rises as little above the level of the road on the shores as possible . . . .
:“1790. ''Cast-iron '''bridges''''' are necessarily curved; but that curvature, and the lines which enter into the architecture of their rails, may be varied according to taste or local indications.”

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, “On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens” (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, “On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens,” ''New England Farmer'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A few fabrics, rustic '''bridges''', [[hermitage]]s, a [[Temple]], or a Chinese Kiosk or Pagoda, not expensive in their execution, would advantageously complete the embellishment of a country [[seat]].”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“BRIDGE, ''n''. [Sax. ''bric'', ''brieg'', ''brigg'', or ''brye'', ''bryeg''; Dan. ''broe''; Sw. ''bryggia'', ''bro''; D. ''brug''; Ger. ''brücke''; Prus. ''brigge''.]
:“1. Any structure of wood, stone, brick, or iron, raised over a river, [[pond]], or [[lake]], for the passage of men and other animals. Among rude nations, '''bridges''' are sometimes formed of other materials; and sometimes they are formed of boats, or logs of wood lying on the water, fastened together, covered with planks, and called floating '''bridges'''. A '''bridge''' over a marsh is made of logs or other materials laid upon the surface of the earth. . . . ''Encyc''.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Foot '''bridges''' are always pleasing where there are streams.”

*Sayers, Edward, November 1, 1837, “On Laying out Gardens and Ornamental Plantations” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 410)<ref>Edward Sayers, “On Laying out Gardens and Ornamental Plantations,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (November 1, 1837): 409–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KQDKZWXV/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A well-contrived '''bridge''' over a stream of water gives the same impression of improvement by a better communication from one part of the ground to the other.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 99)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BRIDGES''' are inconsistent with the nature of a [[lake]], but characteristic of a river; they are on that account used in [[landscape gardening]] to disguise a termination; but the deception has been so often practised, that it no longer deceives, and a bolder aim at the same effect will now be more successful. If the end can be turned just out of sight, a '''bridge''' at some distance raises a belief, while the water beyond it removes every doubt, of the continuation of the river; the supposition immediately occurs, that if a disguise had been intended, the '''bridge''' would have been placed further back, and the disregard thus shown to one deception gains credit for the other.
:“As a '''bridge''' is not a mere appendage to a river, but a kind of property which denotes its character, the connexion between them must be attended to; from the want of it, the single wooden [[arch]] once much in fashion, seemed generally misplaced; elevated without occasion so much above it, it was totally detached from the river; and often seen straddling in the air, without a glimpse of the water to account for it, and the ostentation of it as an ornamental object diverted all that train of ideas which its use as a communication might suggest. The vastness of Walton '''Bridge''' cannot without affectation be mimicked in a garden where the magnificent idea of inducting the Thames under one [[arch]] is wanting; and where the structure itself, reduced to a narrow scale, retains no pretension to greatness. Unless the situation make such a height necessary, or the point of view be greatly above it, or wood or rising ground instead of sky behind it fill up the vacancy of the [[arch]], it seems an effort without a cause, forced and preposterous.
:“The vulgar foot'''bridge''' of planks, only guarded on one hand by a common rail, and supported by a few ordinary piles, is often more proper. It is perfect as a communication, because it pretends to nothing further, it is the utmost simplicity of cultivated nature; and if the banks from which it starts be of a moderate height, its elevation preserves it from meanness.
:“No other species so effectually characterizes a river; it seems too plain for an ornament, too obscure for a disguise; it must be for use, it can be a passage only; it is therefore spoiled if adorned, it is disfigured if only painted of any other than a dusky colour. But being thus incapable of all decoration and importance, it is often too humble for a great, and too simple for an elegant scene. A stone '''bridge''' is generally more suitable to either, but in that also an extraordinary elevation compensates for the distance at which it leaves the water below.
:“A gentle rise and easy sweep more closely preserve the relation; a certain degree of union should also be formed between the banks and the '''bridge''', that it may seem to rise out of the banks, not barely to be imposed upon them; it ought not generally to swell much above their level, the parapet wall should be brought down near to the ground, or end against some swell, and the size and the uniformity of the abutments should be broken by hillocks or thickets about them; every expedient should be used to mark the connexion of the building, both with the ground from which it starts, and the water which it crosses.
:“In wild and romantic scenes may be introduced a ruined stone '''bridge''', of which some [[arch]]es may be still standing, and the loss of those which are fallen may be supplied by a few planks, with a rail thrown over the vacancy. It is a [[picturesque]] object, it suits the situation and the antiquity of the passage; the care taken to keep it still open, though the original building is decayed, the apparent necessity which thence results for a communication, give it an imposing air of reality.— Whateley.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 26)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The rich gentleman may have his broad domain finely diversified with [[wood]] lots, open fields, deep ravines, creeks, [[cataract]]s, [[canal]]s, [[rock work]]s, fancy or rustic '''bridges''', etc.; and the wide extended [[lawn]], with its dark green sod, which surrounds his mansion, may be beautifully interspersed with winding [[walk]]s and deciduous and evergreen trees.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0883.jpg|Edward Crisp (surveyor), James Akins (engraver), ''A Plan of Charles-Town'', 1704 [1969].

File:1743.jpg|William and John Halfpenny, “A Single Truss’d Bridge in the Chinese Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 27.

File:1780.jpg|William and John Halfpenny, “A Single Truss’d Bridge in the Chinese Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 25.

File:0460.jpg|[[Charles Varlé]], ''Project for the Improvement of the Square and the Town of Bath'' [detail], 1809.

File:1157.jpg|[[Jacques-Gerard Milbert]] (artist), Formentin (printer of plates), ''State of New-York. Mc.Comb’s Bridge Avenue'', c. 1819.

File:1328.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The Swiss bridge,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 350, fig. 312.

File:1329.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "The Swiss bridge,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 351, fig. 313.

File:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “Plan of the [[national Mall|Mall]],” 1841.

File:0400.jpg|Anonymous, “A rustic bridge,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 461, fig. 89.

File:0352.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Suspension bridge across the Canal'' [proposed], 1851.

File:0585.jpg|Lewis Miller, “The Ruin of Colonel Anderson House,” in ''Sketchbook of Landscapes in the State of Virginia'' (1853).

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

File:1021.jpg|Charles B. Lawrence, ''Point Breeze'', c. 1820.

File:1035.jpg|Anonymous, “Garden Pond,” in ''The Picturesque Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), p. 85.

File:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.

File:1135.jpg|John Notman, ''Plan of Hollywood Cemetery'', 1848.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0037.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772.

File:2097.jpg|James Trenchard after Charles Willson Peale, “An East View of Gray's Ferry, on the River Schuylkill,” in ''Columbian Magazine'' 1 (August 1787): pl. opp. p. 565.

File:0451.jpg|The Denison Limner (Probably Joseph Steward), ''Mrs. Elizabeth Noyes Denison'', c. 1790.

File:0276.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Landscape View of the Canfield House'', c. 1796.

File:0123.jpg|[[Rebecca Couch]], ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

File:0302.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], "Fountain Green Pennsylv.a the Seat of M.r S. Meeker," ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 8.

File:2102.jpg|Pavel Petrovich Svinin, ''The Upper Bridge over the Schuylkill, Philadelphia—Lemon Hill in the Background'', c. 1811–13.

File:1464.jpg|[[Joseph Jacques Ramée]], Plan of Union College, 1813.

File:0020.jpg|[[Janika de Fériet]], ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

File:0416.jpg|[[Joseph Jacques Ramée]] (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), “View of Union College in the City of Schenectady,” c. 1820.

File:1454.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Vale'', 1820–30.

File:2030.jpg|Thomas Kelah Wharton, ''Bridge over Crumelbow Creek, David Hosack Estate, Hyde Park, New York'', c. 1832.

File:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

File:0850.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson'', 1840.

File:0849.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud.[son] riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.

File:1194.jpg|W. & F. Langenheim, ''Gray's Ferry'', 1850.

File:1232.jpg|Orsamus Turner, Life Cycle of a Pioneer Woodsman (“Third Sketch of the Pioneer”), in ''Pioneer History of the Holland Purchase'' (1850), opp. p. 565.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon’s Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), p. 10. fig. 5.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]
[[Category: Garden Ornaments/Embellishments]]
[[Category: Water Features]]

Eminence

2019-06-17T16:23:41Z

A-brey: /* Citations */ linking M'Mahon

==History==

[[File:0550.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.]]
The term eminence, indicating an elevated rise or hill, functioned in landscape design as a site for monuments, dwellings, and other structures, and as a topographic feature in the landscape. While the terms [[mound]] and [[mount]] were also used to describe a raised portion of a garden, an eminence generally denoted a natural feature that was larger in scale.

[[File:0260.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 2, Joseph Steward, ''The Reverend Eleazar Wheelock (1711–1779), 1st President of Dartmouth College (1769–1779)'', 1793–1796.]]
As a building platform for a dwelling or a garden structure, an eminence created the opportunity to [[view]] the surrounding landscape from the garden. This raised feature also enhanced the prominence of any structure on it, thus making it visible from a distance (see [[Prospect]] and [[View]]). Both effects were noted by visitors to [[Mount Vernon]], which William Russell Birch in 1808 described as “founded upon a rocky eminence, a digniﬁed height on the Potomac” [Fig. 1]. Garden structures, such as the tower (proposed in 1831) at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the rustic [[pavilion]] recommended by [[A. J. Downing]] (1848), and the fanciful building depicted in the 1790s by Joseph Steward at Dartmouth College [Fig. 2], were placed on eminences to provide a retreat in which to enjoy the [[prospect]].

In addition to their enhanced visual and, by extension, social status, properties built on eminences were more easily defensible in America’s frontier settings and took advantage of cooling breezes in warmer climates. Structures on eminences also offered visual command of an estate, as noted in the 1817 advertisement of a farm in Culpeper County, Virginia. Such surveillance was a vital part of maintaining the [[plantation]] labor system of large slave populations. In urban settings, town planners sited key monuments on eminences, making them focal points in the townscape and thus accentuating [[seat]]s of power. For example, Francis Nicholson in 1694 placed the Anglican church and the colonial Capitol on eminences in his town plan of Annapolis, Maryland, and [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|Pierre-Charles L’Enfant's]] plan for Washington, DC, was predicated upon an elevated setting for the capitol building.

[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]

As a topographical landscape feature, the eminence served as a focal point, a viewing platform, and a backdrop, like the “parklike eminences” in Cincinnati, Ohio, described by Harriet Martineau in 1835. At Mount Auburn Cemetery, the eminence rising 125 feet above the Charles River was described in 1831 by H. A. S. Dearborn as “a prominent and imposing feature in the landscape, of which it becomes the centre.” An eminence, such as the one described by the Rev. Manasseh Cutler at Gray’s Tavern in Philadelphia in 1787, also offered a gradual [[slope]] against which to plant a variety of ﬂowers and [[shrub]]s. An eminence was also signiﬁcant in American gardens for establishing the relationship of the garden to the surrounding landscape and for capitalizing on [[view]]s of broad rivers, valleys, and other features of the “New World” setting. Sites on riverbank eminences, such as that at Fairmount Park in Philadelphia depicted in 1838, were particularly valued for their [[view]]s of water [Fig. 3].

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*[[Cutler, Manasseh]], June 30, 1787, describing the estate of Charles Wyllys Elliott, near Hartford, CT (1987: 1:211)<ref name="Cutler">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I also called on my classmate, Colonel Hezekiah Wyllys. He lives with his father, Colonel Wyllys, the Secretary of the State, in an elegant [[seat]] just outside the city, situated on a high '''eminence''' which overlooks the city and commands a most enchanting [[prospect]] of the river, meandering through rich [[meadow]]s and fertile ﬁelds, for ten or ﬁfteen miles. The landscape from this [[seat]] far exceeds any I have ever seen in any part of the country.”

*[[Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing Gray’s Tavern, Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:276)<ref name="Cutler"></ref>

:“We at length came to a considerable '''eminence''', which was adorned with an inﬁnite variety of [[bed]]s of ﬂowers and artiﬁcial [[grove]]s of ﬂowering [[shrub]]s.”

*Enys, Lt. John, February 12, 1788, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Cometti, ed., 1976: 246)<ref>Elizabeth Cometti, ed., ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From hence is one of the most delightfull [[Prospect]]s I ever beheld. It had the Command of a [[View]] each way of some Miles up and down the River
: Potowmack whch [''sic''] is here about two Miles broad On which during the Summer there are constantly ships moving. The Hills arrownd it are coverd with [[plantation]]s some of which have Elegant houses standing on them all of which being situated on '''Eminences''' form very beautifull Objects for each other.”

*Anonymous, October 2, 1798, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Spotsylvania County, VA (Colonial Williambsurg Foundation)

:“The improvements on it are, a comfortable dwelling house, with all necessary out houses, situated on a beautiful '''eminence''', commanding a [[view]] of the greater part of the lower ground.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1799, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: B3)<ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” (paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“You pass the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] at Gray’s-Ferry, the road to which runs below [[The Woodlands|Woodlands]], the seat of Mr. [[William Hamilton]]: it stands high, and is seen upon an '''eminence''' from the opposite side of the river.”

*Anonymous, March 27, 1803, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland, VA (Colonial Williambsurg Foundation)

:“FOR SALE, the Tract of Land, whereon I reside . . . stand on an '''eminence''', commanding a beautiful and extensive [[view]] of the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers.”

*Birch, William Russell, 1808, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America'' (n.p.)<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, PA: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[MOUNT VERNON]],
:“This hallowed mansion is founded upon a rocky '''eminence''', a digniﬁed height on the Potomac. . . . The additions of a [[piazza]] to the water front, and of a drawing room, are proofs of the legitimacy of the General’s taste.”

*Anonymous, December 24, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Culpeper County, VA (Colonial Williambsurg Foundation)

:“For sale . . . the dwelling house stands on an '''eminence''', having in [[view]] the whole farm.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, in a letter to his wife, Frances F. Bryant, describing the [[Vale]], estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108–9)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“He took me to the seat of Mr. Lyman. . . . It is a perfect paradise. . . . A hard rolled walk, by the side of a brick [[wall]] . . . led us to a [[grove]] of young forest trees on the top of [an] '''eminence''' in the midst of which was a Chinese [[temple]].”

[[File:1994.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824–26.]]
*Sheldon, John P., 10 December 1825, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 5)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson, “The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'', 84 (1988), 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The celebrated works on the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]], by which the water of the river is raised to the top of an '''eminence''' which is elevated far above any house in the city, are beyond all praise.” [Fig. 4]

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Baltimore, MD, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'' (1832: 1:290)<ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1932), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MBMCV4N6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The noble column erected to the memory of Washington, and the Catholic Cathedral, with its beautiful dome, being built on a commanding '''eminence''', are seen at a great distance.”

*[[Dearborn, H. A. S.]], September 30, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 46)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It has been ascertained that the most lofty '''eminence''' is one hundred and twenty-ﬁve feet above Charles river, which gracefully sweeps round its gently sloping base; and, when crowned by the proposed tower, will become a most interesting place of resort, as commanding an extensive panoramic [[view]] of that richly variegated region of magniﬁcent scenery, embraced within the far distant heights which encircle the metropolis, and the waves of the ocean, while it will present a prominent and imposing feature in the landscape, of which it becomes the centre.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing a garden in Cincinnati, OH, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'' (1838: 2:51)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KEG83GHS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The proprietor has a passion for gardening, and his ruling taste seems likely to be a blessing to the city. He employs four gardeners, and toils in his grounds with his own hands. His garden is on a [[terrace]] which overlooks the [[canal]], and the most parklike '''eminences''' form the background of the [[view]]. Between the garden and the hills extend his vineyards, from the produce of which he has succeeded in making twelve kinds of wine, some of which are highly praised by good judges.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the U.S. Capitol, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 4 (April 1842): 121–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''The Grounds of the Capitol'', which should judge contain about twenty acres, are situated upon an '''eminence''' which commands a ﬁne [[view]] of the surrounding country, and are laid out with broad [[avenue]]s of various widths, which intersect one another, and lead to the steps of the Capitol.”

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Harrisburg, PA, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (1843: 232)<ref>Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The public buildings belonging to the State occupy a commanding position on an '''eminence''' in the northern part of the town.”

[[File:1970.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, James Smillie and E.G. Dunnel (engraver), “View from Mount Auburn, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 112.]]
*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847: 112)<ref>Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated: In Highly Finished Line Engraving, from Drawings Taken on the Spot/by James Smillie/With Descriptive Notices, by Nehemiah Cleaveland'' (New York: R. Martin, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JXFI68UM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE highest '''eminence''' of the [[cemetery]] ground is denominated ''Mount'' Auburn; and from this elevation the [[view]] has been drawn which appears in the present work. In the summer-season, when the thick trees have put on their full array, and appear in all their beauty, the panorama is nearly lost to the [[view]] of the spectator; but in the autumn of the year, a scene is presented from this high land, which is worthy of the poet or the painter.” [Fig. 5]

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1850: 331)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“849. ''Monticello'', the seat of Jefferson, is situated on the summit of an '''eminence''' commanding extensive [[prospect]]s on all sides.”

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston,” describing Oakley Place, seat of William Pratt, Boston, MA (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The mansion house is approached by a noble [[avenue]] of trees, and stands on the brow of an '''eminence''' overlooking the whole country around.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing the residence of Edward Shippen, Philadelphia, PA, ''Annals of Philadelphia'' (1857: 1:368)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It was for many years after its construction beautifully situated, and surrounded with rural beauty, being originally on a small '''eminence''', with a row of tall yellow pines in its rear, a full orchard of best fruit trees close by, overlooking the rising city beyond the Dock creek, and having on its front [[view]] a beautiful green [[lawn]], gently sloping to the then pleasant Dock creek and Drawbridge, and the whole [[prospect]] unobstructed to the Delaware and the Jersey shore.”

===Citations===

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''E’MINENCE'''. ''n.s.'' [''eminentia'', Latin.]
:“E’MINENCY.
:“1. Loftiness; height. . . .
:“4. A place where one is exposed to general notice.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 59)<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year. . . . '' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In other parts are sometimes discovered '''eminences''', or rising grounds, as a high [[terrace]], [[mount]], steep declivity, or other '''eminence''', ornamented with curious trees and [[shrub]]s, with [[walk]]s leading under the shade of trees, by easy ascents to the summit, where is presented to the [[view]], an extensive [[prospect]] of the adjacent ﬁelds, buildings, hamlets, and country around, and likewise affording a fresh and cooling air in summer.”

*Parmentier, André, 1828, “The Art of Landscape Gardening” (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 186)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ''The New American Gardener'' (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“If the house is placed on an '''eminence''' or side-hill, the [[prospect]] will be much more beautiful if you can enjoy the [[view]] of water.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''EM’INENCE, EM’INENCY'', ''n''. [L. ''eminentia'', from ''eminens'', ''emineo'', to stand or show itself above; ''e'' and ''minor'', to threaten, that is, to stand or push forward. . . .]
:“1. Elevation, highth [''sic''], in a literal sense; but usually, a rising ground; a hill of moderate elevation above the adjacent ground.
:“The [[temple]] of honor ought to be seated on an '''''eminence'''. Burke.''”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 412)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1,1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In forming ascents to rising grounds, where [[prospect]]s are to be enjoyed, there is some art required to make the attainment of the elevation easy; this is done by cutting low steps at considerable intervals, say ten or twenty feet, according to the nature of the ground. . . . Such paths to '''eminences''' are preferable when they wind round and gradually reach the summit.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129–30)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Architectural and other ornaments may be introduced, according to the means of the proprietor. When properly distributed they add much to the effect. [[Seat]]s and [[arbor]]s should be placed at points affording interesting [[view]]s, [[alcove]]s and rotundas on '''eminences''', and [[hermitage]]s in secluded places. . . .
:“If it [the house] is situated on an '''eminence''', the back as well as front [[view]] may be exhibited to great advantage, and the effect will be heightened if a [[view]] of water can be then enjoyed. Limited [[prospect]]s and neighboring buildings not worthy of notice, may be concealed by [[plantation]]s of trees. The appearance of distance may be increased by planting trees of dark green and large dense foliage on the foreground, and those of light and airy foliage in the distance; this will produce the same effect as shades in a landscape picture.”

*Watterston, George, May 1844, “Landscape Gardening” (''Southern Literary Messenger'' 10: 310)<ref>George Watterston, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Southern Literary Messenger'' 10 (May) (1844), 306–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3F6PUXVE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Repton conceives that the difference between painting and gardening consists in the following particulars:
:“‘''Thirdly''. The [[view]] from an '''eminence''' down a steep hill is not to be represented in painting, although it is often one of the most pleasing circumstances of natural landscape.’”

[[File:1810.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “An octagonal Rustic Pavilion for an eminence,” one of four “Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 2.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1848, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 364)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“As a contribution to the stock of ideas of the novice in [[rustic style|rustic work]], we have offered a few sketches in our Frontispiece of this month—all of which may be improved upon by the adept in [[rustic style|rustic]] buildings.
:“''Fig''. 2, is an octagonal [[rustic style|RUSTIC]] [[PAVILION]] for an '''eminence'''.” [Fig. 6]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the Ancient Chunky-Yard,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'' 3, part 1 (1853): 52, fig. 2.

File:0314.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Mount Vernon, Virginia, the Seat of the late Genl. G. Washington,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), 55, pl. 7.

File:1810.jpg|Anonymous, “An octagonal Rustic Pavilion for an eminence,” one of four “Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 2.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from A Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

File:1994.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824-26.

File:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

File:0550.jpg|[[Victor de Grailly]], ''The Tomb at Mount Vernon'', c. 1840–50.

File:1080.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “Lawn-Girt Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 61.

File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, “A Rustic Alcove,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25.

File:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

File:1970.jpg|James Smillie and E.G. Dunnel (engraver), “View from Mount Auburn, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr. 1850), opp. 112.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0260.jpg|Joseph Steward, ''The Reverend Eleazar Wheelock (1711–1779), 1st President of Dartmouth College (1769–1779)'', 1793–96.

File:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with Terraces, 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), 80.

File:0043.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''Lemon Hill'', 1807.

File:0325.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Sweet Briar'', c. 1808

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon’s Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), 10. fig. 5.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]
[[Category: Vision]]

Bed

2019-06-17T16:09:20Z

A-brey: Added links to Bernard M'Mahon

See also: [[Border]], [[Flower garden]], [[Nursery]], [[Parterre]]

==History==

[[File:0016.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. “Asparagus bed” near the top of the plan.]]
Definitions of bed, ranging from [[Ephraim Chambers|Ephraim Chambers's]] ''Cyclopaedia'' entry of 1741 to George William Johnson’s discussion of 1847, indicate that the word generally referred to, as the latter wrote, “the site on which any cultivated plants are grown.” As spaces for growing plants, beds were the basic building blocks of most [[kitchen_garden|kitchen]] and [[flower garden]]s, as well as [[parterre]]s.

[[File:0393.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “English Flower-Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 434, fig. 78. “''c'', ''d'', are the flower-beds.”]]

As 17th-, 18th-, and 19th-century treatises and dictionaries explain, beds could be raised above the surface of the ground through the addition of extra soil or manure to distinguish them from surrounding walkways or turf and to allow better drainage and ease of maintenance. [[edging|Edgings]] of organic or inorganic materials also helped to shore up the raised surface as well as to establish the bed’s outline.

Treatise writers distinguished between different types of beds, each with a specific function, composition, and placement—such as hot bed, cold bed, kitchen bed, nursery bed, or flower bed.<ref>Hot beds, which used either an internal or external source for warming the soil, were particularly popular for raising young or exotic plants.</ref> The form and techniques of making specialized utilitarian beds, such as hot beds, changed little over the centuries. Oblong and rectangular forms were favored for utilitarian beds because such shapes allowed easy maintenance—especially when intersected by walkways. They were well suited to the general practice of subdividing [[kitchen garden]]s into [[square]]s or rectangles [Fig. 1]. In contrast, the shape and arrangement of ornamental flower beds changed dramatically between 1700 and 1850 [Fig. 2].

[[File:0172.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, David Heubner, attr., ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', 1818.]]
At the end of the 18th century, treatise writers such as Charles Marshall and [[Bernard M’Mahon]] dismissed the [[ancient style]] of [[flower garden]]s and its predilection for beds shaped in imitation of scroll work or embroidery. They advocated oblong or square beds framed with boards and separated by [[walk]]s or [[alley]]s. David Huebner’s watercolor of 1818, ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', is a stylized representation of the rectangular form of bed described by these two authors [Fig. 3].

In addition to specifying the form of beds, [[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon]] (1806) also provided specific instructions for the arrangement of flowers within beds, separating bulbous from herbaceous plants for ease of maintenance. (This tradition of separating flowers into individual beds can be traced back to at least the 18th century, when British florists advocated such planting practices.) [[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon]] did, however, allow for mixing species in order to ensure continuous blooms. Evidence indicates that separating plant types by bed was practiced in 19th-century America, as at [[Monticello]].

[[File:0074.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed temples at the corners of the terrace walks at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.]]
During the second half of the 18th century, another pronounced shift in flower bed design developed in England, from geometric rectilinear beds to circular or irregular oval (or kidney-shaped) beds. The latter beds were sometimes planted in concentric circles with plants arranged according to height, from lowest at the edges to highest at the center of the bed.<ref>See Mark Laird, “Ornamental Planting and Horticulture in English Pleasure Grounds, 1700–1830,” in ''Garden History: Issues, Approaches, Methods'', ed. John Dixon Hunt (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1992b), 243–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TR5C2WE view on Zotero], and Mark Laird, “‘Our Equally Favorite Hobby Horse’: The Flower Gardens of Lady Elizabeth Lee at Hartwell and the 2nd Earl Harcourt at Nuneham Courtenay,” ''Garden History'' 18 (Autumn 1990): 103–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7559CS8I view on Zotero]. For a synthetic history of the display of flowers in 18th-century British gardens, see Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref> These practices, adopted in America, are well documented at Jefferson’s [[plantation]], which vividly illustrates the growing preference for oval or curved beds. Jefferson originally proposed rectangular beds to be encompassed by twin [[pavilion]]s [Fig. 4], but eventually he built oval beds [Fig. 5]. This oval shape was repeated in the beds located along the serpentine [[walk]] extending from the [[pavilion]] arms. While it is not known how the plants were arranged within these outlying beds, Jefferson noted that oval beds permitted him a greater variety of flowers, as compared to his strict arrangement by species in the beds nearest the house. Monticello also demonstrates how beds might be interspersed throughout the grounds, particularly along walkways, underneath windows, or outside doorways.

[[File:0968.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of [[Monticello]] with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807. “1807. April 15.16.18.30 Planted & Sowed flower beds as above. . . .”]]
The accounts of treatise writers and observers of the American landscape confirm that circular or oval beds became the fashion in the first half of the 19th century [Fig. 6]. In the May 1835 issue of ''Horticultural Register'', James E. Teschemacher proposed situating oval beds, filled with herbaceous flowers arranged in graduated rows, in front of the house. Like Jefferson, Teschemacher also envisioned punctuating walks with beds tucked along the curves of the [[walk]] and set into the turfed [[lawn]]. In 1840, [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey]] declared that circular beds set in the front [[lawn]] was the new mode, an observation attested to by such sites as the U.S. Capitol in Washington, DC, and the Hudson River estates of [[Montgomery Place]] and Highland Place.

[[File:1015.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois—Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.]]
While the pseudonymous Londoniensis, writing in October 1850 in the ''Magazine of Horticulture'', insisted that circular beds were universally adopted in the United States, alternate forms of bed designs also proliferated. In February 1840, for example, a writer in the same magazine proposed that beds be arranged in knot patterns for a [[flower garden]] featuring annuals; it also described [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing's]] employment of “arabesque” beds set into the lawn of his garden, as well as circular and irregular oval-shaped beds.

In his 1849 treatise on landscape gardening, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] provided a cogent explanation for the proliferation of different forms of bed designs at mid-century. He argued that different styles of gardens required different forms of beds. The architectural garden employed beds in the shape of circles, octagons, and squares, set off by [[edging|edgings]] of permanent or semi-permanent material; the irregular garden featured beds “varied in outline” cut into the turf; the French garden relied on beds executed in “embroidery” designs and separated by grass or gravel [[walk]]s; and the English [[flower garden]] utilized patterned beds of “irregular curved designs” (also known as arabesques) cut into the turf. Each corresponding style of garden and bed required different types of plants; for example, the French or embroidery garden employed “low-growing” herbaceous plants that allowed the design to be rendered distinctly. Moreover, each style was suited for a particular location. For example, the irregular garden was ideal for [[picturesque]] or rustic settings distant from the house, while the architectural garden was intended to be placed near the house, where it could be viewed from the windows.

Closely related to the issue of the shape of beds was that of how the feature might be edged. Treatise writers, from around 1700 to 1850, debated repeatedly whether beds should be edged with semi-permanent materials, such as boards and tile, or living materials, such as boxwood (see [[Edging]]). In general, the aim was to achieve the appearance of neatness, no matter what the shape, style, or planting arrangement of the bed. While questions of form, technique, and style of beds preoccupied the design profession, the social significance of flower beds was also considered. At least two treatise writers, Teschemacher (1835) and Walter Elder (1849), explicitly linked flower beds to women. Teschemacher recommended that women, probably from middle or upper classes, should supervise the arrangement of plants by color because of their presumed training in domestic arts and decoration. Elder, however, suggested that women were best suited to the task of weeding flower beds, similarly linking femininity and domestic order.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Grigg, William, October 4, 1736, describing the residence of Thomas Hancock on Beacon Hill, Boston, MA (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:32)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I the Subscriber oblidge myself for Consideration of forty pounds to be well & truly paid me by Thos. Hancock Doe undertake to layout the upper garden allys. Trim the '''Beds''' & fill up all the [[allies]] with such Stuff as Sd Hancock shall order. . . .”

*Gardener, John Little, 1742, describing items in a garden in Boston, MA (Massachusetts Archives, Suffolk County Probate Records, 76456)

:{|
|12 Frames for hot '''Beds'''
|@30
|10 = =
|-
|1 basket of old Iron w.g. 82lb
|@6d
|2 = 1 =
|-
|36 Frames with Glass for the hot '''Beds'''
|20/
|36 = =
|}

*Lamboll, Thomas, February 16, 1761, describing his wife’s garden in Charleston, SC (quoted in Pinckney 1969: 12)<ref>Elise Pinckney, ''Thomas and Elizabeth Lamboll: Early Charleston Gardeners'', Charleston Museum Leaflet, No. 28 (Charleston, SC: Charleston Museum, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU97BPKV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In Cold Weather she causes the Flower-'''Beds''' to be Covered and Sheltered, especially when they have begun to Sprout.”

*Drowne, Samuel, June 24, 1767, describing Redwood Farm, seat of Abraham Redwood Jr., Portsmouth, RI (Rhode Island Landscape Survey)

:“Mr. Redwood’s garden . . . is one of the finest gardens I ever saw in my life. In it grows all sorts of West Indian fruits, viz: Oranges, Lemons, Limes, Pineapples, and Tamarinds and other sorts. It has also West Indian flowers—very pretty ones—and a fine [[summer house]]. It was told my father that the man that took care of the garden had above 100 dollars per annum. It had [[Hot House]]s where things that are tender are put for the winter, and hot '''beds''' for the West India Fruit. I saw one or two of these gardens in coming from the beach.”

*[[Logan, Martha]], 1768, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a sale in Charleston, SC (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 30)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . flower shrubs and box for [[edging]] '''beds''', now growing in her garden.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray’s Garden|Gray’s Tavern]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:276)<ref name="Cutler">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We at length came to a considerable [[eminence]], which was adorned with an infinite variety of '''beds''' of flowers and artificial groves of flowering shrubs.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 17, 1787, describing gardens of François André Michaux, Bergen, NJ (1987: 1:291)<ref name="Cutler"></ref>

:“They, however, showed me the Gardens, and were very complaisant. There were a considerable collection of exotic shrubs and plants, set in a kind of '''beds''' for transplanting.”

*[[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], 1789[?], in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, discussing plans for [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4)<ref>Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” (paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I desire George when he is about it [digging a border] will put the Ranunculus roots in the same '''Bed''' in the same manner [planted at six or eight Inches from each other & about 5 or 6 inches deep].”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing [[Elias Hasket Derby Farm]], Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180, 373)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Strawberry '''beds''' are in the upper garden, & the whole divisions are not according to the plants they contain. The unnatural opening of the Branches of the trees is attempted with very bad effect. . . .

:“By invitation from Mr Derby the Clergy spent this afternoon at the Farm in Danvers. We were regaled at our arrival, after the best liquors at the house, with a feast in his Strawberry '''beds'''. They were in excellent order, & great abundance. He measured a berry, which was 2 inches 1/2 in circumference.”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the rear of this [girl’s school], is another small enclosure, which forms a broad grass walk and is skirted on each side by '''beds''' devoted to flowers, which the girls cultivate, as their own.”

*[[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 56)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[hothouse|Hot houses]], they may extend in front, I suppose, 40 feet each. They have a [[wall]] heated by flues—& 3 glazed [[wall]]s & a glazed roof each. In the center, a frame of wood is raised about 2 1/2 feet high, & occupying the whole area except leaving a passage along by the [[wall]]s. In the flue [[wall]], or adjoining, is a cistern for tropic aquatic plants. Within the frame, is composed a hot '''bed'''; into which the pots & tubs with plants, are plunged. This [[conservatory|Conservatory]] is said to be equal to any in Europe. It contains between 7 & 8000 plants. To this, the Professor of botany is permitted to resort, with his Pupils occasionally.”

[[File:0166.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower beds at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “oval beds of flowering shrubs” [written on verso]]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 7, 1807, in a letter to his granddaughter, Anne Cary Randolph, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Betts and Perkins 1986: 36)<ref>Edwin M. Betts and Hazlehurst Bolton Perkins, ''Thomas Jefferson’s Flower Garden at Monticello'' (Charlottesville, VA: Thomas Jefferson Foundation, University of Virginia, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/53FZXDN6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I find that the limited number of our flower '''beds''' will too much restrain the variety of flowers in which we might wish to indulge, and therefore I have resumed an idea . . . of a winding [[walk]] surrounding the lawn . . . with a narrow [[border]] of flowers on each side. . . . I enclose you a sketch of my idea, where the dotted lines on each side . . . shew the [[border]] on each side of the [[walk]]. The hollows of the [[walk]] would give room for oval '''beds''' of flowering shrubs.” [Fig. 7]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], November 1, 1813, describing Poplar Forest, property of Thomas Jefferson, Bedford County, VA (quoted in Chambers 1993: 105)<ref>S. Allen Chambers Jr., ''Poplar Forest and Thomas Jefferson'' (Forest, VA: Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HEXFEBX9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Planted] large roses of difft. kinds in the oval '''bed''' in the N. front. dwarf roses in the N.E. oval. Robinia hispida in the N. W. do. Althaeas, Gelder roses, lilacs, calycanthus, in both [[mound]]s.”

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the [[Montgomery House]], New Orleans, LA (1951: 43)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] [[walk]]s & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick [[hedge]] of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1828, describing Cincinnati, OH (1832: 1:87)<ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The water-melons, which in that warm climate furnish a delightful refreshment, were abundant and cheap; but all other melons very inferior to those of France, or even of England, when ripened in a common hot-'''bed'''.”

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden,” describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], Brooklyn, NY (''New England Farmer'' 7: 84)<ref>Anonymous, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''beds''' of the flowering or ornamental part compose broad belts laid out in a serpentine or waving direction, and [[edging|edged]] with thrift, (''statice armeria'').”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 48)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[nursery|nurseries]] may be established, the departments for culinary vegetables, fruit, and ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers, laid out and planted, a [[greenhouse|green house]] built, hot-'''beds''' formed.”

*Driver, George, 1838, describing his garden in Salem, MA (Peabody Essex Institute Phillips Library, Diaries of George Driver, MS 200, box 1, folder 1)

:“[6 March] Put the Glass on my hot '''bed'''. . . .

:“[25 March] Hot [[Bed]] in fine order this morning finished fitting it up this morning and planted radishes, lattic, york cabbage and cucumber at noon. have put in about 12 inches of manure and 8 or 9 of loom appear to be in fine order. . . .

:“[30 March] Have lost most of the under heat in my hot '''beds''' on account of storm the rain not having shower for three day and very cold. still they are in very good order today, have planted cucumber, Mellon, Cabbage, lattic, pepper grass, and radish seed.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], October 1839, “Some Remarks upon several Gardens and Nurseries in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” describing the residence of Charles Phelps, Esq., Stonington, CT (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 362)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Some Remarks upon Several Gardens and Nurseries, in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 10 (October 1839): 361–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4I3HBZD view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[flower garden]] contains about a quarter of an acre, in front of the house, and between that and the road, and is walled in on the north and west side. It is tastefully laid out in small '''beds''', [[edging|edged]] with box; on the north side stands a moderately sized [[green-house]], about forty feet long.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, April 1840, describing the [[garden of Father George Rapp]], Economy, PA (1842: 2:227)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''The Eastern and Western States of America'', 3 vols. (London: Fisher, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FFXTKXCI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This [the garden] covered about an acre and half of ground, and was neatly laid out in [[lawn]]s, [[arbour]]s, and flower-'''beds''', with two prettily ornamented open octagonal [[arcade]]s, each supporting a circular dome over a [[fountain]].”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing Highland Place, estate of [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 403, 406, 409)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>

:“4. Arabesque '''beds''' on the [[lawn]], for choice flowers, such as roses, geraniums, fuchsias, Sálvia pàtens, fúlgens, and cardinàlis, &c., to be turned out of [[pot]]s in the summer season, after being wintered in [[green-houses]] or frames. Such '''beds''' should be sparingly introduced, or they would give the [[lawn]] a frittered appearance by cutting it up to an extent which would destroy its breadth, which constitutes its greatest beauty. It is even considered by some landscape writers, rather an error to introduce any forms but the circle, unless the '''beds''' are looked down upon from an elevated [[terrace]], when these arabesque shapes will have a pretty appearance.

:“5. Circular '''beds''' for petunias, verbenas, which now form one of the principal ornaments of the garden, ''P''hlóx Drummónd''ii'', nemophilas, nolanas, dwarf morning-glory, &c. . . .

:“18. [[Flower garden]], in front of the [[greenhouse]]. It is laid out in circular '''beds''', [[edging|edged]] with box, with gravel [[walk]]s. . . .

[[File:0878.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. “4. Arabesque beds. . . . 5. Circular beds.”]]
:“. . . the [[flower garden]] (18,) a small space laid out with seven circular '''beds'''; the centre one nearly twice as large as the outer ones: these were all filled with plants: a running rose in the centre of the large '''bed''', and the outer [[edging|edge]] planted with fine phloxes, Bourbon roses, &c.: the other six '''beds''' were all filled with similar plants, excepting the running rose, which would be of too vigorous growth for their smaller size. Under the arborvitae [[hedge]] here, on the south side of the garden, the [[green-house]] plants were arranged in rows, the tallest at the back.” [Fig. 8]

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], April 1842, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the [[U.S. Capitol]], Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 4 (April 1842): 121–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From this lower [[terrace]], a long flight of steps leads to the upper one, upon which the building of the Capitol is placed: on the turf between the [[walk]]s, are oval and circular '''beds''', planted with shrubs and roses, and filled with dahlias and other annual flowers.”

*Moore, Mary Clara, April 26, 1843, in a letter to Frances Magill, describing Shadows-on-the-Teche, New Iberia, LA (quoted in Turner 1993: 493–94)<ref>Suzanne Turner, ''Historic Landscape Report: The Landscape at the Shadows-on-the-Teche'' (New Ibera, LA: Shadows-on-the-Teche, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7H7V8W3P view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Please make Martha sow some more mustard in the Garden for Greens and plant some of those black-eyed Peas . . . that the Negroes may have something to boil with . . . she can put some of them in the '''bed''' where I planted artichokes and many other places in the meantime.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], July 1846, “Notes of a Visit to several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York,” describing the garden of W. H. Corcoran, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 12: 245)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to Several Gardens in the Vicinity of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, in October, 1845,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 12, no. 7 (July 1846): 241–48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S9UVTJM3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Four of the '''beds''' on the turf were edged with basket work, and had the appearance of being filled with a profusion of flowers.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, “A Visit to Montgomery Place,” describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 2: 159)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, “A Visit to Montgomery Place,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]].

:“How different a scene from the deep sequestered shadows of the [[Wilderness]]! Here all is gay and smiling. Bright [[parterre]]s of brilliant flowers bask in the full daylight, and rich masses of colour seem to revel in the sunshine. The [[walk]]s are fancifully laid out, so as to form a tasteful whole; the '''beds''' are surrounded by low [[edging]]s of turf or box, and the whole looks like some rich oriental pattern of carpet or embroidery.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“East of the entrance is the private yard and residence of the Physician of the Institution, being the mansion house on the farm when purchased by the Hospital. The vegetable garden containing three and a half acres is next, and in it are the [[green-house]], hot-'''beds''', seed-houses, &c.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 443)<ref>Londoniensis, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co. Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This [[lawn]] is encircled by a broad [[walk]], on the [[lawn]] side of which are circular '''beds''' of the choicest summer blooming plants. I did not much like this multitude of circular '''beds''', but it is the general style throughout the country.”

*Dufield, Elizabeth Lewis, May 14, 1851, describing the Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #977)

:“The garden in which the monument is erected is beautifully laid on with flower and fruits. There is a small circle in the middle which is one solid '''bed''' of verbena, pinks, tulips, pinys and other flowers too tedious to mention and too beautiful for me to attempt a description.”

*Jackson, Sarah Y., April 10, 1852, describing the Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Hermitage Collections, Andrew Jackson Papers, G-13-1)

:“We are making some few improvements in it this season, bricking round the '''beds''', and have had a supply of fine roses. We have now about fifty varieties of roses, some very fine.”

*[[Logan, Deborah Norris]], 1867, describing the garden of Charles Norris, Philadelphia, PA (1867: 6)<ref>Deborah Norris Logan, ''The Norris House'' (Philadelphia: Fair-Hill Press, 1867), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KGVT4B54/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It was laid out in [[square]] [[parterre]]s and '''beds''', regularly intersected by graveled and grass [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s.”

===Citations===

*Worlidge, John, 1669, ''Systema Agriculturae'' (1669: 147)<ref>John Worlidge, ''Systema Agriculturae, The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered'' (London: T. Johnson, 1669), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GP82B2GE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To make a hot '''Bed''' in February, or earlier if you please, for the raising of ''Melons, Cucumbers, Radishes, Coleflowers'', or any other tender Plants or Flowers, you must provide a warm place defended from all Windes, by being inclosed with a Pale, or [[Hedge]] made of ''Reed'' or ''Straw'', about six or seven foot high . . . within which you must raise a '''Bed''' of about two or three foot high, and three foot over, of new Horse-dung . . . [[edging|edged]] round with boards, lay of fine, rich mould about three or four inches thick, and when the extream heat of the '''Bed''' is over . . . than plant your Seeds.”

*[[Jean de La Quintinie|La Quintinie, Jean de]], 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gardener'' (1694; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''''Beds''''' are plots of dressed Ground, which in digging, are wrought into such a form by the Gard'ner, as is most convenient to the temper and situation of the Earth in that place, and to the nature of the Plants to be sown or planted in it. They are of two sorts, ''Cold and Hot''.

:“''Cold '''Beds''''' are made either of ''Natural Earth'', or mixed and improved ''Mold'', and are in moist Grounds raised higher than the Paths, to keep them moderately dry, and in rising and dry Grounds, laid lower than the Paths, that they may on the contrary retain moisture so much the better, and profit so much the more by the Rain that falls.

:“''Hot '''Beds''''', are '''''Beds''''' composed of ''Long New Dung'', well packt together, to such a height and breadth as is prescribed in the Body of the Book, and then covered over to a certain thickness, with a well tempered Mold, in order to the planting or sowing such plants in them, as are capable of being by Art, forced to grow, and arrive to maturity even in the midst of ''Winter'', or at least a considerable while before their natural Season.

:“How these '''''Beds''''' are differently made for ''Mushrooms'', and how for other Plants, See in the work itself.

:“''Deaf '''Beds''''' are such ''Hot '''Beds''''' as are made hollow in the Ground, by taking away the natural Earth to such a certain depth, and filling the place with Dung, and then covering it with ''Mold'', till it rise just even with the Surface of the Ground. They are used for ''Mushrooms''.

:“''Kernel '''Beds''''' are ''Nursery '''Beds''''', wherein the Seed or Kernels of Kernel Fruit are sown in order to raise Stocks to Graff upon.”

*Bradley, Richard, 1728, ''Dictionarium Botanicum'' (1728: 2:n.p.)<ref>Richard Bradley, ''Dictionarium Botanicum, or A Botanical Dictionary for the Use of the Curious in Husbandry and Gardening'', 2 vols. (London: Printed for T. Woodward and J. Peele, 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AH42HTTW view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It is an Error to lay the Flower-'''Beds''' in [[Parterre]] Works high in the Middle, or round, as the Gardeners call it; I would rather advise that such '''Beds''' be made concave, so as lie hollow in the Middle; for as these shou’d chiefly be furnish’d with annual Flowers in the Summer, and the most fiberous Rooted Plants, and perhaps Ever-greens, likewise, by this Means the wateuring they may require in the scorching Seasons, will be effectual to them. . . . There is indeed some Beauty in the roundness of a '''Bed''', and that Roundness is necessary, when we design a '''Bed''' only for our finest bulbous Roots, because their chiefest Growing-time is in the moister Seasons of the Year.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'' ., 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:[vol. 1] “'''BED''', in gardening, a piece of made-ground, raised above the level of the adjoining ground, usually [[square]] or oblong, and enriched with dung or other amendments; intended for the raising of herbs, flowers, seeds, roots, or the like.

:“''Hot''-'''BED'''. See the article HOT-'''''Bed'''''. . . .

:“HOT-'''''BED''''', a piece of earth or soil plentifull enriched with manure, and defended from cold winds, &c. to forward the growth of plants, and force vegetation, when the season or the climate of itself is not warm enough. . . .

:[vol. 2] “[[PARTERRE]], in gardening, that open part of a garden into which we enter, coming out of the house; usually, set with flowers, or divided into '''beds''', encompassed with platbands, ''&c''. See GARDEN. . . .

:“PLAT-BAND, in gardening, a [[border]], or '''bed''' of flowers, along a [[wall]], or the side of a [[parterre]]; frequently edged with box, &c. See [[PARTERRE]], [[EDGING]], &c.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BED'''. ''n.s.'' [''beb'', Sax.] . . . .

:“4. Bank of earth raised in a garden. . . .

:“HO'T'''BED'''. ''n.s''. A '''bed''' of earth made hot by the fermentation of dung.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . bank of earth raised in a garden . . . the place where any thing is generated; a layer, a stratum.”

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 8:682)<ref>Anonymous, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“HOT-'''BEDS''', in gardening, '''beds''' made with fresh horse-dung, or tanner’s bark, and covered with glasses to defend them from cold winds.

:“By the skilful management of hot-'''beds''', we may imitate the temperature of warmer climates; by which means, the seeds of plants brought from any of the countries within the torrid zone may be made to flourish even under the poles.

:“The hot-'''beds''' commonly used in [[kitchen-garden]]s, are made with new horse dung.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:42–43)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening,'' 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ''[[flower garden]]'' (properly so called) should be rather ''small'' than large; and if a portion of ground be separately appropriated for this, only the ''choicest'' gifts of ''Flora'' should be introduced, and no trouble spared to cultivate them in the best manner. The '''beds''' of this garden should be narrow, and consequently the [[walk]]s numerous; and not more than one half or two thirds the width of the '''beds''', except one principal walk all round, which may be a little wider. . . .

:“''Figured [[parterre|parterres]]'' in scrolls, flourishes, &c, have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed; but when the '''beds''' are regular in their shapes, and chiefly at right angles, (after the [[''Chinese'' manner]]) an assemblage of all sorts of flowers, in a fancy spot of about sixty feet square, is a delightful home source of pleasure, that still deserves to be countenanced. There should be neat ''[[edging|edgings]]'' of ''box'' to these '''beds''', or rather of ''boards'', to keep up the mould.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 107)<ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year, and Copious Instructions for the Cultivation of Flower Gardens, Vineyards, Nurseries, Hop Yards, Green Houses and Hot Houses'' (Washington, DC: Printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“CROCUSES, RANACULUSES, ANEMONES AND OTHER BULBS.

:“These flowers may be planted this month [January] (when the weather is mild) in '''beds''' and borders of dry light earth well dug and broke.”

*[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 66, 71–72)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . .for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“These [[parterre|[parterres]]] were bounded by a long '''bed''', or [[border]] of earth, and the internal space within, divided into various little partitions, or inclosures, artfully disposed into different figures, corresponding with one another, such as long [[square]]s, triangles, circles, various scroll-works, flourishes of embroidery, and many other fanciful devices; all of which figures, were [[edging|edged]] with dwarf-box, &c. with intervening [[alley]]s of turf, fine sand, shells, &c.

:“The partitions or '''beds''' were planted with the choicest kinds of flowers; but no large plants, to hide the different figures, for such, were intended as a decoration for the whole place, long after the season of the flowers was past. . . .

:“The form of this [[flower garden|[flower-garden]]] ground may be either [[square]], oblong, or somewhat circular; having the boundary embellished with a collection of the most curious flowering-shrubs; the interior part should be divided into many narrow '''beds''', either oblong, or in the manner of a [[parterre]]; but plain four feet wide '''beds''' arranged parallel, having two feet wide alleys between '''bed''' and '''bed''', will be found most convenient, yet to some not the most fanciful.

:“In either method, a [[walk]] should be carried round the outward boundary, leaving a [[border]] to surround the whole ground, and within this, to have the various divisions or '''beds''', raising them generally in a gently rounding manner, [[edging]] such as you like with dwarf-box, some with thrift, pinks, sisyrinchium, &c. by way of variety, laying the [[walk]]s and [[alley]]s with the finest gravel. Some '''beds''' may be neatly edged with boards, especially such as are intended for the finer sorts of bulbs, &c.

:“In this division you may plant the finest hyacinths, tulips, polyanthus-narcissus, double jonquils, anemones, ranunculus’s, bulbous-iris’s, tuberoses, scarlet and yellow amaryllis’s, colchicums, fritillaries, crown-imperials, snowdrops, crocus’s, lilies of various sorts, and all the different kinds of bulbous, and tuberous-rooted flowers, which succeed in the open ground; each sort principally in separate '''beds''', especially the more choice kinds, being necessary both for distinction sake and for the convenience of giving, such as need it, protection from inclement weather; but for particulars of their culture, see the respective articles in the various months.

:“Likewise in this division should be planted a curious collection of carnations, pinks, polyanthus’s, and many other beautiful sorts, arranging some of the most valuable in '''beds''' separately; others may be intermixed in different '''beds''', forming an assemblage of various sorts.

:“In other '''beds''', you may exhibit a variety of all sorts, both bulbous, tuberous, and fibrous rooted kinds, to keep up a succession of bloom in the same '''beds''' during the whole season.”

*Thorburn, Grant, 1817, ''The Gentleman & Gardener’s Kalendar'' (1817: 5–6)<ref>Grant Thorburn, ''The Gentleman and Gardener’s Kalender for the Middle States of North America'', 2nd ed. (New York: E. B. Gould, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKICNPJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[January] FORMATION OF HOT-'''BEDS'''.

:“Take fresh horse-dung with plenty of long litter in it; shake the dung well and place it on a piece of ground the size of the '''bed''' you want to make; the first layer or two should have more litter than the others;—beat the dung well down with your fork as you proceed with the layers, till your '''bed''' is the height you want it. Different vegetables require '''beds''' of different heights—but the mode of making them is the same. The '''bed''' being thus made, place a frame light over it’ and in six or eight days the '''bed''' will be in strong fermentation.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), vol. 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BED''', ''n.'' [Sax. '''''bed'''''; D. '''''bed'''''; G. ''bett'' or ''beet''; Goth. ''badi''. The sense is a lay or spread, from laying or setting.] . . .

:“4. A [[plat]] or level piece of ground in a garden, usually a little raised above the adjoining ground. ''Bacon''.”

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 87, 155)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Dwarf Box.''—This is the low growing variety, generally used for [[edging]] of garden [[walk]]s and flower '''beds'''. Its growth is slow, but at very advanced age it attains to a shrub of from six to eight feet high. It is this variety which is so widely spread and well known throughout the country. . . .

:“DIRECTIONS for the ''Culture of Bulbous and Tuberous Flower Roots.''

:“The '''beds''' should be raised from four to six inches above the level of the [[walk]]s, and moderately arched, which will give an opportunity for all superfluous moisture to run off; some sand strewed in the trenches, both before and after placing the roots, would be of advantage.”

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110–11)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Generally speaking, a [[Flower Garden]] should not be upon a large scale; the '''beds''' or [[border]]s should in no part of them be broader than the cultivater can reach to, without treading on them: the shape and number of the '''beds''' must be determined by the size of the ground, and the taste of the person laying out the garden. Much of the beauty of a [[pleasure garden]] depends on the manner in which it is laid out; a great variety of figures may be indulged in for the Flower '''bed'''. Some choose oval or circular forms, others [[square]]s, triangles, hearts, diamonds, &c., and intersected winding gravel [[walk]]s.”

*Fessenden, Thomas, 1833, ''The New American Gardener'' (1833: 109–10)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ed., ''The New American Gardener'', 7th ed. (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VPB9HKX3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Sowing and planting''. . . . The '''beds''' should be raised three or four inches above the level of the [[walk]]s.”

[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, James E. Teschemacher, “A [[green-house]] constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157.]]

*Teschemacher, James E., May 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 159–60)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): 157–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZA92W46U view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The three oval '''beds''' may be used for flowers in masses; for instance, that in the centre for varieties of roses planted at sufficient distance to enable a mixture of the monthly and sanguinea species which have been protected during the winter, thus maintaining a succession. . . . On the right, opposite to the principal chamber window, are three curved '''beds''', each four and a half feet wide, [[edging|edged]] with box and divided by narrow [[walk]]s three or three and half feet in width, for the purpose of permitting examination, intended for choice herbaceous flowers; observing that the tall growing species, as dahlia, lofty delphinium, &c. should be placed in the '''bed''' most distant from the house, and those of the lowest growth in front. Here may be a fine collection of Paeonia, Iris, Trigidia, Lychnis fulgens and chalcedonica, Phloxes, particularly the white, Ornothera, Pentstemon, Lilum flavum, Gentians, with any others; it will add much to their charm if the colors are so blended as to harmonize well; for instance, by bringing the blues and yellows or whites and scarlets into immediate contrast, as may be observed in many striped flowers; those who wish to imbibe true principles of taste will achieve more by observing and studying forms and arrangements of colors presented by nature, than by any artificial rules that can be offered; this department however may safely be entrusted to the superintendence of the ladies, who naturally possess a finer tact in these matters, and to whom it will prove a constant fund of amusement. In the original formation of these '''beds''' great attention should be paid not to have the plants too near each other, for then confusion ensues and it is almost impossible to keep them neat, on which much of their effect depends.” [Fig. 9]

*Teschemacher, James E., June 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 229)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (June 1, 1835): 228–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EZCPG4DN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The separate '''beds''' for distinct flowers may be formed behind the turnings of the walk so as to come upon them unexpectedly; for instance, at a bend the eye may fall suddenly on a '''bed''' eight or ten feet long of scarlet turban Ranunculus, and from thence pass on to others containing mixed Ranunculus and mixed Anemone,—one for tulips, another for pinks, a '''bed''' of peat filled with Gentiana acaulis—if the experiment making this year prove it able to be cultivated here—makes a most magnificent shew.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 15)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck and Company, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''beds''' [of a [[flower garden]]] should also be well proportioned, and not too much cut up into small figures, which when bordered with box [[edging]], have the appearance of so many figures formed for the amusement of children more than for the purpose of growing flowers.”

*W., M. A., February 1840, “On Flower Beds” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 51–52)<ref>M. A. W., “On Flower Beds,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 2 (February 1840): 51–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6F4WDBVV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The laying out of a flower knot, or system of '''beds''' in a [[flower garden]], is one of the first feats in which the young gardener undertakes to show off his abilities; and being one which affords the most ample scope for the play of fancy, is therefore, perhaps, the one in which he is most likely to manifest the display of a bad taste. Even where the design is of the most happy conception, and the plotting beautiful upon paper, the difficulty of defining and preserving accurately the outline of the figure, when practically applied, will often quite destroy the anticipated pleasing effect. [[edging|Edge]]-boards of wood, so thin as to be easily bent to the required form, are commonly the first material employed. These soon warped out of shape, or quickly rot, and impart a deleterious principle to the soil in contact with them; and a very common fault is to have them too wide, so that the plants in the '''beds''' suffer from drought, while the paths between them resemble gutters more than [[walk]]s for pleasure.

:“Bricks, or tiles moulded expressly for the purpose, are next resorted to, and if sunk so that the earth in the '''beds''' shall not be more than from one to two inches above the level of the paths, they serve pretty well for some time. But so soon as they begin to crumble from the influence of frost, or are covered with green mould or moss, as they soon will be in moist or shady exposures, they become offensive to the eye, though not, like the first, injurious to the soil. A living margin, therefore, becomes the next and last expedient; and indeed it may be regarded as one of the last steps in the march of horticultural refinement. To adapt such a line of vegetation to the size and form of the '''bed''', and make it harmonize in every point of reference with the group of plants within, requires a cultivated delicacy of perception, a sound judgement, and an accurate knowledge of all the principles of natural and [[gardenesque]] beauty, as well as of the characters of the plants or materials which are necessary, with a due arrangement, to produce it.

:“It is probably as difficult to fix upon the most suitable plant for the [[edging]] of a flower '''bed''', as it is to determine the best shrub for a [[hedge]] around fields. For the [[border]]s of main [[avenue]]s, or broad [[walk]]s in grounds of considerable extent, box, as recommended, Vol. V., p. 350, is undoubtedly the best; but for small [[parterre]]s, or the flower '''beds''' in a front door yard, it seems much less suitable. They can commonly be taken in at one glance of the eye, and notwithstanding all that has been said of the artificial or [[geometric style]], it is the proper one for such places; for symmetry, or a perfect balance of corresponding parts, greatly strengthens the impression of such a scene, taken as a whole, or single mass of objects. The '''beds''', therefore, will not only be small, but when there is the proper variety in the form of them, some, at least, must have quite acute angles.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], March 1840, “Some Remarks on the Formation of the Margins of Flower Beds on Grass Plots or Lawns” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 84–85)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Some Remarks on the Formation of the Margins of Flower Beds on Grass Plots or Lawns,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 3 (March 1840): 84–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ETMJJXR6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We are glad to learn that our observations have been the means of drawing attention to the subject, and that they have, in some instances, induced amateurs to adopt the style of planting small grass [[plot]]s, and forming upon them circular, or other shaped '''beds''', for flowers. In front gardens to small suburban villas, nothing can be prettier than this plan of occupying the ground, and the method is, generally, to be much preferred to the old, and almost universally followed system, of forming gravelled [[walk]]s, with board, grass, or box [[edging]]s, and dug [[border]]s. This is particularly so, when the object is to have a neat garden, and kept in order at the least expense.”

[[File:0835.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, Plan of a Flower Garden, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6. ]]

*Anonymous, May 1840, “On the Cultivation of Annual Flowers” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 186–88)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “On the Cultivation of Annual Flowers; with a Description of Some of the More Recently Introduced Species and Varieties, and a List of the Most Beautiful and Desirable Kinds for Cultivation,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 175–88, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8QC94QDP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the two plans annexed, we have supposed the [[flower garden]] to be situated directly in front of the [[green-house]] and to be just the same length, (thirty-two feet, the ordinary length of a common sized house,) and width; the '''beds''' should be laid out with care, as on their precision much of their beauty depends: the '''beds''' may be surrounded with box [[edging]], and gravel [[walk]]s between, or they may be edged with what we have found to answer a good purpose, Iceland moss. This forms a perpetual green, and, if kept neatly trimmed, is full as desirable an [[edging]] around such common '''beds''' as the box: supposing this to be all completed, we next come to the planting of the '''beds'''. This, as we have just observed, may be devoted wholly to annuals, to annuals and perennials, and to both, with the addition of tender plants, such as verbenas, &c. &c.; but we shall at present speak of them as only to be filled with annuals. . . .

:“The first plan . . . may be planted as follows: In the centre circular [[bed]] may be planted marigolds, Marvel of Peru, tall branching larkspurs, and German asters, placing the tallest in the centre; or a dahlia or two may be planted in the same place, and on the outer edge a few dwarf plants may be planted; the eight small '''beds''' next to this may be planted with a miscellaneous collection of sorts, growing from a foot to two feet high, placing the dwarfest at the outer edge of the '''bed'''; the four larger '''beds''' next, may be also planted with miscellaneous kinds, growing about a foot high; and the four corner '''beds''' may be planted with very dwarf or trailing sorts, such as the nemophilas, nolanas, Lobèlia grácilis, Clintònia pulehélla and élegans, Chrysèis cròcea, Silène multiflòra, pansies, &c. [Fig. 10]

[[File:1750.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, Plan of a Flower Garden, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.]]

:“The second plan . . . admits of a greater display of plants, and, in particular, when it is desirable to have them in masses of one color, viz: the centre may be wholly planted with the finest double German asters in mixed colors: two of the four oval '''beds''', those opposite each other, may be planted with Clárk''ia'' élegans, C. élegans ''r''òsea, and C. pulchélla, placing the latter at the outer [[edging|edge]]; and the other, two with rocket larkspurs in mixed colors, to be succeeded with German astors, brought forward and reserved for the purpose. Two of the four large '''beds''' between the oval ones may be planted with Chrysèis cròcea and califórnica mixed, and the other two with crimson and white petunias mixed together: the four small [[bed]]s may be filled with Lobèlia grácilis, Clintònia élegans, Nemóphila insígnis, and Nolàna atriplicifòlia, each kind in separate '''bed''', and the two latter opposite to each other.” [Fig. 11]

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 84, 165, 304–8)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BED''' is a comprehensive word, applicable to the site on which any cultivated plants are grown. It is most correctly confined to narrow divisions, purposely restricted in breadth for the convenience of hand weeding or other requisite culture. . . .

:“[[CONSERVATORY]]. This structure is a [[greenhouse]] communicating with the residence, having [[border]]s and '''beds''' in which to grow its tenant plants. . . .

:“HOT-'''BED'''. When a temperature of 45°, moisture, and atmospheric air occur to deaden vegetable matters, these absorb large quantities of oxygen, evolving also an equal volume of carbonic acid. As in all other instances where vegetable substances absorb oxygen gas in large quantities, much heat is evolved by them when putrefying; and advantage is taken of this by employing leaves, stable-litter, and tan, as sources of heat, or hot-'''beds''', in the gardener’s forcing department.

:“A hot-'''bed''' is usually made of stable-dung. . . .

:“In making the '''beds''', they must be so situated as to be entirely free from the overshadowing of trees, buildings, &c., and having an aspect rather a point eastward of the south. A reed [[fence]] surrounding them on all sides is a shelter that prevents any reverberation of the wind, an evil which is caused by paling or other solid inclosure. This must be ten feet high to the northward or back part, of a similar height at the side, but in front only six. . . . An inclosure of this description, one hundred feet in length and sixty broad, will be of a size sufficiently large for the pursuit of every description of hot-'''bed''' forcing.

:“To prevent unnecessary labour, this inclosure should be formed as near to the stable as possible. . . .

:“The breadth of a '''bed''' must always be five feet. . . .

:“The roots of plants being liable to injury from an excessive heat in the '''bed''', several plans have been devised to prevent this effect. If the plants in pots are plunged in the earth of the '''bed''', they may be raised an inch or two from the bottom of the holes they are inserted in by means of a stone. But a still more effectual mode is to place them within other [[pot]]s, rather larger than themselves.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 443–44)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . our own taste leads us to prefer the modern [[English style]] of laying out flower gardens upon a ''ground work of grass'' or turf, kept scrupulously short. Its advantage over a [[flower garden]] composed only of '''beds''' with a narrow [[edging]] and gravel [[walk]]s, consists in the greater softness, freshness and verdure of the green turf, which serves as a setting to the flower '''beds''', and heightens the brilliancy of the flowers themselves. Still, both these modes have their merits, and each is best adapted to certain situations, and harmonizes best with its appropriate scenery. . . .

:“One of these [defects] is the common practice, brought over here by gardeners from England, of forming raised ''convex'' '''beds''' for flowering plants. This is a very unmeaning and injurious practice in this country, as a moment’s reference to the philosophy of the thing will convince any one. In a ''damp'' climate, like that of England, a '''bed''' with a high convex surface . . . by throwing off the superfluous water, keeps the plants from suffering by excess of wet, and the form is an excellent one. In this country, where most frequently our flower gardens fail from drouth, what sound reason can be given for forming the '''beds''' with a raised and rounded surface of six inches in every three feet, so as to throw off four-fifths of every shower? The true mode, as a little reflection and experience will convince any one, is to form the surface of the '''bed''' nearly level . . . so that it may retain its due proportion of all the rains that fall.”

*[[William Valk|Valk, William W.]], June 1848, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 557–58)<ref>William W. Valk, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 557–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZ54DTTE view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“I send you a plan for a geometrical [[flower garden]]. It was designed by Mr. Brown, gardener to the late Duke of Buckingham, and is a very pretty thing of the kind.

:“When the nature of the ground will admit, the French [[parterre]], or [[geometric style|geometrical]] [[flower garden]], is, above all others, the most to be recommended, for many situations, because it readily admits of the largest display of flowers throughout the season. There is scarcely any difficulty in producing a splendid show once or twice in the year, spring and autumn; and in consequence of many gentlemen not residing all the season near their [[flower garden]]s, the gardeners have an additional advantage in such places to produce, at the required time, the best display of flowers throughout the season. . . . The [[parterre]] gives great facilities. Planting in masses produces the most imposing effect; arrangement of the [[bed]]s, and contrasting of colours, is the chief thing to be considered. . . .

:“The above plan would look best with gravel [[walk]]s and small box [[edging]]s in front of a [[greenhouse|green-house]] or a dwelling. In planting the [[bed]]s, very much will depend upon the proprietor’s taste with regard to his favorite flowers. Nevertheless, if the [[bed]]s be planted in the following manner, very general pleasure and satisfaction will be given.”

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref>Anonymous, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As to the ''flower-'''beds''''', it is desirable, in any place of considerable extent, to set apart a portion of ground for them; of which some of the windows of the house command a sight, and through which one might go to a grapery or a [[green-house]]. But a very beautiful way, is to cut them in circles, or other graceful shapes, upon the [[edging|edges]] of the [[walk]]s, making the soil rich and deep.”

[[File:0391.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, “The Irregular Flower-garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 428, fig. 76. “The flower-beds ''b''.”]]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 427–37)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In almost all the different kinds of [[flower-garden]]s, two methods of forming the '''beds''' are observed. One is, to cut the beds out of the green turf, which is ever afterwards kept well-mown or cut for the [[walk]]s, and the [[edging|edges]] pared; the other, to surround the '''beds''' with [[edging]]s of verdure, as box, etc., or some more durable material, as tiles, or cut stone, the [[walk]]s between being covered with gravel. . . .

:“The ''irregular'' [[flower-garden]] is surrounded by an irregular belt of trees and ornamental [[shrub]]s of the choicest species, and the '''beds''' are varied in outline, as well as irregularly disposed, sometimes grouping together, sometimes standing singly, but exhibiting no uniformity of arrangement. . . . [Fig. 12]

:“Where the [[flower-garden]] is a spot set apart, of any regular outline, not of large size, and especially where it is attached directly to the house, we think the effect is most satisfactory when the '''beds''' or [[walk]]s are laid out in symmetrical forms. Our reasons for this are these: the [[flower-garden]], unlike distant portions of the [[pleasure-ground]] scenery, is an appendage to the house, seen in the same [[view]] or moment with it, and therefore should exhibit something of the regularity which characterizes, in a greater or less degree, all architectural compositions; and when a given scene is so small as to be embraced in a single glance of the eye, regular forms are found to be more satisfactory than irregular ones, which, on so small a scale, are apt to appear unmeaning.

:“The ''[[French style|French]]'' [[flower-garden]] is the most fanciful of the regular modes of laying out the area devoted to this purpose. The patterns or figures employed are often highly intricate, and require considerable skill in their formation. . . . The [[walk]]s are either of gravel or smoothly shaven turf, and the '''beds''' are filled with choice flowering plants. It is evident that much of the beauty of this kind of [[flower-garden]], or indeed any other where the figures are regular and intricate, must depend on the outlines of the '''beds''', or ''parterres of embroidery'', as they are called, being kept distinct and clear. To do this effectually, low growing herbaceous plants or [[border]] flowers, perennials and annuals, should be chosen, such as will not exceed on an average, one or two feet in height.

:“In the [[English style|English]] [[flower-garden]], the '''beds''' are either in symmetrical forms and figures, or they are characterized by irregular ''curved'' outlines. The peculiarity of these gardens, at present so fashionable in England, is, that each separate '''bed''' is planted with a single variety, or at most two varieties of flowers. Only the most striking and showy varieties are generally chosen, and the effect, when the selection is judicious, is highly brilliant. Each '''bed''', in its season, presents a mass of blossoms, and the contrast of rich colors is much more striking than in any other arrangement. No plants are admitted that are shy bloomers, or which have ugly habits of growth, meagre or starved foliage; the aim being brilliant effect, rather than the display of a great variety of curious or rare plants. To bring about more perfectly, and to have an elegant show during the whole season of growth, hyacinths and other fine bulbous roots occupy a certain portion of the '''beds''', the intervals being filled with handsome herbaceous plants, permanently planted, or with flowering annuals and green-house plants renewed every season. . . .

:“The ''mingled'' [[flower-garden]], as it is termed, is by far the most common mode of arrangement in this country, though it is seldom well effected. The object in this is to dispose the plants in the '''beds''' in such a manner, that while there is no predominance of bloom in any one portion of the '''beds''', there shall be a general admixture of colors and blossoms throughout the entire garden during the whole season of growth.

:“To promote this, the more showy plants should be often repeated in different parts of the garden, or even the same parterre when large, the less beautiful sorts being suffered to occupy but moderate space. The smallest plants should be nearest the [[walk]], those a little taller behind them, and the largest should be furthest from the eye, at the back of the border, when the latter is seen from one side only, or in the centre, if the '''bed''' be viewed from both sides. A neglect of this simple rule will not only give the '''beds''', when the plants are full grown, a confused look, but the beauty of the humbler and more delicate plants will be lost amid the tall thick branches of sturdier plants, or removed so far from the spectator in the walks, as to be overlooked.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 34, 65)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“EVERY cottage garden in America might have its hot '''bed'''. Make the sash six feet long, and three feet wide; the outer frame three inches broad, the laths all running lengthwise, seven inches apart; glaze it with glass seven by nine inches, the panes to lap each other a quarter of an inch, so as to carry off the rains without leaking through; make a box to fit the sash, three feet deep at back, and twenty-eight inches in front, the sides sloping, and a piece of scantling in each corner to nail the boards on and keep it firm. . . .

:“KEEPING THE FLOWER-'''BEDS''' CLEAN.

:“THIS is a branch in the keeping of the cottage garden properly belonging to the fair sex; and those of a good disposition take much pleasure in attending to it. Pull out the weeds from among the flowers in the patches, and hoe and rake the '''beds''' every two weeks.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1849, “Design for a Suburban Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 380)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Suburban Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): 380, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HNE67CR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At the end of this [[wall]], we come to the semicircular ''Italian [[arbor]]'', D. This [[arbor]], which is very light and pleasing in effect, is constructed of slender posts, rising 8 or 9 feet above the surface, from the tops of which strong transverse strips are nailed, as shown in the plan. The grapes ripen on this kind of Italian [[arbor]] much more perfectly than upon one of the common kind, thickly covered with foliage.

:“Beyond this [[arbor]], and at the termination of the central [[walk]], is a [[vase]], [[rustic style|rustic]] basket, or other ornamental object, ''e''. The semi-circle, embraced within the [[arbor]], is a space laid with regular [[bed]]s.”

*Jaques, George, January 1852, “Landscape Gardening in New-England” (''Horticulturist'' 7: 36)<ref>George Jaques, “Landscape Gardening in New-England,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 1 (January 1852): 33–36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WMEDJ9XX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A man of refinement would in these days, scarcely tolerate a geometrical arrangement of grounds of this extent. Such places admit of a winding carriage-way, leading through a fine [[lawn]] studded with groups of trees, irregularly circuitous [[walk]]s, bordered with various [[shrubbery]]; here and there a massive forest tree, standing in its full development singly upon the [[lawn]]; a [[summerhouse]] embowered in the midst of a little retired grove; arabesque forms of flower '''beds''' occasionally inserted in the midst of the smooth green of a grass-[[plot]]; a [[vase]], pretty even when empty, but better over-flowing with water, which it costs not much to bring in a leaden pipe from some neighboring hill:—such are among the charms which almost seem to make a little paradise of home.”

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==Images==
===Inscribed===
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Image:0016.jpg|Anonymous, ''Home of Richard Blow'', c. late 18th century. “Asparagus bed” near the top of the plan.

Image:0090.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804. See detail.

Image:0090a.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory” [detail], c. 1804. “Beds” marked at the foot of the terrace.

Image:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807. “H. Hot-beds.”

Image:0968.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of [[Monticello]] with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807. “1807. April 15.16.18.30 Planted & Sowed flower beds as above. . . .”

Image:0166.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Sketch of the garden and flower beds at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “Oval beds of flowering shrubs,” written on reverse.

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819), 33, pl. 1. “The Hot-bed Ground, No. 1.”

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828. “F. Hot beds.”

Image:1705.jpg|J. C. Loudon, Kitchen garden, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1834), 721, fig. 696. “Hot-bed ground (''b'').”

image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404. “4. Arabesque beds. . . . 5. Circular beds.”

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. “Flower beds, at ''i''.”

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): pl. opp. 280. “4.4.4 Range of Hot beds.”

Image:0996.jpg|Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque Flower Garden,” in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the natural style,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25. “Small arabesque beds near the house.”

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 118, fig. 26. “''d'', hot-beds.”

Image:0391.jpg|Anonymous, “The Irregular Flower-garden,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 428, fig. 76. “The flower-beds ''b''.”

Image:0392.jpg|Anonymous, “The Flower-Garden at Dropmore,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 431, fig. 77. Shown alongside a list of the plants which occupy each of the beds.

Image:0393.jpg|Anonymous, “English Flower-Garden,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 434, fig. 78. “''c'', ''d'', are the flower-beds.”

Image:1660.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of conservatory designed for gentleman’s country seat, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 95, fig. 32. “''A, A, A, A, A, A'', Beds.”

Image:1664.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, One method of heating in a hothouse, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), p. 198, fig. 38. “''g'' . . . shows the bed.”

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0074.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed temples at the corners of the terrace walks at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.

Image:0073.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Plan of serpentine walk and flower beds at Monticello, May 23, 1808.

Image:0712.jpg|Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte, ''Battle of New Orleans'', 1815.

Image:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825.

Image:0938.jpg|[[James E. Teschemacher]], “A green-house constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157.

Image:0835.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a Flower Garden, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6.

Image:1750.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a Flower Garden, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Geometric Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.

Image:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0283.jpg|Anonymous, George Hayward (engraver), ''“The Duke’s Plan,” A Description of the Towne of Mannados: or New Amsterdam as it was in September 1661'', [1664] 1859.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0925.jpg|William Burgis, ''A South East View of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0240.jpg|Andreas Anton Lawatsch, “Prospect of Bethabara,” Salem, NC, c. 1759.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

Image:0299.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, John Hawk’s plan of the Governor’s House and grounds in New Bern, NC, 1783.

Image:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

image:0991.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of the Hon. Moses Gill Esq. at Princeton, in the County of Worcester, Massa<sup>ts</sup>,” in ''Massachusetts Magazine'' 4, no. 11 (November 1792): pl. 18, opp. 648.

Image:0906.jpg|Pierre Pharoux, Courthouse Square, Speranza, 1794–95.

Image:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

Image:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

Image:0241.jpg|Anonymous, ''Anstalt Haus in Salem'', 1798.

Image:0226.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The Seat of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

Image:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800–20.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, ''A View of New Orleans taken from the plantation of Marigny'', November 1803.

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous (artist), George Hayward (lithographer), ''Vauxhall Garden 1803'', 1803.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full View of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

Image:0044.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, ''View of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences,” 1817.

Image:0172.jpg|David Heubner, attr., ''House with Six-Bed Garden'', 1818.

Image:0242.jpg|W. T. Neuhauser, ''Salem in Nord Carolina von der Süd West-Seite'', c. 1819.

Image:1015.jpg|George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois—Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''View of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0437.jpg|Robert Street, ''George Washington Deal'', 1834.

Image:0493.jpg|Thomas Whelpley, ''Cleveland, Ohio. From the Corner of Bank and S<sup>t</sup> Clair St<sup>r</sup> Looking East'', 1833–34.

Image:1459.jpg|Anonymous, Kirk Boott House, Rear, c. 1840–47.

Image:0033.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Plan of the Mall'', Washington, DC, 1841.

Image:0034.jpg|Robert Mills, Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0892.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of Henry Coit’s villa, 1841–44.

Image:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells, attr., ''Roseland Cottage'', c. 1846.

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

Image:0701.jpg|Lewis Miller, Botanic garden at Princeton College, 1847, in ''Lewis Miller, Sketches and Chronicles'' (1966), 134. “. . . [W]ent . . . to the Botanic garden.”

Image:0949.jpg|Anonymous, “Rustic Arbours,” in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 7 (January 1850): pl. opp. 297.

Image:1232.jpg|Orsamus Turner, Life Cycle of a Pioneer Woodsman (“Third Sketch of the Pioneer”), in ''Pioneer History of the Holland Purchase'' (1850), opp. 565.

Image:0708.jpg|Maximilian Grunert, ''Boys’ School Garden'', September 4, 1850.

Image:1673.jpg|Anonymous, The Claremont, c. 1855.

Image:0218.jpg|Augustus Weidenbach, ''Belvedere'', c. 1858.

Image:0114.jpg|Rubens Peale, ''Old Museum'', 1858–60.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur, ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall

2019-06-17T16:07:49Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ added link to M'Mahon

==History==

[[File: 1854.jpg|thumbnail|left|Fig. 1, Cornelius Tiebout, "View of the Falls of Schuykill, five miles from Philadelphia," 1793.]]
[[File: 0358.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 2, Anonymous, "Rustic Seat," Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.]]
Cascade, cataract, and waterfall were terms used interchangeably to designate a water feature, either natural or artificial, that was part of a designed landscape. These terms, which were synonymous, were in common usage and garden literature by the beginning of the 18th century. Only [[Noah Webster|Noah Webster's]] dictionary (1828) made any distinction among them, stating that the cataract was a cascade on a large scale. The more frequent synonymous usage of the terms is found in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing's]] essay on [[Montgomery Place]] (1847), where he entitled a section, “The cataract,” but then used the term “waterfall” in the text that followed.

[[File: 0849.jpg|thumbnail|left|Fig. 3, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud.[son] riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840. ]]
This garden feature was achieved either by incorporating a preexisting waterfall into the garden scheme, by enhancing a small falls with the addition of rocks, or by building a completely artificial cascade. Directions for constructing cascades suggest that they were features that could be built on a range of scales, suitable for small gardens, large estates, and public waterways such as Fairmount Waterworks in Philadelphia. [[J. C. Loudon]] (1826), in his usual practical way, wrote that the only requirement was a wall to interrupt the flow of a stream or rivulet, causing the water to fall noisily over rocks and uneven surfaces.

The literature often describes waterfalls as part of the view beyond the garden proper. Visitors to [[Gray’s Garden]] in Philadelphia in the late 18th century, for example, recalled moving from the garden into the wilderness, where the falls of the Schuylkill were enjoyed before winding back to the garden [Fig. 1]. Downing offered descriptions of several cataracts that were illustrated by Alexander Jackson Davis, including those found at [[Montgomery Place]] [Fig. 2] and [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 3]. Located in the Hudson River Valley, these cataracts were connected to the designed landscape by the addition of paths, [[summerhouse]]s, [[Rustic_style|rustic]] furniture, and [[bridge]]s. Although it often preexisted the garden, the cascade played a role in the experience of surprise and variety belonging to both the designed and naturally [[picturesque]] landscape [Fig. 4]. The feature also could serve as a compositional terminus, as noted by the writer Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray] (1791).

[[File: 0123.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 4, Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.]]
Visitors often described the cascade as one of the most important elements in the sensory experience of the garden since it combined sound, which broke the silence, with the movement and vitality caused by the action of the falling water and its cooling spray. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], for example, noted that “[t]his valley is musical with the sound of waterfalls.” The sounds of crashing and gurgling water frequently preceded the view of the cascade, adding suspense to the catalogue of sensations felt by the visitor as he or she walked through the garden.

The question of taste was an issue as well; George William Johnson (1847) noted that a cascade was agreeable “only when properly associated with the scenery around.” The cascade or waterfall in the garden was an important element of the landscape because of the numerous associations it evoked. The cascade at Tivoli, the fountains of Versailles, Virginia Waters at Windsor, were all icons of European garden design that many designers sought to emulate. Others knew cascades such as Great Falls, Virginia, and Niagara Falls, New York, as America’s natural wonders, and writers such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] used these sites as proof of the bounty and sublimity of the new nation.

—''Therese O’Malley''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Anonymous, 1752, ''South Carolina Gazette'' (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 62)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To Gentlemen . . . as have a taste in [[Pleasure_ground/Pleasure_garden|pleasure . . . gardens]]. . . may depend on having them laid out, leveled, and drained in the most compleat manner, and politest taste, by the subscriber; who perfectly understands . . . erecting water works . . . [[fountain]]s, '''cascades''', [[grotto]]s.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 26)<ref name="Jefferson 1944">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . a few feet below the spring level the ground 40 or 50 f. sq. let the '''water fall''' from the spring in the upper level over a [[terrace]] in the form of a '''cascade'''. then conduct it along the foot of the terrace to the Western side of the level, where it may fall into a cistern under a [[temple]], from which it may go off by the western [[border]] till it falls over another [[terrace]] at the Northern or lower side. let the [[temple]] be raised 2. f. for the first floor of stone. under this is the cistern, which may be a bath or anything else. the 1st story arches on three sides; the back or western side being close because the hill there comes down, and also to carry up stairs on the outside. the 2d story to have a door on one side, a spacious window in each of the other sides, the rooms each 8. f. cube; with a small table and a couple of chairs. the roof may be [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]], Grecian, or in the taste of the Lantern of Demosthenes at Athens.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], April 1786, describing Hagley, property of Lord Wescot, England (1944: 113)<ref name="Jefferson 1944"></ref>

:“''Hagley, now Lord Wescot’s.''—One thousand acres: no distinction between [[park]] and garden—both blended, but more of the character of garden. . . . This garden occupying a descending hollow between the Clent and Witchbury hills, with the spurs from those hills, there is no level in it for a spacious water. There are, therefore, only some small [[pond]]s. From one of these there is a fine '''cascade'''; but it can only be occasionally, by opening the sluice. This is in a small, dark, deep hollow, with recesses of stone in the banks on every side. In one of these is a Venus predique, turned half round as if inviting you with her into the recess. There is another '''cascade''' seen from the [[portico]] on the [[bridge]].”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 14, 1787, describing [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Tavern]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:276–77)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“When we came to the [[fence]], we were delightfully astonished with the [[view]] of one of the finest '''cascades''' in America, which presented itself directly before us at the further end of the opening. A broad sheet of water comes over a large horizontal rock, and falls about seventy feet perpendicular. It is in a large river, which empties into the Schuylkill just above us. The distance we judged to be about a quarter of a mile, which being seen through the narrow opening in the tall [[grove]], and the fine mist that rose incessantly from the rocks below, had a most delightful effect. Here we gazed with admiration and pleasure for some time, and then took a different route in our return through the [[grove]], and followed a walk that led down toward the Schuylkill.”

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 415)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Suddenly, however, an open plain is outspread before us, and we are presented with a pleasing horizon—but as suddenly, thick trees again intervene, until at the extremity of the walks, a mill and a beautiful natural '''cascade''' terminates the [[prospect]].”

*[[L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, in a report to [[George Washington]], describing his plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 153)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I propose in this map, of leting the [Ti]ber return in its proper channel by a fall which issuing from under the base of the Congress building may there form a '''cascade''' of forty feet heigh or more than one hundred waide which would produce the most happy effect in rolling down to fill up the [[Canal|canall]] and discharge itself in the Potowmack of which it would then appear as the main spring when seen through that grand and majestic [[avenue]] intersecting with the [[prospect]] from the palace at a point which being seen from both I have designated as the proper for to erect a grand Equestrian figure.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 111)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The spring of Montalto [Carter’s Mountain] either to be brought to [[Monticello]] by pipes or to fall over steps of stairs in '''cascade''', made visible at [[Monticello]] through a [[vista]].”

*Anonymous, 1826, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (Hawkins 1991: 79)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A shaded, serpentine [[walk]], now skirting the edge of the [[wood]], now plunging into its dark and dependent foliage, and embracing, in its windings, more than a mile, leads over a neat and lightly constructed [[bridge]], to a pleasure house, which might justly termed the [[Temple]] of Solitude. It is securely founded on a rock, which juts abruptly forth from the declivity of a steep hill, three sides of which are almost perpendicular, and of considerable height. A chasm, formed by nature, in the rock, to the left of the entrance, affords, with the assistance of stones transversely arranged, a descent to the small valley beneath. The straight and towering tulip tree, the sturdy oak, the chestnut, and the beech, cast their cool shadows around this wood-embosomed abode of contemplation. A rapid stream ripples over the rocks, at a few yards distance, producing the melancholy, but pleasing sounds of a distant '''waterfall'''.”

[[File: 0542.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 5, [[Nicolino Calyo]], ''The Philadelphia Water Works'', 1835–36.]]
*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'' (1832: 2:42–43)<ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The water-works of Philadelphia have not yet perhaps as wide extended fame as those of Marley [at Versailles], but they are not less deserving it. . . . It is, in truth, one of the very prettiest spots the eye can look upon. A broad wear is thrown across the Schuylkill, which produces the sound and look of a '''cascade'''.” [Fig. 5]

*Thacher, James, November 26, 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing the garden of Col. Thaddeus Kosciusko, West Point, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 148)<ref name="Thacher">James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 19 (November 26, 1830): 148–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VPTGX2EQ/q/excursion%20on%20the%20hudson view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the interesting recollections pertaining to West Point is Kosciusko’s garden, situated in a deep rocky valley near the river, where in 1778, I was amused in viewing his curious water [[fountain]], spouting [[jet]]s and '''cascades'''. ‘Clusters of lilacs are still growing which are said to have been planted by the Polish Patriot.’”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/283TSTEV? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This [[avenue]] to the mansion is over a stone [[bridge]], crossing a rapid stream precipitated from the milldams above, and falls in a '''cascade''' below. The winding of the road, the varied surface of the ground, the [[bridge]], and the falling of the water, continually vary the [[prospect]] and render it a never tiring scene.”

[[File: 0381.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “The Cataract at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), opp. p. 364, fig. 41.]]
*Donaldson, Robert, December 16, 1840, in a letter to Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, describing the joint border of [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, and Blithewood, seat of Robert Donaldson, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 76)<ref name="Haley">Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“If we buy the stream . . . our [[pleasure ground]]s extend to the creek from the '''Cataract''' to the River—& a [[lake]] for fish formed, with ornamental '''waterfalls'''—which would render the places all that could be desired.” [Fig. 6]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 49, 52)<ref name="Haley"></ref>

:“He takes another path, passes by an airy looking [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first '''cataract'''. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky fall, forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and [[picturesque]].
:“This '''waterfall''', beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other '''cataracts'''. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the [[picturesque]]. . . .
:“On its [the [[lake]]] northern bank is a rude sofa, formed entirely of stone. Here you linger again, to wonder afresh at the novelty and beauty of the ''second'' '''''cascade'''''. The stream here emerges from a dark thicket, falls about twenty feet, and then rushes away on the side of the peninsula opposite the lake.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, “A Visit to Montgomery Place,” describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Duchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., “A Visit to Montgomery Place,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“THE '''CATARACT'''.
:“But the stranger who enters the depths of this dusky [[wood]] by this route, is not long inclined to remain here. His imagination is excited by the not very distant sound of '''waterfalls'''.
{{break}}
:: “‘Above, below, aerial murmurs swell,
::“From hanging wood, brown heath and bushy dell;
::“A thousand gushing rells that shun the light,
::“Stealing like music on the ear of night.’ . . .”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (1991: 48)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This valley is musical with the sound of '''waterfalls''', of which there are several fine ones in the bold impetuous stream which finds its course through the lower part of the wilderness.”

*Justicia [pseud.], March 1849, “A Visit to Springbrook,” seat of Caleb Cope, near Philadelphia, PA (''Horticulturist'' 3: 411)<ref>Justicia [pseud.], “A Visit to Springbrook, the Seat of the President of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 9 (March 1849): 411–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AAEZMA9A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To the left of this [[grove]] is a sheet of spring water, rising on the farm, (which farm contains upwards of 100 acres,) that supplies a powerful ''Hydraulic Ram'', diffusing the water over the whole place, supplying reservoirs, [[fountain]]s, '''waterfalls''', &c.”

*Twain, Mark, October 26, 1853, describing [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 2)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson, “The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We arrived at Fairmount. . . . Here I saw, a little above, the fine dam, which holds back the water for the use of the Water Works. It forms quite a nice '''water-fall'''.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing [[Fairmount Waterworks]], Philadelphia, PA (1:489)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the Earliest Settlements of the Inland Part of Pennsylvania, from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“There we see the graceful, glittering river winding amongst its wooded banks, the artificial '''cascade''' at your feet, the lovely [[Jet|jet d’eaux]] all around, the green [[plat]]s and gravelled [[walk]]s through which you have walked, the [[picturesque]] [[view]]s wherever you cast your eyes, these go to make up the picture which is spread out in rich luxuriance before you.”

===Citations===

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/78H3PZF5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CASCADE''',*a steep fall of water, from a higher into a lower place. See '''CATARACT'''.
:“*The word is French, formed of the Italian ''cascata'', which signifies the same; of ''cascare'' to fall; and that from the latin ''cadere''.
:“'''''Cascades''''' are either natural, as that of Tivoli; or artificial, as those of Versailles, ''&c''. and either falling with a gentle descent, as those of the Sceaux; in form of a buffet, as at Trianon; or down steps, in form of a perron, as at St. Clou; or from [[bason]] to bason, ''&c''. . . .
:“'''CATARACT''' *''of Water'', a fall, or precipice, in the channel, or bed of a river; caused by rocks, or other obstacles, stopping the course of its stream: from whence the water falls with a great noise and impetuosity.
:“*The word comes from the Greek . . . ''cum impetu decido'', I tumble down with violence; compounded of . . . down; and . . . ''dejicio'', I throw down.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''CASCADE''', kas-ka’de. s. A '''cataract''', a '''waterfall'''....
:“'''CATARACT''', kat’-a-rakt. s. A fall of water from on high, a '''cascade'''.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 61)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''Cascades''', and other '''water-falls''', have also a fine effect, where there is a constant plentiful stream, and the situation proper to give the water a due fall, from a higher to a lower part, upon a parcel of rugged stones, to increase the noise, and break and disperse the water.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 358, 1012)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“1822. ''Of constructions for displaying water'', as an artificial decoration, the principal are '''cascades''', '''waterfalls''', [[jet]]s, and [[fountain]]s. . . .
:“1826. ''The construction of the '''waterfall''', where avowedly artificial'', is nothing more than a strong-built wall across the stream, perfectly level at top, and with a strong, smooth, accurately fitted, and well jointed coping. . . . Where a natural '''waterfall''' is to be imitated, the upright wall must be built of huge irregular blocks; the horizontal lamina of water broken in the same way by placing fragments of rocks grouped here and there so as to throw the whole into parts; and as nature is never methodical, to form it as if in part a '''cascade'''....
:“1827. ''In imitating a natural '''cascade''''' in garden-scenery, the horizontal line must here also be perfect, to prevent waste of water in dry seasons, and from this to the base of the lower [[slope]] the surface must be paved by irregular blocks, observing to group the prominent fragments, and not distribute them regularly over the surface. . . .
:“1828. ''The greatest danger in imitating'' '''cascades''' and '''waterfalls''', consisting in attempting too much, a very few blocks, disposed with a painter’s eye, will effect all that can be in good taste in most garden-scenes; and in forming or improving them in natural rivers, there will generally be found indications both as to situation and style, especially if the country be uneven, or stony, or rocky. . . .
[[File: 1370.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 7, [[J. C. Loudon]], "A waterfall, or cascade," in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1012, fig. 700.]]
:“7225. ''A '''waterfall''', or '''cascade''''', is an obvious improvement where a running stream passes through a demesne ...and is to be formed by first constructing a bank of masonry, presenting an inclined plane (''a'') to the currents, and rendering it impervious to water by puddling (1720.) or the use of proper cements, and next varying the ridge (''b'') and under side (''c''), with fragments of rock, so chosen and placed, as not to present a character foreign to what nature may be supposed to have produced there. The adjoining ground generally requires to be raised at such scenes, but may generally be harmonised by plantation. [Fig. 7]
:“7226. ''Where running water is conducted in forms belonging to the [[geometric style]] of gardening'', '''waterfalls''' and '''cascades''' are constructed in the form of crescents, flights of steps, or wavy [[slope]]s.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CASCA'DE''', ''n''. [Fr. ''cascade''; Sp. ''cascada''; It. ''cascata'', from ''cascare'', to fall.]
:“A '''waterfall'''; a steep fall or flowing of water over a precipice, in a river or natural stream; or an artificial fall in a garden. The word is applied to falls that are less than a '''cataract'''....
:“'''CAT'ARACT''', ''n''. [L. ''cataracta''; . . . ]
:“1. A great fall of water over a precipice; as that of Niagara, of the Rhine, Danube and Nile. It is a '''cascade''' up on a great scale.
:“The tremendous '''''cataracts''''' of America thundering in their solitudes. ''Irving''. . . .
:“'''WATERFALL''', ''n''. [''water'' and ''fall''.] A fall or perpendicular descent of the water of a river or stream, or a descent nearly perpendicular; a '''cascade'''; a '''cataract'''. But the word is generally used of the fall of a small river or rivulet. It is particularly used to express a '''cascade''' in a garden, or an artificial descent of water, designed as an ornament. ''Cyc'' .”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 130)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Trees and shrubs in front of the house should be planted and pruned so as to present a chaste and neat appearance; imitations, therefore, of the wilder scenes of nature, such as rocks, '''cascades''', old trees, and festoons of climbing plants, should be situated back and more remote.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 132–33, 233–34)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CASCADE''', or '''''Waterfall''''', is an important adjunct in landscape gardening, but agreeable only when properly associated with the scenery around; that association is a bold broken ground, and a dense plantation of trees; nothing is more misplaced or tasteless than a sheet of water falling into another uniform collection of water, in an open unwooded plain. Mr. Whateley justly observes, that ‘a rill cannot pretend to any sound beyond that of a little waterfall; the roar of a '''cascade''' belongs only to larger streams: but it may be introduced by a rivulet to a considerable degree, and attempts to do more have generally been unsuccessful; a vain ambition to imitate nature in her great extravagancies betrays the weakness of art. Though a noble river throwing itself headlong down a precipice be an object truly magnificent, it must however be confessed, that in a single sheet of water there is a formality which its vastness alone can cure, but the height, not the breadth is the wonder: when it falls no more than a few feet, the regularity prevails, and its extent only serves to expose the vanity of affecting the style of a '''cataract''' in an artificial '''cascade'''; it is less exceptionable if divided into several parts, for then each separate part may be wide enough for its depth; and in the whole, variety, not greatness, will be the predominant character. But a structure of rough, large, detached stones cannot easily be contrived of strength sufficient to support a great weight of water, it is sometimes from necessity almost smooth and uniform, and then it loses much of its effect: several little falls in succession are preferable to one greater '''cascade''', which in figure, or in motion, approaches to regularity.
:“‘When greatness is thus reduced to number, and length becomes of more importance than breadth, a rivulet vies with a river, and it more frequently runs in a continued declivity, which is very favourable to such a succession of falls. Half the expense and labour which are sometime bestowed on a river to give it at the best, a forced precipitancy in any one spot only, would animate a rivulet through the whole of its course; and after all the most interesting circumstance in falling waters, is their animation: a great '''cascade''' fills us with surprise, but all surprise must cease; and the motion, the agitation, the rage, the froth, and the variety of the water are finally the objects which engage the attention; for these a rivulet is sufficient, and they may there be produced without that appearance of effort which raises a suspicion of art. To obviate such a suspicion, it may sometimes be expedient to begin the descent out of sight; for the beginning is the difficulty: if that be concealed, the subsequent falls seem but a consequence of the agitation which characterizes the water at its first appearance, and the imagination is, at the same time, let loose to give ideal extent to the '''cascades'''; when a stream issues from a [[wood]], such management will have a great effect, the bends of its course in an open exposure may afford frequent opportunities for it, and sometimes a low broad bridge may furnish the occasion, a little fall hid under the [[arch]] will create a disorder, in consequence of which, a greater '''cascade''' below will appear very natural. . . .
:“[[Fountain|FOUNTAINS]]. . . .
:“Drooping [[fountain]]s, or such as bubbling from their source trickle over the edge of rocks, shells, or [[vase]]s, combining the '''cascade''' with the [[fountain]], are capable of much greater beauty.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 364)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''''Cascades''' and '''water-falls''''' are the most charming features of natural brooks and rivulets. Whatever may be their size they are always greatly admired, and in no way is the peculiar stillness of the air, peculiar to the country, more pleasingly broken, than by the melody of falling water. . . . Now any one who examines a small '''cascade''' at all attentively, in a natural brook, will see that it is often formed in the simplest manner by the interposition of a few large projecting stones, which partially dam up the current and prevent the ready flow of the water. Such little '''cascades''' are easily imitated.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File: 0883.jpg|Edward Crisp (surveyor), James Akins (engraver), ''A Plan of Charles-Town'', 1704 [1969].

File: 1390.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “The Design of a Fountain & Cascade after the grand Manner at Versailes,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVII.

File: 1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L'Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States . . . ,” 1791.

File: 1854.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, “View of the Falls of Schuykill, five miles from Philadelphia,” 1793.

File: 1368.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A garden in the [[ancient style]], in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1009, fig. 694.

File: 1370.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “A waterfall, or cascade,” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 1012, fig. 700.

File: 0358.jpg|Anonymous, “Rustic Seat,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

File: 0381.jpg|Anonymous, “The Cataract at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), opp. p. 364, fig. 41.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File: 0300.jpg|[[Thomas Birch]], ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File: 0542.jpg|[[Nicolino Calyo]], ''The Philadelphia Water Works'', 1835–36.

File: 0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A View of the Fairmount Water-Works with Schuylkill in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

File: 0849.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View in Grounds at Blithewood, Seat of Robt. Donaldson, Dutchess Co. Hud.[son] riv[er]. N.Y.'', 1840.

File: 0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “View in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.

File: 0848.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “Bank-Side [[Walk]],” Blithewood, 1849.

File: 0847.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at Blithewood, n.d. (c. 1849).

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File: 0123.jpg|[[Rebecca Couch]], ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

File: 2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''View of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Water Features]]

View/Vista

2019-06-17T16:05:32Z

A-brey: Added link for Bernard M'Mahon

==History==

[[File:0755.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, George Beck, ''View of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796.]]

[[File:0297.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Archibald Robertson, ''Hobuck'', 1808.]]

Travelers’ accounts of their journeys through the early American colonies contain many descriptions of extensive views and fine prospects. The frequent repetition of these and the related terms vista, “[[eminence]],” and by the mid-19th century, “panorama,” suggests the importance of views and view-making in the perception, design, and representation of American landscapes.<ref>For an example of the significance of the construction of views in landscape perception see Peter M. Briggs, “Timothy Dwight ‘Composes’ a Landscape for New England,” ''American Quarterly'' 40 (September 1988): 359–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J9CTDWUA view on Zotero]. For a discussion of the links between optics, monumental architecture and landscapes, and social control, see Jerry D. Moore, ''Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 98–101 and 168–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EFCPC58F view on Zotero].</ref> The significance of composing a view in the landscape is echoed in the visual record of American gardens. Among the most common images of gardens are those framing the façade of the house and those taking a view from the house out toward the landscape.

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.]]

[[File:0955.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.]]

As [[Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d’Argenville]] noted in 1712, one aspect of a “good situation, is, the View and Prospect of a fine Country,” and American property owners often sited their houses with this advice in mind. Planters situated their houses along well-traveled rivers and overlooking harbors, both capturing water views and creating highly visible architectural statements of their status and wealth [Figs. 1 and 2]. As at [[Monte Video]] [Fig. 3], houses were often sited on [[eminence]]s to benefit from the natural topography. Gardens built around such houses took full advantage of their natural settings, and treatise writers such as [[A. J. Downing]] (1850) admonished gardeners to “study the character of the place” so as not to “shut out and obstruct the beauty of prospect which nature has placed before your eyes.” The frequent use of the words “command” and “commanding” by visitors recording their impressions indicates the assertion of ownership and control that was so clearly an aspect of the visual presentation of these estates. Water, topographic relief, a variety of rock formations, and vegetal and geological diversity were all prized components of views. Distance was also a measure of merit, not only contributing to the beauty of the scene, but also claiming the breadth of “command” over the countryside.

[[File:0844.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Alexander Jackson Davis, ''Montgomery Place—Shore Seat'', n.d., drawing. The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook, c. 1830–50.]]

[[File:0509.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Rice Hope'', c. 1803.]]

The term “vista,” while less commonly used than the related terms “prospect” and “view,” was similar in its designation of views created within the garden or looking out of the garden into the surrounding landscape. The term “vista” also carried the more particular connotation, as Thomas Sheridan noted in 1789 and [[Noah Webster]] in 1850, of the sight lines that created a view, whether made by an [[avenue]], a [[meadow]], or a space between trees. A vista within the garden was generally terminated by a focal point, such as the Chinese [[temple]] at Judge [[William Peters|William Peters's]] [[Belmont Mansion]], near Philadelphia. Even more common are descriptions of vistas from the garden to the world beyond. John Parke Custis (1717), [[Hannah Callender Sansom]] (1762), [[George Washington]] (1785), and [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1804) all used the term to describe framed views created by land cleared of trees (see Prospect).

[[File:0326.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, William Russell Birch, “The View from Springland,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 2.]]

[[File:0727.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.]]

Views were carefully planned and manipulated by a variety of techniques. The architecture of the dwelling often included exterior viewing platforms such as [[porch]]es, [[piazza]]s, [[portico]]s, and [[veranda]]s [Fig. 4]. Views of the house often were choreographed by carefully designed approaches, which allowed a visitor to catch glimpses of the house as he or she arrived and departed. As an 1837 article in the ''Horticultural Register'' noted, the view should be “so divided into different scenes or compartments” by various types of vegetation. Garden buildings or [[seat]]s, such as those seen at [[Montgomery Place]] [Fig. 5], and those placed under a cluster of trees in [[Charles Fraser|Charles Fraser's]] painting of [[Rice Hope]] [Fig. 6], punctuated the landscape with invitations to pause and to admire the vista. Distant views were framed by plantings or by pruned trees, as at [[The Woodlands]] and at [[Springland]] [Fig. 7]. Their composition was also influenced by elevated mounts, such as those flanking the front [[gate]]s of [[Mount Vernon]]; or by openings in [[hedge]]s, trees, and [[wall]]s [Fig. 8].

Another element of view-making was the use of barriers (such as [[wall]]s, [[fence]]s, and [[hedge]]s) to screen less [[picturesque]] elements of a [[plantation]]. This technique was reported in 1790 in a description of the [[Elias Hasket Derby Farm]] in Peabody, Mass. John Trumbull’s 1792 plan for [[Yale College]] included instructions for a similar barrier that would provide a screen for the nose as well as the eyes. Inscribed on the plan is the directive that “The Temples of Cloacina [or priveys] (which it is too much the custom of New England to place conspicuously), I would wish to have concealed as much as possible, by planting a variety of Shrubs, such as Laburnums, Lilacs, Roses, Snowballs, Laurels, &c.”<ref>John Trumbull describing his plan for Yale College, New Haven, Connecticut. Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Picture Collection, 48-A-46, box 1, folder 2.</ref>

In urban settings, where lot size and the proximity of buildings limited sightlines into the distance, gardens often reflected treatises’ instructions to enhance views with smaller property. Such structures as [[temple]]s or [[summerhouse]]s were placed in gardens to serve as both focal points and viewing platforms (see [[Belvedere]]). These effects could also be achieved without building; in 1758 Theophilus Hardenbrook advertised designs for “Niche’s eyetraps ''trompe l’oeil'', to represent a building, terminating a [[walk]], or to hide some disagreeable object” in the New York Gazette. Treatises also suggested enhancing small gardens by laying out [[walk]]s or [[terrace]]s with converging (rather than parallel) sides to create the impression of greater depth. Similarly, such features as alleys or [[avenue]]s with dimensions that appeared to converge created the illusion of distance from the viewer.

Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe has commented that in England the importance of the creation of views and prospects “became apparent when the enclosed medieval walled garden gradually expanded into walled gardens of more than one compartment—preparing the way for a unity of design in the 17th c.”<ref>Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe, “Vista,” in ''Oxford Companion to Gardens'', ed. Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 590, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S392BPJ8 view on Zotero].</ref> In England the importance of views into the countryside increased as a principle of garden design and as an aspect of changing land use and property-holding practices.<ref>For an example of the design practices used in creating views and prospects in eighteenth-century English gardens, see Douglas Chambers, “Prospects and the Natural Beauties of Places: Joseph Spence,” in ''The Planters of the English Landscape Garden'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993), 164–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S3BW6ZQK view on Zotero]. For a discussion of changing land-use practices and their implications on the organization of sight in landscape gardening, see Denis E. Cosgrove, ''Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 189–222, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZTXKTCT view on Zotero]; Raymond Williams, ''The Country and the City'' (London: Palladin, 1973) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TR28NC32 view on Zotero]; Simon Pugh, ed., ''Reading Landscape: Country, City, Capital'' (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1990) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9T4DIAXW view on Zotero], including the essay by John Barrell, “The Public Prospect and the Private View: the Politics of Taste in Eighteenth-Century Britain,” 19–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DF29TKTA view on Zotero].</ref> For historians of American gardens, understanding the visual organization of space is equally important not only because it was a fundamental principle of imported garden design, but also because it was a key factor in the design of gardens in America’s unique political, economic, and social setting. Abigail Adams’s poetic rendering of the view from Richmond Hill, New York, in 1789 evokes not only a romantic view of nature but also a vision of American estates as villas, linking the new nation to a past era of republican ideals.<ref>For a fuller discussion of the villa in the New World, see James Ackerman, ''The Villa: Form and Ideology of Country Houses'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EC879QB view on Zotero].</ref> In 1824, Benjamin Silliman described [[Monte Video]] in Connecticut as poised between a [[wilderness]] of “rocks and forest” and a “vast sheet of cultivation, filled with inhabitants.” His evocative description expresses the landscape’s capacity to inspire both a sense of quiet contemplation and a connection to the industry and “frolicks” of village life.

Understanding the visual logic of American gardens has been particularly important in deciphering gardens as social commentary. For example, the reconstruction of specific viewing platforms, focal points, and openings in the visual barriers of a garden ([[wall]]s, [[fence]]s, rows of trees) provides valuable information about the ways in which people were intended to circulate in a garden.<ref>Elizabeth Kryder-Reid, “The Archaeology of Vision in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Gardens,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 14 (Spring 1994): 42–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJX4M93V view on Zotero], and Kryder-Reid, “Sites of Power and the Power of Sight: Vision in the California Mission Landscape,” in Dianne Harris and D. Fairchild Ruggles, ''Sites Unseen: Landscape and Vision'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007), 181–212, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8SGWDUKH view on Zotero].</ref> At Fairmount Park in Philadelphia, for instance, the stairs and viewing [[pavilion]]s created an explicit route through the grounds with carefully orchestrated views that are apparent in myriad illustrations and descriptions of the site. In another example, the triangular terraced garden built by Charles Carroll of Carrollton in Annapolis during the 1770s created very different visual effects depending upon where the viewer stood. A passerby on Spa Creek saw [[terrace]]s that elevated and accentuated an impressive Georgian brick house. A visitor permitted to stroll to the top [[terrace]] was treated to a sweeping view of the creek and countryside beyond, an effect enhanced by the foreshortening of the [[terrace]]s and [[fall]]s, the placement of [[pavilion]]s at the ends of the sea [[wall]], and the spreading angle of the brick [[wall]] marking the garden’s hypotenuse. Only those permitted into the house, with its privileged views overlooking the [[terrace]]s, gained the vantage point to appreciate the garden geometry with its 3–4–5 proportions and [[parterre]] planting patterns.

The organization of vision may also provide information regarding the social hierarchy that is encoded in gardens. For instance, Dell Upton has argued that the terraced gardens of such [[plantation]]s as John Tayloe II’s [[Mount Airy]] in Richmond County inscribed the status of Virginia’s whites and blacks into the topography. The landscape design of [[gate]]s, ramps, [[terrace]]s, and [[walk]]s created a series of physical and social hurdles that each individual had to navigate differently, depending on his or her social standing in colonial society.<ref>Dell Upton, ''Holy Things and Profane: Anglican Parish Churches in Colonial Virginia'' (New York: Architectural History Foundation and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76MUH9HK view on Zotero], and “White and Black Landscapes in Eighteenth-Century Virginia,” in ''Material Culture in America, 1600–1860'', ed. Robert Blair St. George (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), 357–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N9BT889P view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usages===
*Custis, John Parke, April 1717, describing Gov. Alexander Spotswood’s improvements to the gardens of the Governor’s Palace, [[Williamsburg, VA]] (quoted in Martin 1991: 38)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I happened to be at the Governors, and he was pleased to ask my consent, to cut down some trees that grew on my Land to make an opening, I think he called it a '''visto''', and told me would cut nothing but what was only fitt [''sic''] for the fire. . . . As to the clearing his '''visto''', he cut down all before him such a wideness as he thought fitt [''sic''].”

*Anonymous, May 22, 1749, describing the dwelling house of [[Alexander Garden]], Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:“From the house ''Ashley'' and ''Cooper'' rivers are seen, and all around are '''visto’s''' and pleasant prospects.”

*Ball, Joseph, September 8, 1758, describing property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letterbook)

:“I have a Strang Hankering after a bit of Land upon Linhaven Creek. I would have it on the West or South side where it is Saved already. I want no more than fifty Acres. It must be bounding upon the Creek side; nigh a good Spring: and where I may have a full '''View''' of the Sea.”

*[[Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . from these Windows down a '''Wisto''' terminated by an [[Obelisk]]. . . . we left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into '''Visto’s''', in the midst a [[Chinese Taste|chinese]] [[temple]], for a [[Summerhouse|summer house]], one [[avenue]] gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the [[obelisk|Oblisk]].”

*Eddis, William, October 1, 1769, describing the Governor’s House, Annapolis, MD (1792: 17)<ref>William Eddis, ''Letters from America: Historical and Descriptive; Compromising Occurances from 1769 to 1777 Inclusive'' (London: Printed for the author, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZMDDRPFN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The garden is not extensive, but it is disposed to the utmost advantage; the centre [[walk]] is terminated by a small green mount, close to which the Severn approaches; this elevation commands an extensive '''view''' of the bay, and the adjacent county. . . . there are but few mansions in the most rich and cultivated parts of England, which are adorned with such splendid and romantic scenery.”

*[[Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 26)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“open a '''vista''' to the millpond, river, road, etc. qu, if a '''view''' to the neighboring town would have a good effect?”

*Anonymous, January 28, 1771, describing the [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (''New York Gazette'')

:“The Commodious house and large gardens, in the out-ward of this city, known by the name of [[Vauxhall Garden|VAUX-HALL]]; the situation extremely pleasant, having a very extensive '''view''' both up and down the North-River.”

*Anburey, Thomas, September 2, 1781, describing the Moravian community in Bethlehem, PA (1781; repr., 1969: 2:513)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'', 2 vols. (1789; repr., New York: New York Times and Arno Press, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The house of the single men is upon the same principle as that of the women; upon the roof of which is a Belvidere, from whence you have not only a most delightful [[prospect]], but a distinct '''view''' of the whole settlement.”

*Shippen, Thomas Lee, December 31, 1783, describing [[Westover]], seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, ''Westover Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Imagine then a room of 20 feet [[square]] . . . and commanding a '''view''' of a prettily falling grass [[plat]] . . . about 300 by 100 yards in extent an extensive [[prospect]] of James River and of all the Country and some Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s on the other side.”

*[[Washington, George]], March 15, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:103)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Began to open '''Vistos''' throw the Pine [[grove]] on the Banks of H. Hole.”

*Enys, Lt. John, December 1, 1787, describing the mall in Boston, MA (Cometti, ed., 1976: 202)<ref name="Cometti">Elizabeth Cometti, ed., ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“After Dinner we took a walk on the [[Mall]]. . . . From hence we went to Beacon Hill from whence we had a Charming '''View''' of the town and harbour.”

*Enys, Lt. John, January 26, 1788, describing [[Belvedere]], estate of Gov. John Eager Howard, Baltimore, MD (Cometti, ed., 1976: 235)<ref name="Cometti"></ref>

:“there are some very Charming [[prospect]]s from some of the Hills, among the rest from the [[Seat]] of Colol. Howard which is situated on an [[eminence]] but is well coverd by trees from all the cold winds, has a charming '''View''' of a Water fall at a Mill, a long Rapid below it, a full '''View''' of the town of Baltimore and the Point with the shipping in the harbour, the Bason and all the Small craft, with a very distant [[prospect]] down the river towards the Chasapeak Bay. The whole terminated by the surrounding Hills forms a fine Picture.”

*G., L., June 15, [1788], describing [[The Woodlands]], home of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1989: 19)<ref>Karen Madsen, “To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” ''Arnoldia'' 49 (1989): 14–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K567H4M4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[The [[walk]]s were] planted on each side with the most beautiful & curious flowers & shrubs. They are in some parts enclosed with the Lombardy poplar except here & there openings are left to give you a '''view''' of some fine trees or beautiful [[prospect]] beyond, & in others, shaded by arbours of the wild grape, or [[clump]]s of large trees under which are placed [[seat]]s where you may rest yourself & enjoy the cool air.”

*Adams, Abigail, 1789, describing Richmond Hill, NY (quoted in Hammond 1982: 179)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In front of the house the noble Hudson rolls, his majestic waves bearing upon his bosom innumerable small vessels which are constantly carrying the rich products of the neighboring soil to the busy hand of a more extensive commerce. Beyond the Hudson rises to our '''view''' the fertile country of the Jerseys, covered with a golden harvest and pouring forth plenty like the cornucopia of Ceres. On the right hand an extensive plain presents us with a '''view''' of fields covered with verdure and pastures full of cattle; on the left, the city opens upon us, intercepted only by [[clump]]s of trees and some rising ground. . . . If my days of fancy and romance were not past, I could find here an ample field for indulgence.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing Nassau Hall, Princeton, NJ (1789; repr., 1970: 294)<ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“Its situation is exceedingly Pleasant and healthful. The '''view''' from the college balcony is extensive and charming.”

*Smith, William Loughton, September 8, 1790, describing a house in Albany, NY (1917: 54)<ref name="Loughton Smith">William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790–1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I took a walk to General Schyler’s; his house is a large, [[square]] brick one, with a flat roof; it stands on a rising ground above the river, and enjoys a commanding '''view'''.”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing [[Elias Hasket Derby Farm]], Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[231] 22. . . . The Principal Garden is in three parts divided by an open slat [[fence]] painted white, & the [[fence]] white washed. It includes 7/8 of an Acre. We ascend from the house two steps in each division. The passages have no [[gate]]s, only a naked [[arch]] with a key stone frame, of wood painted white above 10 feet high. Going into the Garden they look better than in returning, in the latter '''view''' they appear from the unequal surface to incline towards the Hill. . . . Beyond the Garden is a Spot as large as the Garden which would form an admirable [[orchard]] now improved as a [[Kitchen garden]], & has not an ill effect in its present state.”

*[[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing St. Simon’s Island, GA (1928: 72)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This delightful habitation was situated in the midst of a spacious [[grove]] of Live Oaks and Palms, near the strand of the bay, commanding a '''view''' of the inlet.”

*Smith, William Loughton, April 23, 1791, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1917: 63)<ref name="Loughton Smith"></ref>

:“the '''view''' extends up and down the river a considerable distance, the river is about two miles wide, and the opposite shore is beautiful, as is the country along the river . . . embracing the magnificence of the river with the vessels sailing about; the verdant fields, [[wood]]s, and [[park]]s.”

*Spooner, Rev. John Jones, 1793, describing May-cox Plantation, estate of David Meade, Prince George’s County, VA (1923: 8)<ref>John Jones Spooner, “A Topographical Description of the County of Prince George in Virginia, 1793,” ''Tyler’s Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine'' 5 (1923): 1–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PE72ZT2X view on Zotero].</ref>

:“These grounds contain about twelve acres, laid out on the banks of the James river, in a most beautiful and enchanting manner. Forest and fruit trees are here arranged, as if nature and art had conspired together to strike the eye most agreeably. Beautiful '''vistas''', which open as many pleasing '''views''' of the river; the land thrown into many artificial hollows or gentle swellings, with the pleasing verdure of the turf; and the complete order in which the whole is preserved, altogether tend to form it one of the most delightful rural [[seat]]s that is to be met with in the United States, and do honour to the taste and skill of the proprietor, who was also the architect.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1795–97, describing Pottsgrove, PA (1799: 1:35)<ref> François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. by Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. by H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The landscape is beautiful along this road, abounding with a great variety of fine '''views''', wonderfully enlivened by the verdure of the cornfields and [[meadow]]s. . . . If agriculture were better understood in these parts; if the fields were well mowed and well fenced; and if some trees had been left standing in the middle or on the [[border]]s of [[meadow]]s, the most beautiful parts of Europe could not be more pleasing.”

*Twining, Thomas, May 7, 1795, describing [[Belvedere]], estate of Gov. John Eager Howard, Baltimore, MD (1894: 115)<ref>Thomas Twining, ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago'' (New York: Harper, 1894) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKJBU8CP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Situated upon the verge of the descent upon which Baltimore stands, its grounds formed a beatiful slant toward the Chesapeak. From the taste with which they were laid out, it would seem that America already possessed a Haverfield or a Repton. The spot, thus indebted to nature and judiciously embellished, was as enchanting within its own proper limits as in the fine '''view''' which extended far beyond them. The foreground presented luxurious shrubberies and sloping [[lawn]]s: the distance, the line of the Patapsco, and the country bordering on Chesapeak Bay.”

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, PA (1798: 58–59)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“One sunny afternoon, I was standing in the door of my house, when I marked a person passing close to the edge of the bank that was in front. . . .
:“such figures were seldom seen by me, except on the road or field. This [[lawn]] was only traversed by men whose '''views''' were directed to the pleasures of the [[walk]], or the grandeur of the scenery.”

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 1798, describing the countryside of Virginia (1977: 473–75)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

:“When you stand upon the summit of a hill, and see an extensive country of [[wood]]s and fields without interruption spread before you, you look at it with pleasure. On the Virginia rivers there are a thousand such positions. But this pleasure is perhaps very much derived from a sort of consciousness of superiority of position to all the monotony below you. But turn yourself so as to include in your '''view''' a wide expanse of Water, contrasting by its cool blue surface, the waving, and many colored carpet of the Earth, your pleasure is immediately doubled, or rather a new and much greater pleasure arises. An historical effect is produced. The trade and the cultivation of the country croud [''sic''] into the mind, the imagination runs up the invisible creeks, and visits the half seen habitations. A thousand circumstances are fancied which are not beheld, and the indications of what probably exists, give the pleasure which its '''view''' would afford. Having satiated your eye with this [[prospect]], retire within the [[Grove]], so that the foreground shall consist of trees, and shadowy earth. The landscape is immediately lightened up with a thousand new beauties, arising from the novelty of the Contrast. This particular effect, of seeing a distant '''view''' glittering among near objects is familiar to every observer. The Landscape is now become a perfect composition.”

*Anonymous, October 2, 1798, describing a property for sale in Spotsylvania County, VA (''Virginia Herald'')

:“The improvements on it are, a comfortable dwelling house, with all necessary out houses, situated on a beautiful [[eminence]], commanding a '''view''' of the greater part of the lower ground.”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Nazareth, PA (1800: 45)

:“From the top of this house [recitation room and Inspector’s study], we were entertained with picture-like '''views''' in every direction.”

*Thornton, Anna Maria Brodeau, September 22, 1802, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Library of Congress, Papers of Anna Maria Brodeau, 1793–1863)

:“The House is situated on the very summit of the mountain, on a circular level, formed by art, commanding a '''view''' of all the surrounding country, the small town of Charlottesville and a little winding river . . . with a '''view''' of the blue ridge & even more distant mountains form a beautiful scene on the north side of the house.—There is something grand & awful in the situation but far from convenient or in my opinion agreeable—it is a place you wo’d rather look at now & then than live at.”

*Anonymous, February 18, 1803, describing a property for sale in Orange County, VA (''Virginia Herald'')

:“There is a convenient dwelling house and other out houses, fixed on an elevated situation and commands a beautiful '''view''' of the mountains and of the lower country, which added to the health and agreeableness of the neighbourhood, renders the place truly desirable.”

*[[Jefferson, Thomas]], 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Jefferson Papers)

:“'''Vistas''' to very interesting objects may be permitted, but in general it is better so to arrange the [[thicket]]s as that they may have the effect of '''vista''' in various directions. . . .
:“the ground between the upper & lower roundabouts to be laid out in [[lawn]]s & [[clump]]s of trees, the [[lawn]]s opening so as to give advantageous catches of [[prospect]] to the upper roundabout.
:“'''Vistas''' from the lower roundabout to good portions of [[prospect]].”

*Caldwell, John Edwards, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1951: 38–39)<ref>John Edwards Caldwell, ''A Tour through Part of Virginia, in the Summer of 1808; Also, Some Account of the Islands of the Azores'', ed. by William M. E. Rachal (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8F26GMXG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The roofs of the passages, and range of buildings, form an agreeable [[walk]], being flat and floored, and are to have a Chinese railing round them; they rise but a little height above the [[lawn]], that they may not obstruct the '''view'''.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 20, 1809, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“If thus far the eye has been pleased from viewing these fine productions of art, how much more will it be gratified when contemplating the [[prospect]] that bursts upon the sight from the Centre of the Saloon! The verdant [[meadow]], the spacious [[lawn]], [the] [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill's]] lucid stream, the floating [[bridge]], the waves here checked by the projecting rock, then overshadowed by inclining trees, until, by meandering in luxuriant folds, the winding waters lead the entranced eye to Delaware’s proud river, on whose swollen bosom rich merchant ships are seen. . . . Such are in part, the beauties of this delightful scenery, & had the '''view''' terminated with highlands or some o’er-towering mountain, no [[prospect]] could have been more perfect.”

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Charles Willson Peale, Sketches of Belfield, 1810.]]
*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Miller and Ward 1991: 54)<ref>Lillian B. Miller and David C. Ward, eds., ''New Perspectives on Charles Willson Peale'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press for the Smithsonian Institution, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PU8TV8SD/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In this '''view''' imagine that you see a beautiful [[Meadow]] on the right. The Tennants House seems to terminate the lane, from thence it turns up a Gentle declivity to the Mansian, of which you see the Top of a Red roof on the left over the hill. formerly a road went over this hill at the dotted lines.” [Fig. 9]

[[File:0088.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''View to the North from the Lawn at Mount Vernon'', 1796.]]
*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1927: 174)<ref name="Elbridge">Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Back of the mansion is a summer house, which commands an elegant '''view''' of the Potomac.” [Fig. 10]

*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1927: 180–81)<ref name="Elbridge"></ref>

:“A door opens at each end, one into the hall, and opposite, one into the [[terrace]], from whence you have an elegant '''view''' of all the rivers &c.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], November 22, 815, in a letter to his daughter, Angelica Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 43)<ref name="Rudnytzky">Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have also painted . . . a tolerable large Landscape almost finished, it is a '''View''' of the Garden and most of the Buildings, as seen from what we call my [[seat]] in the Walk to the mill,—difficult part in it, that is, a representation of the down hill or rather Valley between the point of sight and the Garden—
:“The whole comprehending a tolerable handsome '''View''', including Trees of various folliages— But what must render this Picture more interesting, will be some Portraits setting on the Bench under a Beach Tree, (as yet a Small Tree) but being the nearest object, it must be most distinctly finished, The declining [[Meadow]] will form a charming background for the figures on the Bench. There should also be figures in various parts of the Ground to give animation to the sciene, all of which are yet to be done. I intend it for the Museum when finished to my mind I wish I could have you as one of the figure on the Bench.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], August 4, 1816, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 44)<ref name="Rudnytzky"></ref>

:“I have been so long neglecting the '''view''' I am about in [the] garden that the trees & [[shrubbery]] have grown so high that I cannot represent them truly without almost totally hiding the [[walk]]s, therefore I shall prefer leaving out many of them—and also make them smaller.”

*[[Forman, Martha Ogle]], April 29, 1819, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 80)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have never seen Rose Hill look more beautiful. When the cherry trees on the [[lawn]] are in full bloom, and the Apple trees unfolding their lovely blossoms, it forms a most pleasing '''view''' of nature.”

*Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing [[Monte Video]], property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, CT (1824: 12–15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From this place [the summit] you have a '''view''' of the [[lake]], of the boat at anchor on its surface, gay with its streamers and snowy awning: of the white building at the north extremity of the water, and, (rising immediately above it,) of forest trees and bold rocks, intermingled with each other, and surmounted by the Tower. . . .
:“Along this road the house, the tower, the [[lake]], &c. occasionally appear and disappear, through the openings in the trees; in some parts of it, all these objects are shut from your '''view'''; and in no part is the distant '''view''' seen, until passing through the last group of [[shrubbery]] near the house, you suddenly find yourself within a few [[yard]]s of the brow of the mountain, and the valey with all its distinct minuteness, immediately below, where every object is as perfectly visible, as if placed upon a map. ...
:“Everything in this '''view''', is calculated to make an impression of the most entire seclusion; for, beyond the water, and the open ground in the immediate neighbourhood of the house, rocks and forests alone meet the eye, and appear to separate you from all the rest of the world. But at the same moment that you are contemplating this picture of the deepest solitude, you may without leaving your place, merely by changing your position, see through one of the long Gothic windows of the same room, which reach to a level with the turf, the glowing western valley, one vast sheet of cultivation, filled with inhabitants, and so near, that with the aid only of a common spy-glass, you distinguish the motions of every individual who is abroad in the neighbouring village, even to the frolicks [sic] of the children, and the active industry of the domestic fowls, seeking their food, or watching over, and providing for their young. From the same window also, when the morning mist, shrouding the world below and frequently hiding it completely from '''view''', still leaves the summit of the mountain in clear sunshine, you may hear through the dense medium, the mingled sounds, occasioned by preparation for the rural occupations of the day.
:“The other branch of the path, after leaving the defile, passes to the east side of the northern ridge, and thence you ascend through the [[wood]]s, to its summit, where it terminates at the Tower, standing within a few rods of the edge of the precipice. The tower is a hexagon, of sixteen feet diameter, and fifty-five feet high; the ascent, of about eighty steps, on the inside, is easy, and from the top which is nine hundred and sixty feet above the level of Connecticut river, you have at one '''view''', all those objects which have been seen separately from the different stations below. The diameter of the '''view''' in two directions, is more than ninety miles, extending into the neighbouring states of Massachusetts and New-York, and comprising the spires of more than thirty of the nearest towns and villages.”

*Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, 1825, describing Mount Holyoke, MA (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:109)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the top of Mount Holyoke, which commands, perhaps, one of the most extensive '''views''' in these States, the whole country, as you look down upon it resembles one vast garden divided into [[parterre]]s.”

*Sheldon, John P., December 10, 1825, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 5)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson,“‘The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Delightful [[seat]]s, surrounded by various kinds of trees and [[shrubbery]], with gardens containing summer houses, '''vistas''', embowered [[walk]]s, &c meet your '''view''' in almost every direction, [[wood]]s sloping gently to the river’s edge, by the side of smooth [[lawn]]s, add to the pleasing variety of the scene; and the [[Schuylkill]], with its noble dam and [[bridge]]s serves as a most beautiful finish to the foreground.”

*[[Smith, Margaret Bayard]], August 17, 1828, describing [[Montpelier]], plantation of James Madison, Montpelier Station, VA (1906: 233)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were at first conducted into the Drawing room, which opens on the back [[Portico]] and thus commands a '''view''' through the whole house, which is surrounded with an extensive [[lawn]], as green as in spring; the [[lawn]] is enclosed with fine trees, chiefly forest, but interspersed with weeping willows and other ornamental trees, all of most luxuriant growth and vivid verdure. It was a beautiful scene!”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/283TSTEV? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the [[piazza]], and from the bank on the west side of the house we have a charming '''view''', extending to the opposite side of the river, of the blue summits of the Catskill mountains, and many gentlemen’s [[seat]]s, and cultivated farms.”

*Breck, Joseph, February 1, 1836, describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43)<ref>Joseph Breck, “Gardens, Hot-Houses, &c., in the Vicinity of Boston,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (February 1, 1836): 41–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IK2ZAWSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the mansion from the road is by a winding [[avenue]] through a fine [[grove]] of ancient deciduous trees. The first '''view''' of the garden and ranges of glass structure, as we emerged from the [[grove]], was truly magnificent.”

*Lyell, Sir Charles, 1846, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by '''views''' into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing Baltimore, MD (1850: 332–33)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening, new ed., corr. and improved'' (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“856. ''[[Public Garden]]s''. . . .
:“''At Baltimore'', the public [[walk]] is along a fine [[terrace]] belonging to a fort nobly situated on the Patapsco, and commanding the approach from Chesapeake Bay, and a magnificent '''view''' of the city and river. . . .” <ref>Loudon 1850, vol. II, 303.</ref>
{{break}}

===Citations===

* Dezallier d’Argenville, Antoine-Joseph, 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 13)<ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dezallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . ,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE fourth Thing required in a good Situation, is, the '''View''' and [[Prospect]] of a fine Country.”

* [[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xviii–xix)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A Pavillion design’d for Sir ''John Curzon'' for his [[Seat]] near ''Derby''. It is a Cube of 20 feet, adorn’d with three Venetian Windows, circular Niches for Busto’s [''sic''], and an Entablature supported by Rustick Coines. There were two of them to have been built opposite to one another, on each side of a '''Vista''' proposed to be cut through a [[Wood]], and to be terminated with an [[Obelisk]] upon a Hill fronting the House; the execution of which was prevented by Sir ''John’s'' Death.”

* [[Langley, Batty]], 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc.,1728; repr., London: Garland: 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c''. . . .
:“III. That '''Views''' in Gardens be as extensive as possible.
:“IV. That such [[Walk]]s, whose '''Views''' cannot be extended, terminate in [[Wood]]s, Forests, mishapen Rocks, strange Precipices, Mountains, old Ruins, grand Buildings, ''&c''.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“GLADE, in agriculture, gardening, &c.a '''vista''', or open and light passage, made through a thick [[wood]], [[grove]], or the like; by lopping off the branches of trees along the way. See [[AVENUE]], GROVE, ''&c''.”

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 639–41)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE buildings admitted into gardens may be arranged under two general heads; those which are erected as objects in themselves, and those from which [[prospect]]s and other objects are to be viewed. The first are the principal in their nature and purpose: they require elegance, and the eye expects something in them worthy to detain its attention. The places for these in a good garden are to be variously chosen; on [[eminence]]s, or in shadowy scenes: to terminate the '''view''' as objects, or to surprise the unexpecting eye in a recess of contemplation. We have observed that in many places '''views''' are to be closed; as where the nature of the ground requires it; or where an unpleasing [[prospect]] or object is to be shut out: the [[seat]], building, [[temple]], or whatsoever name or rank its form or bigness give it, is to be accommodated to all these considerations. Where the sole intent is to admit a [[prospect]], and give repose after walking, the form may be plain and simple, convenient and unornamented. . . .
:“When a garden is already made in an ill spot, all that can be done is to open agreeable '''views''' by clearing away [[wall]]s and [[hedge]]s in the ground; and trees, and sometimes even buildings, when ill-placed, ill-looking and of little value: this is to be done when something pleasing, some '''view''' of elegant, wild nature can be let in; and where that cannot be, some [[pavilion]], such as we have described, or shall describe, must shut out unalterable deformity.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''VIEW''', vu’. s. [[Prospect]]; sight, power of beholding; act of seeing; sight, eye; survey, examination by the eye; intellectual survey; space that may be taken in by the eye, reach of sight; appearance, show; display, exhibition to the sight or mind; [[prospect]] of interest; intention, design.”

*[[Marshall, William]], 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1:260, 263)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE [[WALK]], in extensive grounds, is as necessary as the [[Fence]]. The beauties of the place are disclosed that they may be seen; and it is the office of the [[walk]] to lead the eye from '''view''' to '''view'''. . . .
:“THE direction of the [[walk]] ought to be guided by the ''points of '''view''''' to which it leads. . . .
:“[[SEAT]]S have a two-fold use; they are useful as places of rest and conversation, and as guides to the points of '''view''', in which the beauties of the surrounding scene are disclosed. Every point of '''view''' should be marked with a [[seat]], and, speaking generally, no [[seat]], ought to appear, but in some favourable point of '''view'''.”

*[[Repton, Humphry]], 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 74 and 153)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“it is hardly possible to convey an adequate and distinct idea of those numerous objects so wonderfully combined in this extensive '''view'''; the house, the church, the [[lawn]]s, the [[wood]]s, the bold promontory of Beechy Head, and the distant plains bounded by the sea, are all collected in one splendid picture, without being crowded into confusion.
:“This '''view''' is a perfect ''landscape'', while that from the tower is rather a ''[[prospect]]''; it is of such a nature as not to be well represented by painting; because its excellence depends upon a state of atmosphere, which is very hostile to the painter’s art. . . .
:“Yet the summit of a naked brow, commanding '''views''' in every direction, may require a covered [[seat]] or [[pavilion]]; for such a situation, where an architectural building is proper, a circular [[temple]] with a dome, such as the [[temple]] of the Sybils, or that of Tivoli, is best calculated.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 100)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE Kitchen-garden is a principal district of garden-ground allotted for the culture of all kinds of esculent herbs and roots for culinary purposes, &c. . . .
:“As to the situation of this garden, with respect to the other districts . . . it should generally be placed detached entirely from the pleasure-ground; also as much out of '''view''' of the front of the habitation as possible, at some reasonable distance, either behind it, or towards either side thereof, so as its [[wall]]s or other [[fence]]s may not obstruct any desirable [[prospect]] either of the pleasure-garden, fields, or the adjacent country.”

*[[Abercrombie, John]], with [[James Mean]], 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 472)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''view''' FROM the house, and TO the house, cannot always be consulted with mutual improvement. When a high [[terrace]] with ornaments which appear to mark the boundary of the architect’s province, is interposed between the house and the [[lawn]], the '''view''' immediately under the windows cannot certainly be so pleasant as if the house stood in a verdant field:—but let the [[prospect]] be reversed, and every stranger will see more grandeur in the house connected by a [[terrace]] with the garden; and perhaps among the spectators under the influence of cultivated taste, a few may think such a gradation conduces to general harmony.”

*Nicol, Walter, 1823, ''The Villa-Garden Directory'' (1823: 4–5)<ref>Walter Nicol, ''The Villa-Garden Directory, or Monthly Index of Word, to Be Done in Town and Villa Gardens, Shrubberies and Parterres'' (Edinburgh: Archibald Constable, 1823), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DF9Z32E5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Next to the error of rearing high [[fence]]s, is that of bounding the whole premises by a close and connected belt of [[shrubbery]]. . . .
:“from no point can a '''view''' of distant objects be had, without being interrupted by this [[edging]]; which is perplexing to the eye, in a great measure, although the situation of the house may be such as to admit of looking over it.
:“Instead of this formal belt or [[edging]], a few festoons or groups of various dimensions, being hung on the outer [[fence]], with intervening single trees, sometimes pretty close to the groups, and sometimes more detached, so as to form irregular '''vistas''', would be more airy, and also more in character here.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''VIEW''', ''n. vu''. [[Prospect]]; sight; reach of the eye. . . .

::“2. The whole extent seen. ...

::“3. Sight; power of seeing, or limit of sight. . . .

::“4. Intellectual or mental sight. . . .

::“5. Act of seeing. . . .

::“6. Sight; eye. ...

::“7. Survey; inspection; . . .

::“9. Appearance; show. . ..

::“10. Display; . . .

::“11. [[Prospect]] of interest.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 127–28, 130)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In forming [[plantation]]s of trees and shrubs, so as to produce a pleasing landscape effect, few rules can be given which would apply generally. . . .
:“In grounds of any considerable extent, the '''view''' of the whole should never be taken in at once; but it should be so divided into different scenes or compartments, which may be bounded by trees, that only a small part is visible at first to the spectator; but as he advances new and varied [[prospect]]s open upon him, so that he is agreeably surprised to find, that what at first seemed to terminate his view, only served to introduce him to new beauties. . . .
:“At favorable points, and those only, should the '''view''' be left open for more distant scenes. Sometimes by a judicious arrangement, the same objects seen from different places, may be made to present quite different aspects by appearing to group differently. The [[walk]] should be so directed as not to exhibit these '''views''' except at the most advantageous points. A bend in a [[walk]] should always exist from some cause either real or apparent. . . .
:“If it [the house] is situated on an [[eminence]], the back as well as front '''view''' may be exhibited to great advantage, and the effect will be heightened if a '''view''' of water can be then enjoyed. Limited [[prospect]]s and neighboring buildings not worthy of notice, may be concealed by [[plantation]]s of trees. The appearance of distance may be increased by planting trees of dark green and large dense foliage on the foreground, and those of light and airy foliage in the distance; this will produce the same effect as shades in a landscape picture. Trees and shrubs in front of the house should be planted and pruned so as to present a chaste and neat appearance; imitations, therefore, of the wilder scenes of nature, such as rocks, [[cascade]]s, old trees, and festoons of climbing plants, should be situated back and more remote.”

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVSJBZIX/q/wyllys view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To command a '''view'''—to have the advantage of shade, and shelter, and water—to have the barn and out-buildings near, yet not conspicuous; to permit of easy drainage from the cellar, if it is necessary; to be easy of access from the highway; these are to be considered.”

[[File:0376.jpg|thumb|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country Seat, after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 114, fig. 24. Downing notes with dotted lines that “fine distant views are had through the vistas in the lines ''e e.''”]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 113–14)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“a ground plan of the place is given, as it would appear after having been judiciously laid out and planted, with several years’ growth. . . . It will be seen here, that one of the largest masses of [[wood]] forms a background to the house, concealing also the outbuildings; while, from the windows of the mansion itself, the trees are arranged so as to group in the most pleasing and effective manner; at the same time broad masses of turf meet the eye, and fine distant views are had through the '''vistas''' in the lines ''e e''.” [Fig. 11]

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850: 1239)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''VIS’TA''', ''n''. [It., sight; from L. ''visus'', ''video''.]
:“A ''view'' or [[prospect]] through an [[avenue]], as between rows of trees; hence, the trees or other things that form the [[avenue]].
:“The finished garden to the '''view'''
:“Its '''''vistas''''' opens and its [[alley]]s green. ''Thomson''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], March 1850, “How to Arrange Country Places” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 396)<ref>A. J. Downing, “How to Arrange Country Places,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 9 (March 1850): 393–96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7HNUGQK2/q/how%20to%20arrange view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The first principle in ornamental planting, is to study the ''character of the place'' to be improved, and to plant in accordance with it. If your place has breadth, and simplicity, and fine open '''views''', plant in groups, and rather sparingly, so as to heighten and adorn the landscape, not shut out and obstruct the beauty of [[prospect]] which nature has placed before your eyes.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1055.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, “Four Designs for Cloisters,” in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. 9.

File:1391.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Frontispieces of Trellis Work for the Entrances into Temples of View, Arbors, Shady Walks, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII.

File:0245.jpg|Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A View of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.

File:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A View of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

File:0189.jpg|Thomas Coram, ''View in St. James’s Goose Creek, Charles Glover, Esqr.'', 1792.

File:0140.jpg|Thomas Coram, ''View in St. James’s Goose Creek, Charles Glover, Esqr.'', 1792.

File:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A View of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

File:0088.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View to the North from the Lawn at Mount Vernon'', 1796.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''View of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796.

File:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

File:0326.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “The View from Springland,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 2.

File:0731.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], ''View from Springland'', c. 1808.

File:0876.jpg|Unknown, View of the Battery Looking North from the Churn, c. 1812.

File:0517.jpg|Joshua Tucker, ''South East View of Greenvill[e], SC'', possibly 1825.

File:1367.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], In planting with a view to natural beauty, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1008, fig. 691.

File:1027.jpg|Anonymous, “View of Mount Auburn,” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836): 234.

File:1114.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “View from Ruggle’s House, Newburgh (Hudson River),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 1, pl. 25.

File:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

File:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View N. W. at Blithewood'', c. 1841.

File:0894.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of view from J.C. Mallory’s property, 1841–44.

File:1975.jpg|James Smillie (artist), “View from Battle Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 79.

File:0435.jpg|Edward Hicks, ''The Cornell Farm'', 1848.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “View in the Grounds at Hyde Park,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

File:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country Seat, after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. Downing notes with dotted lines that “fine distant views are had through the vistas in the lines ''e e.''”

File:1660.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of conservatory designed for gentleman’s country seat, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), 95, fig. 32.

File:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, ''View of Washington'', c. 1850.

File:1970.jpg|James Smillie and E. G. Dunnel (engraver), “View from Mount Auburn, Mount Auburn Cemetery,” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 112.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0047.jpg|Anna Peale Sellers, after [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Belfield Farm, Germantown, PA'', Late 19th century.

File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, View of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.

File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From Montgomery Pl. looking up river'', n.d.

File:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728).

File:0343.jpg|George Isham Parkyns, ''Mount Vernon'', 1795.

File:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), “Mount Vernon in Virginia,” 1800.

File:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''Mount Vernon'', 1806.

File:0043.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''Lemon Hill'', 1807.

File:0320.jpg|William Russell Birch, “York-Island, with a View of the Seats of M.<sup>r</sup> A. Gracie, M.<sup>r</sup> Church &c.,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 17.

File:0873.jpg|[[John Rubens Smith]], ''Washington, looking up Pennsylvania Avenue from the Terrace of the Capitol'', 1809–34.

File:0116.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, Sketches of Belfield, 1810.

File:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from ''A Map of the City of Washington'', 1818.

File:0251.jpg|Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', c. 1820.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

File:1052.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.

File:1458.jpg|Henry Cheever Pratt, ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

File:1298.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''View of the Waterworks at Fairmount'', 1835–36.

File:0539.jpg|John Henry Bufford, “Fairmount from the first Landing,” sheet music cover for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.

File:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A View of the Fairmount Water-Works with Schuylkill in the distance, taken from the Mount'', 1838.

File:1103.jpg|W. Mason, “Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane,” c. 1841, in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane: With a Sketch of Its History, Buildings, and Organization'' (1851), frontispiece.

File:0328.jpg|Anonymous, “Front View of the Mansion at Mount Vernon,” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on agriculture from His Excellency George Washington . . .'' (1847), opp. 14.

File:0362.jpg|Anonymous, “Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 8.

File:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, ''View of Washington'', 1852.

File:1265.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: View of Barn Complex and Gardens'', 1852.

File:1266.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: View of Gardener’s Cottage and Barns'', 1852.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

File:0844.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Montgomery Place—Shore Seat'', n.d., drawing. The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook, c. 1830–50.

File:1388.jpg|[[Batty Langley]], “Design of a Garden and Wilderness in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

File:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748–50.

File:0037.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772.

File:0271.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Mrs. John Watson'', 1791.

File:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Master Plan for Yale College, 1792.

File:0522.jpg|Joseph Steward, ''John Phillips (1719–1795), Dartmouth Trustee, 1773–1793'', 1794–96.

File:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of Mount Vernon looking towards the South West'', 1796.

File:1138.jpg|William Groombridge, ''View of Lemon Hill'', c. 1800.

File:0509.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Rice Hope'', c. 1803.

File:0742.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], ''Design for a Garden for George Reed, New Castle, Delaware'', c. 1805.

File:0323.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “View from the Elysian Bower, Springland, Pennsylv<sup>a</sup>, the residence of M.<sup>r</sup> W. Birch,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 20.

File:0325.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], ''Sweet Briar'', c. 1808.

File:0486.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay & Harbour of New York, From the Battery,” in ''Bourne Views of New York'' (1831), plate 8.

File:0739.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “Landsdown,” before 1834.

File:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

File:0464.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

File:0727.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.

File:1675.jpg|Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 17.

File:0438.jpg|Anonymous, ''Leaving the Manor House'', c. 1850-55.

File:0152.jpg|George Hayward after J. Anderson, ''View of The Belvedere Club House'', 1794, 1828.

</gallery>

==Notes==
<references>
</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Vision]]

Clump

2019-06-17T16:04:42Z

A-brey: added links for Bernard M'Mahon

See also: [[Grove]], [[Plantation]], [[Shrubbery]], [[Thicket]], [[Wood]]

==History==

[[File:0195.jpg|thumbnail|left|Fig. 1, [[Francis Guy]], ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.]]
The clump emerged as a garden feature in the 18th century in both England and America. The earliest treatises available in North America defined a clump as a group of seven or eight trees planted to form a single unit [Fig. 1]. ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769) stipulated that this grouping of trees was “without shape or order,” and Samuel Johnson (1755) referred to a clump as “a shapeless piece of wood.” Johnson, however, added that the feature was “nearly equal in its dimensions,” suggesting thatit was round in plan. Geographer Jedidiah Morse’s 1789 description of the “circular clumps” at [[Mount Vernon]] indicates that some Americans interpreted rounded, symmetrical groupings of trees as clumps.

English author Thomas Whately in 1770 provided an extensive discussion of clumps that was often cited by later treatise writers . He characterized a clump as a smaller version of a “close [[wood]]” or an “open [[grove]]. ” Unlike his predecessors, Whately insisted that a clump could be made of two trees and that the most agreeable form of it “extended rather in length than in breadth,” thus contradicting Johnson’s stipulation that a clump was “nearly equal in its dimensions.” Whately’s argument that clumps should be irregular in form derived from contemporary debates in landscape gardening that cautioned against the artificial appearance of overly regularized forms. In short, irregularity suggested the desired quality of naturalness (see [[Landscape gardening]] and [[Modern style]]). To adhere to the new aesthetic of naturalness, clumps had to display both a variety of vegetation and forms according to the scenery in which they were placed.

The composition of clumps varied according to American treatise writers and observers. [[Bernard M’Mahon]] in 1806 was inclusive when he stated that clumps could be composed solely of trees or [[shrub]]s, or a mixture of trees, [[shrub]]s, and herbaceous plants. Ten years later, [[G. (George) Gregory]] in his ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816) suggested that clumps “of [[shrub]]s all of the same kind” created “good” effects. Clumps from a mixture of larger and smaller deciduous trees, such as the horse chestnut and red bud, were created at [[Monticello]], as described by [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1807).

The arrangement of plant material within clumps was equally varied. An article in the 1833 volume of the ''New England Farmer'' recommended that “a proper system” be adopted in order to avoid “a heterogeneous mass, without meaning, without taste or design.” By contrast, American gardeners John Gardiner and David Hepburn, in the ''American Gardener'' (1804), recommended the use of a graduated [[slope]] for such plantings.

Regarding the placement of this feature in the landscape, Whately distinguished between two modes. “Independent clumps,” considered “beautiful objects in themselves” could be used to “break an extent of [[lawn]]” or as a “continued line . . . of ground or of [[plantation]].” “Relative clumps,” however, planted in relation to other garden features, could be used to create harmonies and contrasts, thus unifying the disparate parts of landscape garden into a single composition. Whately’s disparagement of artifice led him to regard independent clumps with suspicion because of their obvious artificiality. The best treatment of an independent clump, according to Whately, was the placement of “open” clumps (meaning that the plant material was well spaced) “at the point of an abrupt hill, or on a promontory into a [[lake]] or river,” where it served to focus the viewer’s attention. “Relative clumps” were more natural, according to Whately’s aesthetic, and a sensitive placement of them intensified the viewer’s visual experience of the garden by providing a succession of open and occluded [[view]]s.
[[File:0099.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 2, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Sketch plan for landscaping the grounds of the President’s House, c. 1802–5.]]

[[Thomas Jefferson]], when writing in 1804 of his plan to create “advantageous catches of [[prospect]]” through the careful planting of clumps, was clearly familiar with Whately’s guidelines for “relative clumps.” This idea was especially apparent when [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] specified that he intended to break up his “canvas” of [[grove]]—“trimmed very high, so as to give it the appearance of open ground”—with “clumps of [[thicket]], as the open grounds of the English are broken by clumps” of trees. Even in the 1830s when other garden styles, such as the [[gardenesque]], were current, garden designers still envisioned clumps as a means to control access to a [[view]], as in [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey’s]] 1835 description in ''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' of Mansion House in Brookline, Massachusetts (see [[Gardenesque]]).

[[File:0372.jpg|thumbnail|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, A clump, in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A.J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 96.]]
Several late 18th- and early 19th-century American gardens exemplify the use of clumps according to Whately’s categories. [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Benjamin Henry Latrobe's]] 1807 plan for the White House made use of planting features that corresponded to relative clumps, positioned to create a transition from the [[wood]] and garden [Fig. 2]. The notion that clumps could “relieve” the plainness of [[lawn]]s or [[wood]]s was found in [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey’s]] description in the ''Magazine of Horticulture'' of Mrs. Pratt’s house in Boston (1850), which noted how clumps “broke” the monotony of the landscape. At Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, H. A. S. Dearborn (1831) praised how the clumps of trees and [[shrub]]s helped to diversify the “[[picturesque]] sheets of water.”

The aesthetic concerns of Whately and his contemporaries were complemented by the material advantages that clumps offered. As Charles Marshall wrote in 1799, clumps of four or five fenced-in forest trees provided an excellent resource for timber. Americans who cleared away trees for their homesteads presumably perceived the advantage of leaving standing clumps of trees for later use as construction or heating materials, as indicated in P. Campbell’s 1793 description of the Catskill Mountains.

Several treatise writers, however, condemned clumps. British designer Humphry Repton, while acknowledging that groups of trees were important elements in landscape design, argued that “formal” clumps of trees of equal height surrounded by a [[fence]] for their protection were ugly deformities because of their sameness. In one of his earliest writings (1836), American designer [[A. J. Downing]] declared the clump to be perfect. By the time he wrote his treatise (1849), he confessed that experience had taught him that the clump was the product of an amateur ornamental planting. He judged trees of the same height that were planted equidistant from one another in a circular form as overly artificial [Fig. 3]. Like Repton, Downing instead recommended arranging trees in irregular patterns in order to achieve “variety, connexion, and intricacy.”

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Washington, George, March 2, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:97)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Planted the remainder of the Ash Trees—in the Serpentine [[walk]]s—the remainder of the fringe trees in the [[Shrubberies]]—all the black haws—all the large berried thorns with a small berried one in the middle of each '''clump'''—6 small berried thorns with a large one in the middle of each '''clump'''—all the swamp red berry bushes & one '''clump''' of locust trees.”

*G., L., June 15, 1788 [?], in a letter to her sister, Eliza, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1989: 19)<ref>Karen Madsen, “To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton’s Woodlands”, ''Arnoldia'', 49 (1989): 14–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K567H4M4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[The [[walk]]s were] planted on each side with the most beautiful & curious flowers & [[shrub]]s. They are in some parts enclosed with the Lombardy poplar except here & there openings are left to give you a view of some fine trees or beautiful [[prospect]] beyond, & in others, shaded by [[arbour]]s of the wild grape, or '''clumps''' of large trees under which are placed [[seat]]s where you may rest yourself & enjoy the cool air.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County (1789; repr. 1970: 381)<ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (1789; repr. Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . the lands in that side are laid out somewhat in the form of English gardens, in [[meadow]]s and grass grounds, ornamented with little [[copse]]s, circular '''clumps''' and single trees.”

*Campbell, P., April 9, 1793, describing the vicinity of the Hudson River in New York (1793: 287)<ref>P. Campbell, ''Travels in the Interior Inhabited Parts of North America, In the Years 1791 and 1792'' (Edinburgh: Printed by J. Guthrie, 1793), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K86ZBF42 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“On the east side I could see the country to be pretty closely inhabited, each farm having a '''clump''' of [[wood]] by it for fuel.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1796, describing Drayton Hall, plantation of John Drayton, Charleston, SC (1800: 2:438)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. by Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We stopped to dine with Dr. DRAYTON at Drayton-hall. The house is an ancient building, but convenient and good; and the garden is better laid out, better cultivated and stocked with good trees, than any I have hitherto seen. In order to have a fine garden, you have nothing to do but to let the trees remain standing here and there, or in '''clumps''', to plant bushes in front of them, and arrange the trees according to their height. Dr. Drayton’s father, who was also a physician, began to lay out the garden on this principle; and his son, who is passionately fond of a country life, has pursued the same plan.”

*Hamilton, Alexander, c. 1801–4, describing possible planting methods for Hamilton Grange, estate of Alexander Hamilton, New York, NY (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:263)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . some laurel should be planted along the edge of the [[shrubbery]] and round the '''clump''' of trees near the house.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1804, describing improvements for [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 111)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ground between the upper and lower roundabouts to be laid out in [[lawn]]s & '''clumps''' of trees, the [[lawn]]s opening so as to give advantageous catches of [[prospect]] to the upper roundabout.. . .
:“The canvas at large must be [[Grove]], of the largest trees, (poplar, oak, elm, maple, ash, hickory, chestnut, Linden, Weymouth pine, sycamore) trimmed very high, so as to give it the appearance of open ground, yet not so far apart but that they may cover the ground with close shade.
:“This must be broken by '''clumps''' of [[thicket]], as the open grounds of the English are broken by '''clumps''' of trees. plants for thickets are broom, calycanthus, altheas, gelder rose, magnolia glauca, azalea, fringe tree, dogwood, red bud, wild crab, kalmia, mezereon, euonymous, halesia, quamoclid, rhododendron, oleander, service tree, lilac, honeysuckle, brambles.”

*[[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” 1806, Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The <u>Approach</u>, its road, [[wood]]s, [[lawn]] & '''clumps''', are laid out with much taste & ingenuity.”

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], March 17, 1807, describing the White House, Washington, DC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“In removing the ground, it would certainly be necessary to go down in front of the colonnade to the level of about one foot below the bases of the [[Column]]s but, it will certainly not deprive this colonnade of any part of its beauty to pass behind a few gentle Knolls and groves or '''Clumps''' in its front, and much expense of removing earth would be thereby saved.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], April 16, 1807, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville (1944: 334)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>
{{break}}
<div style="overflow: auto;">
::::::::::{|
|N. E.|| {{pad|5px}} S. E.|| {{pad|5px}} S. W.|| {{pad|5px}} N. W.
|-
|'''clump'''|| {{pad|5px}} '''clump'''|| {{pad|5px}} '''clump'''|| {{pad|5px}} '''clump'''
|}
:_________________________________________________
:{|-
|13. Paper mulberries || {{pad|80px}} 2. || {{pad|50px}} 2. || {{pad|40px}} 5. || {{pad|40px}} 4
|-
|6. Horse chestnuts || {{pad|80px}} 3 || {{pad|50px}} 3
|-
|2. Taccamahac poplars || {{pad|80px}} 1 || {{pad|50px}} 1
|-
|4. purple beach || {{pad|80px}} 2 || {{pad|50px}} 2
|-
|2. Robinia hispida || {{pad|80px}} 1 || {{pad|50px}} 1
|-
|2. Choak cherries || {{pad|80px}} 1 || {{pad|50px}} 1
|-
|3. Mountain ash. || {{pad|80px}} — || {{pad|50px}} — || {{pad|40px}} 1 || {{pad|40px}} 2
|-
|Sorbus Aucuparia
|-
|2. Xanthoxylon || {{pad|80px}} 1 || {{pad|50px}} 1
|-
|1. Red bud ||{{pad|80px}} 1
|-
|}

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], November 1812, describing Poplar Forest, property of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Bedford County, VA (quoted in Chambers 1993: 75, 77)<ref>S. Allen Chambers Jr., ''Poplar Forest and Thomas Jefferson'' (Forest, VA: Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HEXFEBX9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Planted] '''clump''' of Anthenian & Balsam poplars at each corner of house. intermix locusts, common & Kentucky, red-bud, dogwoods, calycanthus, liriodendron.”

[[File:0117.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.]]
*Dearborn, H. A. S., September 30, 1831, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Ward 1831: 48)<ref>Malthus A. Ward, ''An Address Pronounced Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. & E. Buckingham, 1831) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P7GWBEPX view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . the small [[pond]]s and morasses converted into [[picturesque]] sheets of water, and their margins diversified by '''clumps''' and belts of our most splendid native flowering trees, and [[shrub]]s, requiring a soil thus constituted for their successful cultivation.” [Fig. 4]

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], February 1835, “Calls at Gardens and Nurseries,” describing Mansion House, country estate of Thomas H. Perkins, Brookline, MA (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 1: 73)<ref> Charles Mason Hovey, “Calls at Gardens and Nurseries,” ''American Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 1, no. 2 (February 1835): 68–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PMT6E6TC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are several large '''clumps''' of the above [Pinus Stròbus, Abies canadénsis, balsamífera, and Alba] which serve to break the view of the garden from the mansion.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the [[Pleasure Ground|pleasure grounds]] and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The remainder of the grounds on this side of the [[deer-park]] is specially appropriated to the use of the male patients. In this division is a fine [[grove]] of large trees, several detached '''clumps''' of various kinds and a great variety of single trees standing alone or in [[avenue]]s along the different [[walk]]s, which, of brick, gravel or tan, are for the men, more than a mile and a quarter in extent. The [[grove]]s are fitted up with [[seat]]s and [[summer house]]s, and have various means of exercise and amusement connected with them”

*Leuchars, R. B., February 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” describing the residence of Mrs. Pratt, near Boston, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 53)<ref>R. B. Leuchars, “Notes on Gardens and Gardening in the neighborhood of Boston,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 2 (February 1850): 49–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QAEQ7TUN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The landscape for a considerable distance is ornamented with, and broken by, individual trees, '''clumps''', and masses of cedars and pines, which, in summer, must have a fine effect, when contrasted with the lighter foliage of the deciduous trees.”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing the residence of William Bingham, Philadelphia, PA (1857: 1:414)<ref name="Watson">John Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants, and of the . . . Inland Part of Pennsylvania from the Days of the Founders'', 2 vols (Philadelphia: John Pennington and Uriah Hunt, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KRUCIMIP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The grounds generally he had laid out in beautiful style, and filled the whole with curious and rare '''clumps''' and shades of trees; but in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds, the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high [[fence]].”

*Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing Wilton, property of Joseph Turner, near Philadelphia, PA (1857: 2:478)<ref name="Watson></ref>

:“''Wilton'', the place once of Joseph Turner, down in the neck, was the ''nonpareil'' of its day. . . . Every possible attention was paid to embellishment, and the garden cultivation was superior. The grounds had ornamental '''clumps''' and ranges of trees.”
{{break}}
===Citations===

*Miller, Philip, 1733, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr. 1969: 1527)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr. New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In small Gardens, where there is not room for these magnificent [[Wilderness]]es, there may be some rising '''Clumps''' of Ever-greens, so designed as to make the Ground appear much larger than it is in Reality; and if in these there are some Serpentine-[[walk]]s well contriv’d, it will greatly improve the Places, and deceive those who are unacquainted with the Ground, as to its Size. These '''Clumps''' or little [[Quarter]]s of Ever-greens should be placed just beyond the plain Opening of Grass before the House, where the Eye will be carried from the plain Surface of Grass, to the regular [[Slope]] of Ever-greens, to the greatest Pleasure of the Beholder; but if there is a distant [[Prospect]] of the adjacent Country from the House, then this should not be obstructed, but rather a larger Opening allowed for the [[View]], bounded on each Side with these rising '''Clumps''', which may be extended to half the Compass of the Ground: and on the back Part from the Sight, may be planted the several kinds of flowering [[Shrub]]s, according to their different Growths, which will still add to the Variety. These small [[Quarter]]s should not be surrounded with [[Hedge]]s, for the Reasons before given for the larger [[Plantation]]s; nor should they be cut into Angles, or any other studied Figures, but be designed rather in a rural manner; which is always preferable to the other, for these Kinds of [[Plantation]]s.”

*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CLUMP'''. ''n.s.'' [formed from ''lump''.] A shapeless piece of [[wood]], or other matter, nearly equal in its dimensions.”

*Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769: n.p.)<ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[AVENUE]]. . . .
:“The old method of planting [[avenue]]s was with regular rows of trees, and this has been always kept till of late; but we have now a much more magnificent way of planting [[avenue]]s: this is by setting the trees in '''clumps''' or platoons, making the opening much wider than before, and placing the '''clumps''' of trees about three hundred feet distant from one other. In each of these '''clumps''' there should be planted either seven or nine trees; but it is to be observed, that this is only to be practised where the [[avenue]] is to be of some considerable length, for, in short [[walk]]s, this will not appear so sightly as single rows of trees. The [[avenue]]s made by '''clumps''' are fittest of all for [[park]]s. The trees in each '''clump''' should be planted thirty feet asunder, and a trench should be thrown up round the whole '''clump''', to prevent the deer from coming to the trees to bark them. ''Miller’s Gard. Dict. . . .''
:“'''CLUMP''', a number of trees growing together without shape or order.”

*Whately, Thomas, 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr. 1982: 53–58)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1782; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It has been already observed, that '''clumps''' differ only in extent from a [[wood]], if they are close; or from a grove, if they are open. . . . But besides the properties they may have in common with [[woods]] or with [[grove]]s, they have others peculiar to themselves, which require examination.
:“They are either ''independant'' or ''relative''; when independant, their beauty, as single objects, is solely to be attended to; when relative, the beauty of the individuals must be sacrificed to the effect of the whole, which is the greater consideration.
:“The least '''clump''' that can be, is of two trees; and the best effect they can have is, that their heads united should appear one large tree; two therefore of different species, or seven or eight of such shapes as do not easily join, can hardly be a beautiful groupe, especially if it have a tendency to a circular form. Such '''clumps''' of firs, though very common, are seldom pleasing; they do not compose one mass, but are only a confused number of pinnacles. The confusion is however avoided, by placing them in succession, not in clusters; and a '''clump''' of such trees is therefore more agreable when it is extended rather in length than in breadth. . . .
:“If humbler growths at the extremity can discompose the strictest regularity, the use of it is thereby recommended upon other occasions. It is indeed the variety peculiarly proper for '''clumps''': every apparent artifice affecting the objects of nature, disgusts; and '''clumps''' are such distinguished objects, so liable to the suspicion of having been left or placed on purpose to be so distinguished, that to divert the attention from these symptoms of art, irregularity in the composition is more important to them than to a [[wood]] or to a [[grove]]; being also less extensive, they do not admit so much variety of outline: but variety of growths is most observable in a small compass; and the several gradations may often be cast into beautiful figures.
:“The extent and the outline of a [[wood]] or a [[grove]] engage the attention more than the extremities; but in '''clumps''' these last are of the most consequence: they determine the form of the whole; and both of them are generally in sight: great care should therefore be taken to make them agreable and different. The ease with which they may be compared, forbids all similarity between them: for every appearance of equality suggests an idea of art; and therefore a '''clump''' as broad as it is long, seems less the work of nature than one which stretches into length.
:“Another peculiarity of '''clumps''', is the facility with which they admit a mixture of trees and of shrubs, of wood and of grove; in short, of every species of plantation. None are more beautiful than those which are so composed. Such compositions are, however, more proper in compact than in straggling '''clumps''': they are most agreeable when they form one mass: if the transitions from very lofty to very humble growths, from thicket to open plantations, be frequent and sudden, the disorder ismore suited to rude than to elegant scenes.
:“The ''occasions'' on which independent '''clumps''' may be applied, are many. They are often desirable as beautiful objects in themselves; they are sometimes necessary to break an extent of lawn, or a continued line, whether of ground or of plantation; but on all occasions a jealousy of art constantly attends them, which irregularity in their figure will not always alone remove. Though elevations shew them to advantage, yet a hillock evidently thrown up on purpose to be crowned with a '''clump''', is artificial to a degree of disgust: some of the trees should therefore be planted on the sides,to take off that appearance. The same expedient may be applied to '''clumps''' placed on the brow of a hill, to interrupt its sameness: they will have less ostentation of design, if they are in part carried down either declivity. The objection already made to planting many along such a brow, is on the same principle: a single '''clump''' is less suspected of art; if it be an open one, there can be no finer situation for it, than just at the point of an abrupt hill, or on a promontory into a lake or a river. It is in either a beautiful termination, distinct by its position, and enlivened by an expanse of sky or of water, about and beyond it. Such advantages may ballance little defects in its form; but they are lost if other '''clumps''' are planted near it: art then intrudes, and the whole is displeasing. . . .
:“But though a multiplicity of '''clumps''', when each is an independant object, seldom seems natural; yet a number of them may, without any appearance of art, be admitted into the same scene, if they bear a ''relation'' to each other: if by their succession they diversify a continued outline of [[wood]]; if between them they form beautiful glades; if all together they cast an extensive lawn into an agreeable shape, the effect prevents any scrutiny into the means of producing it. But when the reliance on that ''effect'' is so great, every other consideration must give way to the beauty of the whole. The figure of the glade, of the [[lawn]], or of the [[wood]], are principally to be attended to: the finest '''clumps''', if they do not fall easily into the great lines, are blemishes: their connections, their contrasts, are more important than their forms.
:“A line of '''clumps''', if the intervals be closed by others beyond them, has the appearance of a [[wood]], or of a [[grove]]; and in one respect the semblance has an advantage over the reality. In different points of [[view]], the relations between the '''clumps''' are changed; and a variety of forms is produced, which no continued [[wood]] or [[grove]], however broken, can furnish. These forms cannot all be equally agreeable; and too anxious a sollicitude to make them every where pleasing, may, perhaps, prevent their being ever beautiful. The effect must often be left to chance; but it should be studiously consulted from a few principal points of [[view]]; and it is easy to make any recess, any prominence, any figure in the outline, by '''clumps''' thus advancing before, or retiring behind one another.
:“But amidst all the advantages attendant on this species of [[plantation]], it is often exceptionable when commanded from a neighbouring [[eminence]]; '''clumps''' below the eye lose some of their principal beauties; and a number of them betray the art of which they are always liable to be suspected; they compose no surface of [[wood]]; and all effects arising from the relations between them are entirely lost. A prospect spotted with many '''clumps''' can hardly be great: unless they are so distinct as to be objects, or so distant as to unite into one mass, they are seldom an improvement of a [[view]].”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:119, 122, 124–25, 129)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As to small [[plantation]]s, of ''[[thicket]]s, coppices, '''clumps''','' and ''rows'' of trees, they are to be set close according to their ''nature'', and the particular [[view]] the planter has, who will take care to consider the usual size they attain, and their ''mode'' of growth. An advantage at home for shade or shelter, and a more distant object of sight, will make a difference: for some immediate advantage, very close planting may take place, but good trees cannot be thus expected; yet if thinned in ''time'', a strait tall stem is often thus procured, which afterwards is of great advantage.
:“For little '''''clumps''''', or ''groupes'' of forest trees, (aselms) there may be planted three or four in a sport, within five or six feet of one another, and thus be easily fenced: having the air freely all round, and a good soil, such '''clumps''' produce fine timber. . . .
:“''RURAL and extensive gardening'' is naturally connected with a taste for planting ''forest trees''; and an idea of the ''[[picturesque]]'' should ever accompany the work of planting. Merely for the sake of ''objects'' to gratify the ''eye'', planting is very often pursued, and wherever trees can be introduced to improve a [[view]] from the ''house'', or accustomed [[walk]]s, ''there'' a man, having it in his power, a proprieter of the land, ought to plant.
:“If to planting in '''''clumps''', coppices, [[grove]]s, [[avenue]]s,'' and ''[[wood]]s'', be added levelling of ground, improving of water courses, and pastures, making [[lawn]]s, &c. the expense incurred would be ''honourable'', and answered by pleasures of the sincerest kind! . . .
:“If there is good room, ''single'' trees of the ''fir'' kind, at due distances, are admirable ornaments about a house, and '''clumps''' of [[shrub]]s all of the ''same'' kind have a good effect. . . .
:“Too much ''plain'' is to be guarded against, and when it abounds, the eye should be relieved, by '''''clumps''''' or some other agreeable object.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 14, 46)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Small [[plantation]]s of trees, surrounded by a fence, are the best expedients to form groupes, because trees planted singly seldom grow well; neglect of thinning and of removing the fence, has produced that ugly deformity called a '''''Clump'''''.
:“Thus Brown has been treated with ridicule bythe contemptuous observation, that all his improvements consisted in ''belting, '''clumping''','' and ''dotting''; but I conceive the two latter ought rather to be considered as ''cause'' and ''effect'', than as two distinct ideas of improvement; for the disagreeable and artificial appearance of young trees, when protected by what is a called a cradle [[fence]], together with the difficulty of making them grow thus exposed to the wind, induced Mr. Brown to form small '''clumps''' fenced round, containing a number of trees calculated to shelter each other, and to promote the growth of those few which might be ultimately destined to remain and form a group.
:“This I apprehend was the origin and intention of those '''clumps''', and that they never were designed as ornaments in themselves, but as the most efficacious and least disgusting manner of producing single trees and groups to vary the surface of a [[lawn]], and break its uniformity by light and shadow.”

*Gardiner, John and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 108)<ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener'', Expanded ed. of 1804 original (Georgetown, D.C.: Joseph Milligan, 1818), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RISZAN8M view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Plant roses, honeysuckles, jasmins, lilacs,double hawthorn, cherry blossom, and other hardy [[shrub]]s, when the weather is mild.—In forming a [[shrubbery]], plant the lowest shrubs in front of '''clumps''', and the tallest most backward, three to six feet apart, according to the bulk the shrubs grow. They will thus appear to most advantage.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 55–58)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In designs for a [[Pleasure-ground]], according to [[modern style|modern gardening]]; consulting rural disposition, in imitation of nature; all too formal works being almost abolished . . . instead of which, are now adopted, rural open spaces of grass-ground, of varied forms and dimensions, and winding [[walk]]s, all bounded with [[plantation]]s of trees, [[shrub]]s, and flowers, in various '''clumps'''. . . .
:“For instance, a grand and spacious open [[lawn]], of grass-ground, is generally first presented immediately to the front of the mansion, or main habitation; sometimes widely extended on both sides, to admit of a greater [[prospect]], &c. and sometimes more contracted towards the habitation; widening gradually outwards, and having each side embellished with [[plantation]]s of [[shrubbery]], '''clumps''', [[thicket]]s, &c. in sweeps, curves, and projections, towards the [[lawn]]. . . .
:“First an open [[lawn]] of grass-ground is extended on one of the principal fronts of the mansion or main house, widening gradually from the house outward, having each side bounded by various [[plantation]]s of trees, [[shrub]]s, and flowers, in '''clumps''', [[thicket]]s, &c. exhibited in a variety of rural forms, in moderate concave and convex curves, and projections, to prevent all appearance of a stiff uniformity. . . .
:“Each boundary must be planted with a choice variety of ornamental trees and [[shrub]]s, deciduous, and ever-greens, arranged principally in several '''clumps'''; some consisting of lofty trees, others being entirely of the shrub kinds, and some consisting of trees, [[shrub]]s, and herbaceous plants together: in all of which, arrange the taller growing kinds backward, and the lower forward, according to their gradation of height; embellishing the front with the more curious low flowering [[shrub]]s, and ever-greens, interspersed with various herbaceous flowering perennials, all open to the [[lawn]] and [[walk]]s. . . .
:“Another part shall appear more gay and sprightly, displaying an elegant flower-ground, or [[flower-garden]], designed somewhat in the [[parterre]] way, in various [[bed]]s, [[border]]s, and other divisions, furnished with the most curious flowers; and the boundary decorated with an arrangement of various '''clumps''', of the most beautiful flowering [[shrub]]s, and lively ever-greens, each '''clump''' also bordered with a variety of the herbaceous flowery tribe.”

*Nicol, Walter, 1812, ''The Planter’s Kalendar'' (1812: 41–42)<ref>Walter Nicol, ''The Planter’s Kalendar'' (Edinburgh: D. Willison for A. Constable, 1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEMUHDCC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We do not wish that our observations respecting [[grove]] [[plantation]]s, should be understood as affecting those '''clumps''', small patches of planting, or groups of trees that are merely intended to beautify the [[park]] or the [[lawn]]. Were such '''clumps''' planted for any other purpose, we doubtless would consider them as very improper appendages: but when properly pruned and thinned, they are very ornamental. The trees in such '''clumps''', however, should never be pruned up in imitation of [[grove]] trees, but should be feathered from the bottom upwards.”

*[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 1st American ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“GARDENING. . . .
:“If there is good room, single trees of the fir kind, at due distances, are admirable ornaments about a house, and '''clumps''' of [[shrub]]s all of the same kind have a good effect. . . .
:“Too much plane is to be guarded against; and when it abounds, the eye should be relieved by '''clumps''', or some other agreeable object.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 478–79)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A '''''clump''''' is a group of timber trees, too small to be called a [[grove]]. Mr. Price says, ‘that the '''clump''' is a union of two faulty extremes in the composition of landscape; it is at once too crowded and too scattered; it is close and lumpish when considered by itself, and scattered in respect to the general composition.’ But if a majestic tree raise its head in the centre, and one end of the '''clump''' be comparatively open and scattering, and the other part narrow and dense, the independent defect will be removed; the relative defect may be avoided, by taking care to throw round every '''clump''' some circumstances to connect it with the principal surrounding objects. '''Clumps''' are of great use in breaking an extent of [[lawn]], or relieving a line of [[plantation]] not sufficiently indented. To the sources of variety before noticed, may be added that of training some of the trees to feather down to the ground.”

[[File:1180.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], Assemblage of trees, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 942, fig. 628a–e. ]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 942, 965)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al, 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“6811. In regard to ''extent'', the least is a group (''fig''. 628. ''e'' and ''d''), which must consist at least of two plants; larger, it is called a [[thicket]] (''b c''); round and compact, it is called a '''clump''' (''a''); still larger, a mass; and all above a mass is denominated a [[wood]] or forest, and characterised by comparative degrees of largeness. The term ''[[wood]]'' may be applied to a large assemblage of trees, either natural or artificial; ''forest'', exclusively to the most extensive or natural assemblages. . . . [Fig. 5]
[[File:1364.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], Clump of Scotch pines, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 965, fig. 663.]]
:“6923. ''Ornamental plantations'' are no less frequently neglected than such as are considered chiefly useful. '''Clumps''', belts, and screens which have become thin, because they have not been thinned, are almost every where to be met with. ‘In those neglected plantations,’ says Lord Meadowbank, ‘where daylight may be seen for miles, through, naked stems, chilled and contracted by the cold, the mischief might, perhaps, be partially remedied, by planting young trees round the extremities, which, having room to spread luxuriantly, would exclude the winds, and the internal spaces might be thickened up with oak, silver firs, beeches, and such other trees as thrive with a small portion of light. When once the wind is excluded, the weakest of the old trees might be taken out, and the others left to profit by the shelter and space that is afforded.’ (''Life of Lord Kaimes, by Tytler.'') One of the most hopeless cases of improvement in this department is that of an old '''clump''' of Scotch pines . . . from which scarcely any trees can be taken without risking the failure of the remainder. The only way is to add to it, either by some scattered groups in one direction, or in various directions. Where a '''clump''' consists of a hard [[wood]], either entirely or in part, it may sometimes, if effect permits, be reduced to a group, by gradually reducing the number of the trees. The group left should be composed of two or three trees of at least two species, different in bulk, and some what in habit, in order that the combined mass may not have the formality of the '''clump'''.” [Fig. 6]

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CLUMP''', ''n''. [Ger. ''klump''; D. ''klomp''; Sw. ''klimp''; Dan. ''klump'', a ''lump''; W. ''clamp''. It is ''lump'' with a prefix. It coincides with ''plump'', and L. ''plumbum'', lead; as the D. ''lood'', G. ''loth'', Dan . ''lod''., Eng. ''lead'', coincide with ''clod''. It signifies a mass or collection. . . .]
:“1. A thick, short piece of [[wood]], or other solid substance; a shapeless mass. Hence ''clumper'', a clot or clod.
:“2. A cluster of trees or [[shrub]]s; formerly written ''plump''. In some parts of England, it is an adjective signifying lazy, unhandy. ''Bailey''.”

*Floy, Michael, September 24 and October 1, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74, 84)<ref>Michael Floy, “A Description of Trees and Shrubs, Producing a Succession of Flowers from Spring to Autumn,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, nos. 10–11 (September 24 and October 1, 1830): 74, 84, 92, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C3XFHEGJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Magnolia tripetala'', or Umbrella tree, is very majestic, the leaves very large, giving a fine shade, the flowers are also large and white. It should be planted in '''clumps''', or for the back ground of shrubbery. . . . :
:“''Magnolia glauca'', a small sweet scented magnolia, is best calculated for the centre row of the [[shrubbery]], or for '''clumps'''. This is a native of our country, from Jersey and Carolina, and is perhaps the pretiest [''sic''] shrub in the world, all things considered. It ought to be planted in every garden and [[shrubbery]].”
:“''Rhus cotinus'', Venetian sumach, Aaron’s beard, sometimes called fringe tree, is a fine shrub, calculated for the centre of the '''clump''' or [[shrubbery]].”

*Anonymous, December 5, 1833, “On Planting a Flower Garden” (''New England Farmer'' 11: 164)<ref>Anonymous, “On Planting a Flower Garden,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 11, no. 21 (December 5, 1833): 164, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AKUJF2PU/q/on%20planting%20a%20flower%20garden view on Zotero].</ref>

:“If a mixt flower garden, [[border]] or '''clump''', be the object in [[view]], particular attention must be given to the selection of sizes, colors, and the different times of flowering. In planting the different '''clumps''', a proportion of ornamental flowering [[shrub]]s may, with propriety, be admitted. The herbaceous plants should be such as produce large heads or masses of flowers—an equal number of every color, and so selected that some shall always be in flower during spring, summer, and fall, with as near a proportion of the different colors as possible. All this can be effected with a very few flowers, so that none need be deterred from forming a [[flower garden]], or properly distributing the various shades of color, under the impression that many plants are absolutely requisite to effect it. Much more regularity, and greater harmony in colors, may be effected by a select few, than by introducing a great number of sorts into one '''clump'''. For then a less distinctive or marked character would be the result. There should be a proper system decided upon before a single plant is planted, which will prevent the border or '''clump''' from appearing a heterogeneous mass, without meaning, without taste or design.”

[[File:1798.jpg|thumbnail|right|Fig. 7, [[J. C. Loudon]], A clump, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 1118, fig. 874a.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1834, ''An Encylopaedia of Gardening'' (1834: 1117–18)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1834), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TGQ5WTNR view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6310. ''Assemblages of trees'', whether natural or artificial, differ in ''extent'', outline, disposition of the trees, and kind of trees. “6311. In regard to extent, the least is a group. . . which must consist at least of two plants; larger, it is called a [[thicket]] (''b c''); round and compact, it is called a '''clump''' (''a''); still larger, mass; and all above a mass is denominated a wood or forest, and characterised by comparative degrees or largeness.” [Fig. 7]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1836, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of [[Vase]]s in Garden Scenery” (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 2: 283)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery,” ''The American Gardeners’ Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 2, no. 8 (August 1836): 281–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J5HZKZAG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“There can scarcely be ‘a more appropriate, agreeable and beautiful residence for a citizen who retires to the country for the summer, than a modern Italian villa, with its ornamented chimneys, its broad ''[[verandah]]'', forming a fine shady [[promenade]], and its cool breezy apartments. Placed where a pleasant [[prospect]] could be enjoyed—a few [[statue]]s distributed with taste over the well-kept [[lawn]]—a few Italian poplars, with their conical summits rising out of the gracefully-rounded '''clumps''' of foliage which should surround it—the whole would be quite perfect and delightful.’”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr. 1991: 95–97)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Nothing, at first thought, would appear easier than to arrange a few trees in the form of a natural and beautiful group,—and nothing really is easier to the practised hand. Yet experience has taught us that the generality of persons, in commencing their first essays in ornamental planting, almost invariably crowd their trees into a close, regular '''''clump''''', which has a most formal and unsightly appearance, as different as possible from the easy, flowing outline of the group.
:“‘Were it made the object of study’ said Price, ‘how to invent something, which, under the name of ornament, should disfigure a whole park, nothing could be contrived to answer that purpose like a '''''clump'''''. Natural groups, being formed by trees of different ages and sizes, and at different distances from each other, often too by a mixture of those of the largest size with others of inferior growth, are full of variety in their outlines; and from the same causes, no two groups are exactly alike. But '''clumps''', from the trees being generally of the same age and growth, from their being planted nearly at the same distance, in a circular form, and from each tree being equally pressed by his neighbor, are as like each other as so many puddings turned out of one common mould. Natural groups are full of openings and hollows, of trees advancing before, or retiring behind each other; all productive of intricacy, of variety, of deep shadows and brilliant lights: in walking about them the form changes at every step; new combinations, new lights and shades, new inlets present themselves in succession. But '''''clumps''''', like compact bodies of soldiers, resist attacks from all quarters; examine them in every point of [[view]]; [[walk]] round and round them; no opening, no vacancy, no stragglers; but in the true military character, ''ils sont face partout!''’” [See Fig. 3]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0099.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Sketch plan for landscaping the grounds of the President’s House, c. 1802–5.

File:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

File:1196.jpg|Humphry Repton, Sketch of Planting Clumps, in ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1805), 50.

File:0968.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of Monticello with oval and round flower beds [detail], 1807.

File:1364.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Clump of Scotch pines, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 965, fig. 663.

File:1798.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], A clump, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 1118, fig. 874a.

File:0372.jpg|Anonymous, A clump, in [[A.J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 96.

File:0580.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Mount Vernon” [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), 108.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1180.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Assemblage of trees, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 942, fig. 628a–e.

File:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): pl. opp. 280.

File:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''Mount Auburn Cemetery'', mid-19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, ''A View of the present Seat of his Excel. the Vice President of the United States'', 1790.

File:0058.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795–99.

File:0096.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for the garden of the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

File:0097.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a kitchen garden at the Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795–99.

File:0095.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of Mr. Derby[’s] Land,” 1800.

File:0195.jpg|[[Francis Guy]], ''Bolton, view from the South'', c. 1805.

File:0043.jpg|[[John Archibald Woodside]], ''Lemon Hill'', 1807.

File:0102.jpg|[[Joseph Jacques Ramée]], Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''View of the West Front of Monticello and Garden'', 1825.

File:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825–30.

File:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

File:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.

File:0419.jpg|John La Tourette, “University of the State of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.,” detail from ''Map of the State of Alabama'', c. 1837.

File:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

File:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851.

File:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

File:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851.

File:0019.jpg|Anonymous, House Lot, Gardens, and Orchard of Bacon’s Castle (after an 1843 survey plan), 1911, in Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (1991), 10. fig. 5.

File:0673.jpg|Archibald L. Dick, ''The Battle Ground at Germantown, Cliveden or Chew’s House'', n.d.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Conservatory

2019-06-17T16:01:31Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ link m'mahon

See also: [[Greenhouse]]. [[Hothouse]], [[Nursery]], [[Orangery]]

==History==

[[File:1635.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Robert B. Leuchars]], “End View of an Ornamental Conservatory,” in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), frontispiece.]]

[[File:1549.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “Villa in the Tudor Style” and “Principal Floor,” ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 12 (June 1849): pl. opp. 545.]]

Numerous published deﬁnitions of conservatory indicate that this structure was intended for sheltering citrus trees and other tender plants during the winter. The building type seems to have been invented in the 16th century in England and named by John Evelyn in the 17th.<ref>The purpose of this invention was “to conserve greens,” as noted by Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe et al., eds., ''The Oxford Companion to Gardens'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 234, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S392BPJ8 view on Zotero].</ref> Although the conservatory was sometimes a free-standing building [Fig. 1], by the early 19th century it also was often attached to or formed part of the house, as noted in a plan in the June 1849 issue of the ''Horticulturist'' [Fig. 2]. Several garden writers, including [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|C. M. Hovey]] and [[J. C. Loudon]], attempted to distinguish the conservatory from the frequently synonymous term “[[greenhouse]]” by arguing that the two forms were fundamentally different. In a conservatory, plants were placed in “free soil” in [[bed]]s or [[border]]s, whereas in the [[greenhouse]] they were placed in [[pot]]s or tubs. In spite of this distinction, the terms seem to have been used synonymously in both American and British garden traditions (see [[Greenhouse]], [[Hothouse]], and [[Orangery]]).

Citations of the terms afﬁrm their interchangeable nature. These references suggest no regional or chronological preference for one term over the other. If there was any nuance or difference in their usage, it was in references to a ﬁne house or structure with architectural pretensions. In these cases, the term “conservatory” seems to have been preferred over that of “[[greenhouse]],” which carried a less architectural and more utilitarian connotation. In his journal, the ''Horticulturist'', [[A. J. Downing]] offered many plans for villas and country houses with conservatories. It is interesting to note that in his presentation of house plans, the textual description of some examples used the term “conservatory.” Downing’s plans, however, were inscribed with the word “[[greenhouse]].” In another example, Downing was quite speciﬁc about the distinction between the conservatory and common [[greenhouse]], saying that the latter served to supply the former with plants only as they came into “perfection.” The result was that the conservatory was always ﬁlled with ﬂowers at the peak of bloom. This display of perennial blooms also led to the alternate name for the conservatory: winter garden. As collections became specialized, more speciﬁc terminology was used to describe the conservatory, such as pinery, grapery, or peachery.

[[File:0043.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[John Archibald Woodside]], ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.]]

In America, the term “conservatory” was applied to a variety of structures including large free-standing buildings, sometimes as long as eighty feet. The term was used also to describe modest spaces of eight to ten feet square (which sometimes were called “plant cabinets”), connected to a main house.<ref> A relationship probably exists between the plant cabinet and the cabinet of curiosities, in which rare and exotic natural history specimens were collected, dating from the 16th and 17th century in Europe. See essays in Oliver Impey and Arthur MacGregor, eds., ''The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe'' (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985), especially John Dixon Hunt’s essay, “Curiosities to Adorn Cabinets and Gardens,” 193–203, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DENVV2B8 view on Zotero].</ref> Although most descriptions record structures that were rectilinear in plan and longer than they were wide, centrally planned conservatories were also constructed. The architectural style of these buildings usually was matched to that of the houses with which they were associated. For example, [[Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline) Tuthill]] in her book ''History of Architecture from the Earliest Times'' (1848) singled out for praise a large conservatory with a variety of Gothic windows adorning an Elizabethan villa in New Haven.

The success of the conservatory depended upon the efﬁciency of its heating and ventilation systems. The structure might be as simple as a building with large south-facing windows and a glass roof (often removable) to maximize vertical sunlight. Some conservatories were heated by smoke ﬂues or indoor enclosed stoves.<ref>Jellicoe et al. 1986, 234, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S392BPJ8 view on Zotero].</ref> Another method of heating, mentioned by [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey]] (1837), was to run hot-water pipes under raised walkways within the structure or along one interior wall.

[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Hugh Reinagle, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden|Elgin Garden]] on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]

Loudon brought about a major technical revolution in horticultural architecture in 1812 when he suggested using cast iron and copper for a conservatory’s frames and sashes instead of the traditional structural material of wood. With metals, it became possible to build curving glass-and-iron structures that would last longer, require less mass than wood, and admit more light.<ref>J. C. Loudon, ''Hints on the Formation of Gardens and Pleasure Grounds'' (London: J. Harding, 1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8UG77FVD view on Zotero]. See Melanie Simo, ''Loudon and the Landscape: From Country Seat to Metropolis, 1783–1843'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), especially chapters 6 and 7, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CH73TQUN view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0852.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.]]

The conservatory was often positioned prominently within the garden because it represented the wealth and erudition of its owner. As John Abercrombie (1817) instructed, it was placed in a “conspicuous part of the [[Pleasure ground]], contiguous to” the house. Since the conservatory was built for the collection of exotics (plants that could not survive without the protection of the glass house), a certain aura of luxury or erudition was associated with the building.

When attached to the house, the conservatory often acted as a transitional space between the architecture of the house and the garden or landscape. [[C. M. Hovey|Hovey]] (1841) mentioned two examples where the conservatory could be opened by removing glass slats in the warm weather, giving the effect of a [[piazza]] adjoining the house.

[[File:1059.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, [[Robert Mills]], ''Elevation of the South Front'' and ''Plan of the First Floor'', National Institute, February 1841.]]

In the early republic, several of the most important botanical collections boasted large conservatories. Those at [[Lemon Hill]] in Philadelphia, dating from the late 18th century, were famous and often-illustrated landmarks [Fig. 3]. [[Elgin Botanic Garden]] in New York, founded in 1801 in association with the medical school of Columbia College, was represented in prints and paintings by its conservatory [Fig. 4]. The penchant for large private conservatories continued into the mid-19th century, illustrated by the conservatory designed in 1839 by Frederick Catherwood at [[Montgomery Place]] [Fig. 5].

[[File:1254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, John Notman, ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.]]

As the [[botanic garden]] became a part of [[public garden]]s and [[park]]s, its conservatories became popular places for socializing and spending leisure time in many towns and cities throughout America. As [[David Hosack|Dr. David Hosack]] said regarding conservatories in 1824, “[E]very such ediﬁce, in a place of great public resort, will . . . have its inﬂuence in forming and directing the general taste of the country. The novelty of beautiful and curious exotics provided entertainment and rational amusement.” When architect [[Robert Mills]] proposed a building for the National Institute in Washington, DC, in 1841, he presented a Gothic revival museum with four conservatories, ﬂanking the front and rear entrances [Fig. 6]. John Notman’s 1846 design for the Smithsonian Institution [Fig. 7] also featured both projecting conservatory and [[greenhouse]], mirror images of one another.

During the 1830s and 1840s, the increasing appearance of conservatories in America reﬂected the general fashion for horticultural pursuits among the middle classes. It paralleled the development of commercial [[nurseries]] and popular horticultural literature promulgated by writers such as [[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey]], [[Jane Loudon]], and Downing, who encouraged the collection of plants in the home. The fashion for amateur gardening, the availability of many new plants, and the possibility of less expensive construction encouraged the addition of small domestic conservatories, a trend that reached a peak in the Victorian era.

—''Therese O’Malley''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*[[Hosack, David]], 1806, describing [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (1806: 3–4)<ref>David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a '''Conservatory''', for the more hardy [[green-house]] plants, has been built.”

*[[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 55–57)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“One is led into the garden from the [[portico]], to the east or lefthand. or from the [[park]], by a small [[gate]] contiguous to the house, traversing this [[walk]], one sees many beauties of the landscape—also a fine [[statue]], symbol of Winter, & age,—& a spacious '''Conservatory''' about 200 yards to the West of the Mansion.
:“The <u>'''Conservatory'''</u> consists of a [[green house]], & 2 [[hot house]]s—one being at each end of it. The [[green house]] may be about 50 feet long. The front only is glazed. Scaffolds are erected, one higher than another, on which the plants in pots or tubs are placed—so that it is representing the declivity of a mountain. At each end are step-ladders for the purpose of going on each stage to water the plants—& to a walk at the back-[[wall]]. On the floor a walk of 5 or 6 feet extends along the glazed [[wall]] & at each end a door opens into an [[Hot house]]—so that a long walk extends in one line along the stove [[wall]]s of the houses & the glazed [[wall]] of the [[green house]].
:“The [[hothouse|Hot houses]], they may extend in front, I suppose, 40 feet each. They have a [[wall]] heated by flues—& 3 glazed [[wall]]s & a glazed roof each. In the center, a frame of wood is raised about 2 1/2 feet high, & occupying the whole area except leaving a passage along by the [[wall]]s. In the flue [[wall]], or adjoining, is a cistern for tropic aquatic plants. Within the frame, is composed a hot [[bed]]; into which the pots & tubs with plants, are plunged. This '''Conservatory''' is said to be equal to any in Europe. It contains between 7 & 8000 plants. To this, the Professor of botany is permitted to resort, with his Pupils occasionally.
:“As the position of many plants require external exposure in the Summer season that also is contrived with much ingenuity & beauty.
:“There are 2 large oval grass [[plat]]s in front of the '''Conservatory'''—& 2 behind. Holes are nicely made in these, to receive the pots & tubs with their plants, even to their rims. The tallest are placed in the centre, & decreasing to the verge. Thus they represent a miniature hill clothed with choice vegetation.”

[[File:0049.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece. ]]
*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John E. West, and Timothy B. Crane, 1810, describing the [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (quoted in Hosack 1811: 45)<ref>David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SE9V2UDD/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Estimate of the Buildings at the Botanic Garden.''
:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the '''conservatory''' or [[green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the [[gate]]s and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.” [Fig. 8]

*Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 12)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A great variety of beautiful [[shrub]]s and ﬂowers, mingle their rich and various tints, and shed around a delicious fragrance in this miniature '''conservatory''' of the beauties of nature.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of Henry Pratt, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The treasures contained in the hot and green houses are numerous. Besides a very ﬁne collection of Orange, Lemon, Lime, Citron, Shaddock, Bergamot, Pomegranate and Fig trees in excellent condition and full of fruit, we notice with admiration the many thousand of exotics to which Mr. Pratt is annually adding. The most conspicuous among these, are the tea tree; the coffee tree—loaded with fruit; the sugar cane; the pepper tree; Banana, Plantain, Guva, Cherimona, Ficus, Mango, the Cacti in great splendour, some 14 feet high, and a gigantic Euphorbia Trigonia—19 years old, and 13 feet high. The [[green house]]s are 220 feet long by 16 broad; exhibiting the ﬁnest range of glass for the preservation of plants, on this continent. [See Fig. 4]
:“Colonel Perkins, near Boston, has it is true, a grapery and peach [[Espalier]], protected by 330 feet of glass, yet as there are neither ﬂues not foreign plants in them, they cannot properly be called [[green house]]s, whereas Mr. Pratt’s are furnished with the rarest productions of every clime, so that the committee place the '''conservatory''' of [[Lemon Hill]] at the very head of all similar establishments in this country.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1834, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (1838: 1:54)<ref name="Martineau">Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''conservatory''' is remarkable for America; and the [[ﬂower-garden]] all that it can be made under present circumstances, but the neighbouring country people have no idea of a gentleman’s pleasure in his garden, and of respecting it.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (1838: 1:187)<ref name="Martineau"></ref>

:“The '''conservatories''' were almost in ruins, scarcely a single pane of glass being unbroken; and the house looked as if it had not been painted on the outside for years.”

*Breck, Joseph, February 1, 1836, describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43–44)<ref>Joseph Breck, “Gardens, Hot-Houses, &c., in the Vicinity of Boston,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (February 1, 1836): 41–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IK2ZAWSC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The garden is a [[square]], level [[plot]], bounded on the north side by the '''conservatories''', which, if we are not mistaken, are four hundred feet in length. On the east and west are high, substantial brick [[wall]]s, to which are trained a choice collection of fruit trees imported the last season, already formed for the purpose, some of which are protected by glass. The southern wall is very ornamental and substantial, and so low that the whole area and houses may be seen at a single glance outside the wall.”

*B., J., October 1, 1836, describing the garden of M. P. Sawyer, Portland, ME (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 380–81)<ref>J. B., “Horticulture in Maine,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (October 1, 1836): 380–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The garden of M. P. Sawyer, Esq. contains the only [[green-house]] of any note in the city or vicinity. This we visited, and found Mr Milne, who has charge of it, a man well skilled in his profession, and an ardent admirer of ﬂowers. There are two houses upon it—The ﬁrst a cold house for peaches and grapes, ﬁftythree feet long. The trees and vines were planted in it about the 20th June, 1835. The peach and some other trees are trained to the wall in a ﬁne manner, and will probably produce fruit another season. . . .
:“The other building is a common [[green-house]] or '''conservatory''', ﬁfty feet long, devoted in part to grapes.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], March 1837, describing the residence of N. I. Becar, New York, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 162–63, 164–65)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes on Some of the Nurseries and Private Gardens in the Neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia, Visited in the Early Part of the Month of March, 1837,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 3, no. 5 (May 1837): 161–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U77842TZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Attached to the garden of Mr. Becar is one of the ﬁnest '''conservatories''' I have ever seen. Indeed this, and that of Mr. Perry’s, in the same street, and but a short distance from Mr. Becar’s, taken together, may be considered as two of the best specimens of plant houses, in their peculiar style, that have ever been erected in the country. . . .
:“This structure is not attached to the house, as is Mr. Perry’s, the situation of the garden not allowing of this; the distance is however, but a few steps, and it is thus easily accessible to the family at any season of the year. The length of the '''conservatory''' is upwards of ﬁfty feet, and its width about ﬁfteen. It fronts the garden, from which it is entered in the centre, and also at the end; the former entrance not being made use of during the mid-winter. The '''conservatory''' is built with a span roof, but is glazed only on the sides, the back being a solid brick [[wall]]. The situation of the garden being low, and the adjacent ground in the rear of the '''conservatory''' very high, it was found necessary to have it constructed in this manner; the back wall thus forms an excellent place for training up various kinds of runners and creepers, and when covered with them, will present a beautiful display of foliage and blossoms. . . .
:“The interior of the house is constructed with a narrow [[border]] around the sides and ends, and an oblong [[bed]] in the centre; in the latter is planted out a great variety of choice plants, embracing several elegant and well grown specimens. The [[walk]] between this and the [[border]], all round, is paved with marble; at each end of the large [[bed]], is a beautiful marble [[vase]], in which were growing vigorously, and running over the [[edging|edges]], that brilliant little gem, the ''Verbèna chamaedrifòlia''. . . .
:“The '''conservatory''' is warmed by a hot water apparatus, constructed by Mr. Anderson, an engineer, of Brooklyn. It is neat in its appearance, (the pipes being made of cast iron and bronzed;) but we do not admire the pipes running above the [[border]]s. In our opinion there is no method so neat, and at the same time equally as well adapted for heat in all kinds of horticultural structures, as that of running the hot water pipes under the [[walk]]s, and allowing the heat to rise through a cast iron grating, or wooden trellis work.
:“''Residence of ___ Perry, Esq.—'' . . . The '''conservatory''' here is heated on the same system as Mr. Becar’s, and the whole apparatus is precisely like his. The length and width of Mr. Perry’s '''conservatory''' is about the same as that of Mr. Becar’s; and the only superiority it possesses over his, is the facility with which it is entered from the parlor; adjoining immediately to the house, it is accessible at any moment during the day or evening. We noticed that elegant lamps were suspended in different parts of the '''conservatory'''; these, on many occasions, are lighted, and an evening [[promenade]], much more extensive than most city gardens afford even in the summer season, and certainly presenting to the eye a far richer display of blossoms, can here be enjoyed during the most inclement weather of our long winters. The advantages are so many and important, of having the [[green-house]] connected with the mansion, either through the library or parlor, that we have often wondered at their generally isolated situation. This is particularly the case around Boston, where there is scarcely a [[green-house]], certainly not one of any size or beauty, which connects with the living rooms to the dwelling house. We hope that those who are about erecting plant structures will bear this in mind.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], August 1841, describing the residence of J. A. Perry, New York, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 367–68)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 321–27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R9KPSMKS view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''conservatory''', forming one wing of the house, and the [[hot-house]], we have before described, (Vol. V., p. 30.) Since then, there has been a palm-house added, which is one of the most lofty structures, as well as the only one, we believe, devoted to that peculiar purpose, in the country. It is the principal object of attraction, and connects the [[green-house]] and [[hot-house]] together, being built between the two. It is sixty feet long, and thirty-one wide, and twenty-eight feet high in the centre. It is built with a span roof, and side-sashes, which reach to the ground. The side lights are double, in order to keep out the cold air in winter, as it would require a great consumption of fuel, unless double sashes or outside shutters were used.
:“The interior arrangements of the palm-house are simply a large [[bed]] in the centre, with a [[walk ]]of four feet wide all round it. The hot-water pipes, three in number, occupy one side of the [[walk]]. The palms, and other plants, are planted out in the [[bed]], and presented a most vigorous and thrifty appearance.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], August 1841, describing the residence of James Dundas, Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 420)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from Aug. 8th to the 23d, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 412–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2V4QVP6I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The house fronts on Walnut street, with a small '''conservatory''' attached in the rear, and entered from one of the parlors. The house is built in the Grecian style, and the '''conservatory''' ﬁnished in good keeping with the architecture of the house, with pilasters, and a deep and ornamented entablature: it is about twenty feet in length, with a semicircular end, so that when the folding-doors are thrown open between that and the parlor, the whole appears as an oblong oval room, the end of the parlor being also semicircular: the doors which open into the hall and front room at the corners are set with the '''conservatory'''. In the evening, when the parlor is lighted up, this must have a most brilliant effect. The '''conservatory''' as well as the drawing-room, opens into a [[piazza]].”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], October 1843, describing the conservatory of James E. Teschemacher, Boston, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 9: 379–81)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Calls at Gardens and Nurseries,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 9, no. 10 (October 1843): 379–81, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/Q9A4BA9E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The old arrangement we described in our notice of the '''Conservatory''' some time ago. (Vol. V., p. 219.) It was that of a central, circular stage, diminishing to the top. On this stage nearly all the plants were placed, but in such crowded manner, that the effect of any ﬁne specimen was entirely lost. Only a small portion of the stage being seen at one time, no breadth of foliage could be obtained, and the effect intended by the arrangement,—that of presenting a mass of plants to the eye at once,—was quite destroyed. In looking at the stage every [[view]] was nearly the same; and whether seen from the gallery above, or the walk beneath, there was the same monotonous scene, a pyramid of plants. Besides these objections to the old arrangement, in regard to effect, one-half of the plants were always in the shade, and soon became sickly and diseased: the other half were exposed to the ﬁerce rays of the sun, and many of the leaves, particularly of the camellias, were scorched and much burnt every spring. The difﬁculty of watering the plants was also very great, and attended with much loss of time.
:“The entrance before was through the centre of the house, beneath the central stage: that entrance is now ﬂoored over, and in the same circle where the stage formerly stood, the plants are now placed, immediately upon the ﬂoor. The stairs are to the right and left of the entrance door, and land in the rear of the outer row of plants, so that no distinct view of the interior is obtained, until the spectator turns up one of the [[walk]]s which cross the house, when a splendid scene is presented to the eye. The dome of the '''conservatory''' is supported by four [[pillar]]s, placed so as to form the angles of a [[square]] in the centre: at the base of these are large boxes ﬁlled with rich earth, in which climbing plants are placed, intended to entwine and wreath around the columns with ﬂowers and foliage. . . . The open space formed by the [[square]], is intended for [[seat]]s, from whence every plant in the house may be partially seen, and the ﬁnest of them immediately before the eye. . . . The surface of the boxes being covered, afford an opportunity for the display of rare subjects, such as the exquisite Achimenes longiﬂora, gloxinias, new fuchsias, &c. On one side there is a crescent-shaped stage reaching to the gallery, on which are placed those plants which show to good advantage, and are too large to stand upon the ﬂoor. Arranged thus, the whole show at one view, and from the four [[walk]]s, which cross the circle, dividing it, as it were, into four quarters, as well as from the gallery, entirely new scenes follow the eye. That credit is certainly due to Mr. Teschemacher for the very [[picturesque]] and tasteful arrangement of the plants. There is nothing like the formal stiffness which was before exhibited, and one may now sit down and imagine himself in the midst of an open garden, studded with luxuriant creepers and [[shrub]]s. To young gardeners, and indeed to the amateurs of plants, there is the opportunity of a good study to learn the method of arrangement, which shall combine [[picturesque]] effect with economy of room. We have often thought if there was any one thing in which many of our best gardeners and amateur cultivators show a want of taste, it was in the arrangement of their [[greenhouse]] plants. There are indeed no [[walk]]s to make, by which
::
:: ‘Each [[ally]] has its brother,’
::
:but the principle is followed up of placing plant opposite plant, and making up a stage to resemble a clipt [[hedge]], with all its formality. This is wrong, but yet it is as well to do this, as to attempt any other arrangement, unless guided by principles of true taste, which can only be acquired by some thought and study. We would certainly invite gardeners and amateurs to look at the '''Conservatory''' under its new arrangement.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“ . . . we emerge in the neighborhood of the '''CONSERVATORY'''.
:“This a large, isolated, glazed structure, designed by MR. CATHERWOOD, to add to the scenic effect of the [[pleasure ground]]s. On its northern side are, in summer, arranged the more delicate [[green-house]] plants; and in front are groups of large Oranges, Lemons, Citrons, Cape Jasmines, Eugenias, etc., in tubs—plants remarkable for their size and beauty.” [See Fig. 6]

[[File:1012.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “An Elizabethan villa,” in [[Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline) Tuthill|Louisa C. Tuthill]], ''History of Architecture'' (1848), 284, fig. 40.]]
*[[Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline) Tuthill|Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline)]], 1848, describing the estate of Gerard Halleck, New Haven, CT (1848; repr., 1988: 284)<ref>Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms'' (1848; repr., Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1988),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero]</ref>

:“An Elizabethan villa, the country-[[seat]] of Gerard Halleck, Esq. It stands by the water-side, near the shore of New Haven harbour. The observatory commands an extensive and beautiful [[prospect]]. . . . The large '''conservatory''' on the southern side, with its range of Gothic windows, adds much to the beauty of the exterior. Sydney M. Stone, architect.” [Fig. 9]

*Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (''Journal of Medicine'' 10: 61)

:“The principle out-buildings on the premises are a barn, including stables and carriage-house, an [[Icehouse|ice-house]], and a [[green-house]], or '''conservatory'''. The barn is large, and built of stone in the most substantial manner. The [[green-house]] contains about seven hundred plants, many of them rare and beautiful exotics.”

*Massachusetts Horticultural Society, September 1848, describing the Twentieth Annual Exhibition in Boston, MA (1848: 4)

:“There was a great collection of Pot Plants from the various '''conservatories''', and [[green-house]]s of our amateurs and nurserymen, but for the want of room they were not exhibited to the greatest advantage. . . . Old Faneuil Hall never looked more lovely. The hallowed inﬂuence of fruits and ﬂowers, seemed to have dissipated the political atmosphere of mists in which the place is wont to be shrouded, and it appeared to smile like the garden of Eden.”

[[File:0369.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, “Mrs. Camac’s Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between 58 and 59, fig. 13.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing the Camac Cottage, near Philadelphia, PA (1849; repr., 1991: 58)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . there is a '''conservatory''' attached to the house, in which the plants in [[pot]]s are hidden in [[bed]]s of soft green moss, and which, in its whole effect and management, is more tasteful and elegant than any plant house, connected with a dwelling, that we remember to have seen.” [Fig. 10]

*Justicia [pseud.], March 1849, “A Visit to Springbrook,” seat of Caleb Cope, near Philadelphia, PA (''Horticulturist'' 3: 411)<ref>Justicia [pseud.], “A Visit to Springbrook, the Seat of the President of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 9 (March 1849): 411–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AAEZMA9A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Connected with the dwelling is a span-roofed '''conservatory''', ﬁlled with plants in bloom, including a carriage entrance, under glass, for the convenience of taking up the family in time of rain or sickness. Farther south is another span-roofed house, 32 feet long; one side for Geraniums, embracing 60 of the ﬁnest sorts and the other side for choice fancy Roses, many of them now in full bloom. Connected with this house is another, similar to it, for Azaleas, Rhododendrons, and other showy blooming plants of like treatment.”

*[[C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey|Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason)]], December 1849, describing Oatlands, residence of D. P. Manice, Hempstead, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 15: 529–30)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to Oatlands, Hempstead, L.I., N.Y., the Residence of D. F. Manice, Esq.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 15, no. 12 (December 1849): 529–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZIRK5R8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The house is a handsome building, in a kind of castellated gothic, standing about ﬁfty feet from the road, with the '''conservatory''' and [[hothouse]], and [[ﬂower garden]] on the left,—the [[kitchen garden]] and forcing-houses on the right,—and the [[lawn]] and [[pleasure ground]], in the rear of the house, separating it from the park. . . .
:“The '''conservatory''' is a large and lofty building, sixty feet by thirty, and fourteen feet to the eaves, with a span roof. The interior arrangements are a narrow [[border]] on the sides and ends, with a broad [[walk]] all round, and a large paved [[bed]] in the centre, on which the plants are placed. The '''conservatory''' and stove are both heated with a powerful hot water apparatus, by which a good temperature is easily obtained, though so many cubic feet of air are to be warmed. The '''conservatory''' connects with the stove, transversely, from which it is entered at one end, opening at the other to the [[ﬂower garden]].”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 443)<ref>Londoniensis [pseud.], “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2/q/Notes%20and%20Recollections%20of%20a%20Visit%20to%20the%20Nurseries%20 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Entering by this [[gate]] you ﬁnd yourself upon a ﬁne, smooth, [[promenade]] [[walk]], about sixteen feet wide, bordered on each side by circular masses of exotic ﬂowers; directly in front of you stands a span-roofed plant-house, or '''conservatory''', of Grecian construction. It is about ninety feet long and twenty feet wide, with a low span-roof. The entrance-front, which is ascended by a broad ﬂight of steps, is formed by projecting part of the main house, and comprises the ofﬁce, gardener’s room, &c. The garden front shows a ﬁne facade. The whole is highly ﬁnished with a heavy entablature, and pilasters between all the sashes, which reach to the ﬂoor all round.
:“It is seldom that a house like this, in an architectural point of view, is to be found in a [[nursery]] establishment; and its position is admirable, both as regards convenience and effect.”

===Citations===

*La Quintinie, Jean de, 1693, “Dictionary,” ''The Compleat Gard’ner'' (1693; repr., 1982: n.p.)<ref>Jean de La Quintinie, ''The Compleat Gard’ner, or Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens and Kitchen Gardens'', trans. John Evelyn (1693; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ET5N5PKH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A '''''Conservatory''''' is a close place where Orange-Trees, and other tender Plants are placed till warm weather come in. See ''Green'' house.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CONSERVATORY''', in gardening, See GREEN-''House''. . . .
:“[[GREENHOUSE]], or '''''conservatory'''''; a house of shelter in a garden, contrived for preserving the more tender and curious exotic plants, which will not bear the winter’s cold abroad in our climate. See EXOTIC.
:“''[[Greenhouse]]s'', as now built, serve not only as '''conservatories''', but likewise as ornaments of gardens; being usually large and beautiful structures, in form of galleries, wherein the plants are handsomely ranged in cases for the purpose. See GARDEN.”

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 8:128–29)<ref>Anonymous, ''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''[[GREEN-HOUSE]]'', or '''''Conservatory''''', a house in a Garden, contrived for sheltering and preserving the most curious and tender exotic plants, which in our climate will not bear to be exposed to the open air, especially during the winter season. These are generally large and beautiful structures, equally ornamental and useful.
:“The length of [[greenhouse]]s must be proportioned to the number of plants intended to be preserved in them, and cannot therefore be reduced to rule: but their depth should never be greater than their height in the clear; which, in small or middling houses, may be 16 or 18 feet, but in large ones from 20 to 24 feet; and the length of the windows should reach from about one foot and a half above the pavement, and within the same distance of the cieling, which will admit of a corniche round the building over the heads of the windows. . . .
:“Whilst the front of the [[greenhouse]] is exactly south, one of the wings may be made to face the south-east and the other the south-west. By this disposition the heat of the sun is reﬂected from one part of the building to the other all day, and the front of the main [[greenhouse]] is guarded from the cold winds. . . . In each of these there should be a ﬁre-place, with ﬂues carried up against the back-[[wall]], through which the smoke should be made to pass.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 103–4)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“There is no ornament of a [[ﬂower garden]] more appropriate than a '''conservatory''' or [[greenhouse]], where the [[ﬂower garden]] is not too far from the house; but amongst the reﬁnements of modern luxury, may be reckoned that of attaching a [[green-house]] to some room in the mansion, a fashion with which I have so often been required to comply, that it may not be improper in this work, to make ample mention of the various methods by which it has been effected in different places.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 82–83)<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[Green-house]] and '''Conservatory''' have been generally considered as synonymous; their essential difference is this: in the [[Green-house]], the trees and plants are either in tubs or [[pot]]s, and are placed on stands or stages during the winter, till they are removed into some suitable situation abroad in summer. In the '''Conservatory''', the ground plan is laid out in [[bed]]s and [[border]]s, made up of the best compositions of soils that can be procured, three or four feet deep. In these the trees or plants, taken out of their tubs or [[pot]]s, are regularly planted, in the same manner as hardy plants are in open air. This house is roofed, as well as fronted with glass-work, and instead of taking out the plants in summer, as in the [[Green-house]], the whole of the glass-roof is taken off, and the plants are thus exposed to the open air.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener, or Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (1817: 460, 557)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“When the horticultural establishment includes a '''conservatory''', it is proper to have it in sight, and connected with the ornamented grounds; because the style of such a building, the plants within, and the scene without, under a tasteful arrangement, harmonize in character and effect. . . .
:“A [[GREEN-HOUSE]], or '''Conservatory''', is a building adapted, by its situation and construction, for the seasonable shelter and nurture of such exotics from warmer climates as are not hardy enough to endure the colder vicissitudes of our year, but yet neither require, nor would prosper under, the intense and more artiﬁcial culture of a [[Hot-house]]. . . .
:“A [[Green-house]] may be made a very ornamental object as a structure; the plants within comprise some of the most curious and elegant productions which the art of the Gardener can nurture; its situation is, therefore, usually in a conspicuous part of the [[Pleasure Ground]], contiguous to the family residence. The front of the building should stand directly to the south, and the ends have an open aspect to the east and west.
:“Some persons distinguish between a [[Greenhouse]] and '''Conservatory'''; making the latter contain a [[border]] and pit: but this is to mix two systems of culture, which will proceed better separately.”

*[[Hosack, David]], 1824, ''An Inaugural Discourse Delivered Before the New-York Horticultural Society'' (1824: 22)<ref>David Hosack, ''An Inaugural Discourse, Delivered before the New-York Horticultural Society at Their Anniversary Meeting, on the 31st of August, 1824'' (New York: J. Seymour, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G3P4N49T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . we should also be provided with suitable '''''conservatories''''' for those plants which may be introduced from abroad. And I may add, that the buildings thus erected should be constructed agreeably to the most correct principles of architecture; for every such ediﬁce, in a place of great public resort, will necessarily have its inﬂuence in forming and directing the general taste of the country.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 794, 811–14)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6099. ''The [[green-house]] or '''conservatory''' is generally placed in the [[ﬂower-garden]]'', provided these structures are not appended to the house. . . .
:“6161. ''The [[hot-house]]s of ﬂoriculture are'' the frame, glass case, [[green-house]], [[orangery]], '''conservatory''', dry-stove, the bark or moist stove, in the [[ﬂower-garden]], or [[pleasure-ground]]; and the pit and hot-bed in the reserve-garden. In the construction of all of these the great object is, or ought to be, the admission of light and the power of applying artiﬁcial heat with the least labor and expense. . . .
[[File:1825.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[J. C. Loudon]], Greenhouse or conservatory for a flower-garden, with a span roof, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 811, fig. 568.]]
:“6165. ''The most suitable description of [[greenhouse]] or '''conservatory''' for the [[ﬂower-garden]]'' is that with span roof . . . because such a house has no visible ‘hinder parts,’ back sheds, stock-holes, or other points of ugliness, with which it is difﬁcult to avoid associating all the shed, or lean-to forms of glazed buildings with back [[wall]]s. . . .
:“6174. ''The '''conservatory''''' is a term generally applied by gardeners to plant-houses, in which the plants are grown in a [[bed]] or [[border]] without the use of [[pot]]s. They are sometimes placed in the [[pleasure-ground]] along with the other [[hot-house]]s; but more frequently attached to the mansion. The principles of their construction is in all respects the same as for the [[green-house]], with the single difference of a pit or [[bed]] of earth being substituted for the stage, and a narrow [[border]] instead of surrounding ﬂues. The power of admitting abundance of air, both by the sides and roof, is highly requisite both for the [[green-house]] and '''conservatory'''; but for the latter, it is desirable, in almost every case, that the roof, and even the glazed sides, should be removable in summer.” [Fig. 11]

*Teschemacher, James E., May 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 158)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): 157–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZA92W46U view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In many houses which are warmed throughout, the entrance is frequently appropriated to plants, and where it is feasible why may not a glass roof be substituted for the shingle or slate, thus affording the necessary vertical light? advance one step farther by giving a glass front and we have a [[green-house]]. . . .
:“The interior arrangement of this small '''conservatory''' can be ﬁxed to suit different tastes, but I should prefer any to the usual mode of a straight [[walk]] down the centre; for instance, the roof might be additionally supported by three or four slender [[pillar]]s up which might be trained Lophospermum, Acacia pubescens, Cobea scandens, Eccremocarpus scaber or other beautiful climbing plants.”

*[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 166)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CONSERVATORY'''.—This term originally implied a house in which orange-trees, and other large [[shrub]]s, or small trees, were preserved from frost during the winter; but at present it is applied to houses with glass roofs, in which the plants are grown in the free soil, and allowed to assume their natural shapes and habits of growth. A '''conservatory''' is generally situated so as to be entered from one of the rooms of the house to which it belongs; and from which it is often separated only by a glass door, or by a small lobby with glass doors. It should, if possible, have one side facing the south; but if it is glazed on every side, it may have any aspect, not even excepting the north: though in the latter case, it will only be suitable for very strong leathery-leaved evergreens, such as Camellias, Myrtles, &c. . . . The plants should be of kinds that will grow in a few years nearly as high as the glass; and they should, as much as possible, be all of the same degree of vigour, otherwise the stronger kinds will ﬁll the soil with their roots, and overpower the weaker. . . . The [[pillar]]s which support the roof, and, to a certain extent, the under side of the rafters, may be clothed with creepers. . . . The most suitable plants for '''conservatories''' are those that ﬂower in the winter season, or very early in the spring.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 165, 404, 584)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CONSERVATORY'''. This structure is a [[green-house]] communicating with the residence, having [[border]]s and [[bed]]s in which to grow its tenant plants; or it may be an appendage to the dwelling, of moderate size, into which the plants from the [[green-house]] are removed whilst in bloom, thus concentrating the more attractive specimens, and presenting a continuous show of ﬂowers. . . .
:“[[ORANGERY]] is a [[green-house]] or '''conservatory''' devoted to the cultivation of the genus Citrus. . . .
:“[TERRACES. . . .] Mr. Loudon is more practical on this subject, and observes . . .
:“‘In some cases the [[terrace]]-[[wall]]s may be so extended as to enclose ground sufﬁcient for a level [[plot]] to be used as a [[bowling green]]. These are generally connected with one of the living-rooms, or the '''conservatory'''; and to the latter is frequently joined an [[aviary]], and the entire range of botanic stoves.’—''Enc. Gard''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 448–49, 454)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''''Conservatory''''' or the ''[[Green-House]]'' is an elegant and delightful appendage to the villa or mansion, when there is a taste for plants among the different members of a family. Those who have not enjoyed it, can hardly imagine the pleasure afforded by a well-chosen collection of exotic plants, which, amid the genial warmth of an artiﬁcial climate, continue to put forth their lovely blossoms, and exhale their delicious perfumes, when all out-of-door nature is chill and desolate. The many hours of pleasant and healthy exercise and recreation afforded to the ladies of a family, where they take an interest themselves in the growth and vigor of the plants, are certainly no triﬂing considerations where the country residence is the place of habitation throughout the whole year. . . .
:“The difference between the ''[[green-house]]'' and '''conservatory''' is, that in the former, the plants are all kept in [[pot]]s and arranged on stages, both to meet the eye agreeably, and for more convenient growth; while in the '''''conservatory''''', the plants are grown in a [[bed]] or [[border]] of soil precisely as in the open air. “Though a '''''conservatory''''' is often made an expensive luxury, attached only to the better class of residences, there is no reason why cottages of more humble character should not have the same source of enjoyment on a more moderate scale. A small [[green-house]], or ''plant cabinet'', as it is sometimes called, eight or ten feet square, communicating with the parlor, and constructed in a simple style, may be erected.”

[[File:0950.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Anonymous, “Design for a Country House,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849): pl. opp. 249.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 1849, “Design for a Villa with a Conservatory Attached” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 263–64)<ref> A. J. Downing, “Design for a Villa with a Conservatory Attached,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849): 263–64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SA4MZZV8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From the parlor, a door opens into the [[greenhouse]], or '''conservatory'''. This is placed so as to form a wing on one side of the house, which is balanced by the kitchen wing on the other side. We have introduced this to show how a simple [[green-house]] may be treated, so as to give it some architectural character,—as we but too frequently see mere [[nursery]]-like glazed sheds, joined to houses otherwise in good taste, the effect of which is never satisfactory. A '''conservatory''', properly so called,—which differs from a [[green-house]] in the plants being chieﬂy planted in the ground, instead of [[pot]]s,—is the most satisfactory plan for such a structure when it is attached to a dwelling; because, although the glazed roof is partly taken out in summer, the plants remain, and the interior never has the deserted appearance of most [[green-house]]s at that season, but is an agreeable sight at all times.” [Fig. 12]

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850: 252)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''CON-SERV’A-TO-RY''', ''n.'' A place for preserving any thing in a state desired, as from loss, decay, waste, or injury. . ..
:“2. A [[greenhouse]] for exotics, often attached to a dwelling-house as an ornament. In large '''''conservatories''''', properly so called, the plants are reared on the free soil, and not in pots. ''Brande''.”

[[File:0912.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, “Rural Gothic Villa,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 322, fig. 148.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 305, 323)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton, 1850; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The broad and massive [[veranda]] . . . —the full second story, overshadowed by the overhanging eaves—the steep roof, to shed the snow and afford a well ventilated attic, and the tasteful or convenient appendages of '''conservatory''' for plants on one side and kitchen ofﬁces on the other,—these are all expressive of the comparatively modest but cultivated tastes and life of substantial country residents in the older parts of the Northern states. . . .
:“[Referring to Design XXVIII.] When we notice, also, the '''conservatory''', extending itself on one side, and the kitchen on the other, with a long [[veranda]] in the rear; it is easy to see that this design indicates the residence of a family thoroughly at home in the country, and understanding how best to enjoy it.” [Fig. 13]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1270.jpg|Solomon Drowne, ''[[Botanic Garden]], 1818'', 1818.

File:1825.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], [[Greenhouse]] or conservatory for a [[flower-garden]], with a span roof, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 811, fig. 568.

File:1059.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Elevation of the South Front'' and ''Plan of the First Floor'', National Institute, February 1841.

File:1151.jpg|Joseph C. Wells (attr.), Design for a Cottage for Henry C. Bowen, c. 1846.

File:1254.jpg|John Notman, ''No. 1 Ground Plan, Smithsonian Institute'', December 23, 1846.

File:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

File:0393.jpg|Anonymous, “English [[Flower-Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 434, fig. 78. “''c'', ''d'', are the flower-beds.”

File:0395.jpg|Anonymous, “Villa at Brooklyn, N.Y., with the Conservatory attached,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 453, fig. 79.

File:1549.jpg|Anonymous, “Villa in the Tudor Style” and “Principal Floor,” ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 12 (June 1849): pl. opp. 545.

File:1583.jpg|Anonymous, A [[greenhouse]] and a conservatory, in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 5, no. 3 (September 1850): 111, figs. 19 and 20.

File:1584.jpg|Anonymous, Section of a Conservatory, ''Horticulturist'' 5, no. 3 (September 1850): 112, fig. 22.

File:1660.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of conservatory designed for gentleman’s country [[seat]], in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), 95, fig. 32.
</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0043.jpg|[[John Archibald Woodside]], ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

File:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden|Elgin Garden]] on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''[[Fairmount Water Works]]'', 1821.

File:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the [[Elgin Botanic Garden|Botanic Garden]] of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

File:0852.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “The Conservatory,” Montgomery Place, c. 1839.

File:0369.jpg|Anonymous, “Mrs. Camac’s Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. between 58 and 59, fig. 13.

File:1012.jpg|Anonymous, “An Elizabethan villa,” in [[Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline) Tuthill|Louisa C. Tuthill]], ''History of Architecture'' (1848), 284, fig. 40.

File:0950.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Country House,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849): pl. opp. 249.

File:0912.jpg|Anonymous, “Rural Gothic Villa,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 322, fig. 148.

File:1264.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: Center Circle'', 1852.

File:1265.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: View of Barn Complex and Gardens'', 1852.
</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0104.jpg|[[Joseph Jacques Ramée]], Estate plan for Calverton [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1.

File:0020.jpg|[[Janika de Fériet]], ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

File:1959.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Convent Garden'', c. 1820–50.

File:1197.jpg|Robert Squibb, ''[[Green-House]]: front and back walls, in The Gardener's Calendar for the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia'' (1827), frontispiece.

File:0464.jpg|[[Nicolino Calyo]], ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

File:1635.jpg|[[Robert B. Leuchars]], “End View of an Ornamental Conservatory,” in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), frontispiece.

File:1645.jpg|[[Robert B. Leuchars]], [[Orangery]] at Clifton Mansion, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), fig. 14.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Glass Houses]]

Wall

2019-06-17T16:00:57Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ link m'mahon

See also: [[Botanic garden]], [[Espalier]], [[Fence]], [[Greenhouse]], [[Kitchen garden]], [[Orchard]]

==History==

[[File:0556.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, John William Hill, ''Blandford Church, Petersburg, Virginia'', 1847.]]

[[File:0154.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, C. Milbourne, ''View of Broadway at Bowling Green with the Government House, New York City'', 1797.]]

In American landscape design, the wall was a masonry construction of dry laid or mortared stone or brick. While treatises and dictionaries often referred to walls as a type of [[fence]] and sometimes as a “stone fence,” in American usage, wooden barriers were referred to exclusively as [[fence]]s.

[[File:0121.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Alexander Francis, ''Ralph Wheelock's Farm'', c. 1822.]]

[[File:1432.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Milo Osborne, “Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” in Theodore S. Fay, ''Views in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831).]]

As [[J. C. Loudon]] noted in 1834, walls were generally composed of three sections: the foundation, the body formed by courses of stone or brick, and, if desired, the coping (a decorative or protective course on top of a masonry wall). Foundations varied from a single course to a three-foot, below-ground stone foundation, such as the one used for the hog yard at Waldwic Cottage (formerly Little Hermitage), described by [[William Ranlett]] (1851). The coping could consist of the same material as the wall, as seen in John William Hill’s 1847 painting of Blandford Church in Petersburg, Va. [Fig. 1], or could be built of contrasting material such as stone or marble, which was used at St. Philip’s Parish in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1826. William Forsyth recommended wooden coping in order to attach nets that would discourage birds from eating nearby fruit.<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), 150, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref> Walls were sometimes topped with palisades, which extended their height and deterred intruders while providing a visually permeable barrier. This feature provided additional ornament, as is demonstrated by the ironwork palisade on the wall at the Governor’s House in New York [Fig. 2].

[[File:0168.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, Thomas Jefferson, Third variant for range and gardens, showing serpentine walls at the University of Virginia, c. 1817–22.]]

[[File:0112.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Anthony St. John Baker]], “View of the White House,” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).]]

The choice of materials for the body of the wall depended upon its use and upon the materials that were available. In arid regions, particularly areas with Spanish building traditions, adobe was frequently used.<ref>For an analysis of the function and significance of walls and gates in Latin American vernacular architecture, and particularly in the enclosure of the patio garden, see William J. Siembieda, “Walls and Gates: A Latin Perspective,” ''Landscape Journal'' 15 (Fall 1996): 113–32, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RPIU68EV view on Zotero].</ref> Stone walls were common in New England, where field stones turned up by plows provided ready material for dry laid walls, as that depicted in the painting of Ralph Wheelock’s farm in Pennsylvania (1822) [Fig. 3].<ref>Wilbur Zelinsky cites in 1871 that the Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture included data for fence types in New England. The frequency of stone fences ranged from 32 percent in Vermont to a high of 79 percent in Rhode Island. See Ervin H. Zube and Margaret J. Zube, eds., ''Changing Rural Landscapes'' (1951; repr., Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7 view on Zotero].</ref> It has been suggested that wall designs from British treatise and pattern books, such as those published in [[Batty Langley|Batty Langley's]] ''The City and Country Builder’s and Workman’s Treasury of Designs'' (1740), were reworked in wood in the American context. Wooden posts were used in place of piers, wooden members in place of stone fenestration, and baseboards in place of stone bases.<ref>Philip Dole, “The Picket Fence at Home,” in ''Between Fences'', ed. Gregory K. Dreicer (Washington, DC: National Building Museum, 1996), 28–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GG78VBCM view on Zotero].</ref> The earthen- and pitch-covered wooden walls described by Loudon do not appear to have been employed in America, but fence posts were tarred as a preservative measure.

Walls, like related features such as [[fence]]s, [[hedge]]s, and [[ha-ha]]s, served as barriers, supports, and markers of property boundaries. Because of their strength, walls were also used to retain earth; this use is illustrated by the deer wall at [[Mount Vernon]] (1798) and the [[terrace]] wall at the Deaf and Dumb Asylum in New York [Fig. 4]. Walls were also used to shore up banks at waterfront gardens, as at [[Westover]] in Virginia, described by Thomas Lee Shippen (1783), where they served as bulkheads along the banks of the James River.

The vast majority of treatise references to walls discuss their use as supports and protection for fruit trees in [[orchard]]s and fruit gardens. The length and detail of the instructions suggest the importance of walls as an adaptation to the range of American climatic challenges for fruit growers. A brick wall reflected heat during the day and retained warmth at night, providing a moderating micro-climate and promoting earlier ripening. Fruit walls for “forwarding” the fruit season were useful in the middle and eastern states, but they were not necessary in warmer climates. Brick walls with flues, discussed in detail in numerous treatises, were used in [[hothouse]] and [[conservatory]] construction (see also [[Greenhouse]]. [[Trellis]]es for training trees and vines were easily attached to brick walls. The porosity of the bricks also helped them retain heat much better than stone, even when the stone was painted a dark color. In the rare instance when stone was used, authors suggested that it be faced with several courses of brick on the side on which fruit trees were to be grown.

[[File:1469.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, John Lewis Krimmel (attrib.), ''Sunday Morning in front of the Arch Street Meeting House, Philadelphia'', 1811– c. 1813.]]

[[File:0165.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Jonathan Budington or Dr. Francis Forgue, attr., ''View of Main Street in Fairfield, Connecticut'', c. 1800.]]

Most walls were straight, although the merits of serpentine walls were debated in the literature. Some authors, such as [[Ephraim Chambers]] (1741–43), argued that the serpentine wall was strong and economical, requiring less thickness to maintain the same strength as a straight wall. These walls also could be used to shelter plants from winds coming from all directions. [[Thomas Jefferson]] used a serpentine wall for the faculty gardens at the University of Virginia [Fig. 5]. Others, such as [[J.C. Loudon|Loudon]] (1834) and [[George William Johnson]] (1847), criticized the serpentine form, arguing that such walls had to be too thick to retain the necessary heat for fruit ripening.

While the practical functions of walls were much discussed, they also made significant aesthetic contributions to landscape design. [[Philip Miller]] suggested in 1759 that walls be disguised with “[[Plantation]]s of Flowering Shrubs, intermixed with laurels, and some evergreens.” [[Thomas Bridgeman]] (1832), [[Edward Sayers]] (1838), and [[A. J. Downing]] (1849) all suggested the use of creeping vines and [[trellis]]es to incorporate the wall into a naturalistic or [[picturesque]] garden setting.

Unlike worm and wire [[fence]]s, a wall was a decidedly immovable barrier. Its permanence, durability, and scale made it particularly suitable to the monumental and stately requirements of churchyards, [[cemeteries]], and [[public ground]]s, as noted in a 1770 description of the Annapolis Parade and as depicted in a [[view]] of the [[White House]] in Washington, DC [Fig. 6]. [[J.C. Loudon|Loudon]] in 1834 described walls as the “grandest [[fence]]s for [[park]]s,” although images of American urban parks suggest that by the second quarter of the 19th-century ironwork [[fence]]s were the enclosures of choice. In urban settings, walls provided residents with a visual screen from what lay beyond [Fig. 7] and, although not noted in descriptions, they probably served as an effective noise barrier as well. Walls were also used to ornament the front approaches to houses. An over-mantle painting of a house in Fairfield, Connecticut, illustrates a more decorative treatment of a wall directly in front of the house in contrast to walls and [[fence]]s on other parts of the property [Fig. 8]. A well-kept wall came to signify the prosperity and good management of the farmer, and, as [[Timothy Dwight]] noted in 1796, such walls were “the image of tidy, skilful, profitable agriculture.”

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

==Texts==

===Usage===

* Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840,'' 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “the [[Plantation]] where I now live contains a thousand acres, grounds and fencing . . . a large [[orchard]] of about 2500 Apple trees most grafted, well fenced with a locust fence, which is as durable as most brick '''walls''', a Garden, a hundred foot square, well pailed in, a [[Yeard]] wherein is most of the aforesaid necessary houses, pallizad’d in with locust Punchens which is as good as if it were '''walled''' in and more lasting than any of our bricks.”

* Anonymous, May 8, 1704, describing in the ''Journals of the House of Burgesses of Virginia'' the construction in [[Williamsburg]], VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “Ordered. That the consideration of the proposall of the said Committee relating, [''sic''] to the Capitol being inclosed with a brick '''wall''' be referred til tomorrow morning. Ordered. That the Overseer appointed to inspect and oversee the building of the Capitol make a Computation what the Charges may amount to of inclosing the Capitol with a Brick '''Wall''' of two Bricks thick and four feet and a half high to be distant sixty foot from the fronts of the East and West Building and the said building and that he lay the same before the House to morrow.”

* [[Washington, George]], March 27, 1760, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Johnson 1953: 75)<ref>Gerald W. Johnson, ''Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine'' (New York: Random House, 1953), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F2JS5DHZ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Agreed to give Mr. William Triplet, 18 to build the two houses in the Front of my House (plastering them also), and running '''walls''' for Pallisades to them from the Great house and from the Great House to the Wash House and Kitchen also.”

* [[Bartram, John]], December 3, 1762, describing Charleston, SC (quoted in Darlington 1849: 242–43)<ref>William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “I can’t find, in our country, that south '''walls''' are much protection against our cold, for if we cover so close as to keep out the frost, they are suffocated.”

* Anonymous, January 4, 1770, describing the State House, Annapolis, MD (''Maryland Gazette'')

: “The General Assembly having been pleased to grant to the Value of 7500 l. Sterling, for building a State-House . . . and for enlarging, repairing, and enclosing the Parade, not exceeding its present Length of 245 feet, and 160 in Breadth, designed to be enclosed with Stone or Brick '''Wall''', and Iron Palisadoes, if the Iron Inclosure should not exceed 500 Sterling.”

* Chastellux, François Jean Marquis de, 1780–82, describing [[Westover]], seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1787: 2:172)<ref>François Jean, Marquis de Chastellux, ''Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781, and 1782'', 2 vols. (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1787), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITD6E8FB/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The '''walls''' of the garden and the house were covered with honey-suckles.”

* Shippen, Thomas Lee, December 30, 1783, describing [[Westover]], seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, ''Westover Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, Va.: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “the river is backed up by a '''wall''' of four feet high, and about 300 yards in length, and above this '''wall''' there is as you may suppose the most enchanting walk in the world.”

* Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789; repr., 1970: 331)<ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The [[state house yard]], is a neat, elegant and spacious public [[walk]], ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick '''wall''', which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

* Bentley, William, October 3, 1789, describing the Collins and Ingersoll Gardens, Salem, Mass. (1962: 1:127)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Capt Collins laid the foundation of his new Sea '''Wall''' which makes his garden [[square]] at the bottom of Turner’s Lane, on the east side. Capt. S. Ingersoll on Turner’s Estate has added a new picketed fence to his excellent stone '''wall''', which gives a good appearance.”

* [[Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Worcester County, MA (1821: 1:375)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In no part of this country are the barns universally so large, and so good; or the inclosures of stone so general, and every where so well formed. These inclosures are composed of stones, merely laid together in the form of a '''wall''', and not compacted with mortar. . . . This relative beauty these enclosures certainly possess: for they are effectual, strong, and durable. Indeed where the stones have a smooth regular face, and are skilfully laid in an exact line, with a true front, the '''wall''' independently of this consideration, becomes neat, and agreeable. A farm well surrounded, and divided, by good stone-'''walls''', presents to my mind, irresistibly, the image of tidy, skilful, profitable agriculture; and promises to me within doors, the still more agreeable prospect of plenty and prosperity.”

[[File:0331.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[George Washington]], ''Drawing and Notes for a Ha-Ha Wall at Mount Vernon, October 1798'', 1798.]]
* [[Washington, George]], October 1798, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Mount Vernon Ladies Association)

: “Supposing the dot at A to be the highest part of the hill in front of the House. & at the black line from B to C by A the natural shape of the hill (or fall of the hill) the pricked line may be a good direction for the '''wall''', in order to prevent its being too serpentine or crooked—this, in some places, will come in upon the level (or that which is nearly so) of the hill—as at 1, 2, 3—and is often as at 5, 6, 7 & 8 will be below the declivity, & require filling up in order to bring the whole to a level which is to be affected by the Earth which may be taken from 1, 2, 3.—
: “There are two reasons for doing it in this manner—the one is, to prevent the '''wall''' from being too serpentine & crooked (as the black line)—and the second is, that the hill below the '''wall''' may be more of a sameness.—otherwise it would descend very suddenly in some places and very gradually in others.—
: “You will observe that this '''wall''' is not to be laid out, as worked by a line—the whole of it is serpentine, which I am particular in mentioning least by the expression in your letter of zig-zag. You had an idea that it was to be laid out by line 20 or 30 feet or yards (as the hill would admit) one way then angling & as far as it would go strait another in the following manner.” [Fig. 9]

* Adams, Abigail, 1800, describing the Peacefield, estate of John Adams, Quincy, MA (quoted in Hammond 1982: 182)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “the President has authorised me to have a number of Lombardy poplars set out opposite the house near the '''wall''' which was new just two years ago. . . . he says he will have them extended from the [[gate]] . . . to the corner.”

* Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing a graveyard in Bethlehem, PA (1800: 15)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It is surrounded partly with a stone '''wall''', towards the street, where it cannot be enlarged, partly with a neat wooden [[fence]], on those sides where it may be extended from time to time.”

* Scott, Joseph, 1806, describing a public prison in Philadelphia, PA (1806: 46)<ref>Joseph Scott, ''A Geographical Description of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: printed by R. Cochran, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/55XKIWPN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The [[yard]] belonging to the criminal prison extends nearly to Prune street, on which is the debtors’ apartment. The whole is surrounded by a lofty stone '''wall'''.”

* [[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamitlon]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 55–58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” 1806, Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, http://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/lcdl/catalog/lcdl:27554, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:"The <u>[[Conservatory]]</u> consists of a [[green house]], & 2 [[hot house]]s—one being at each end of it. The [[green house]] may be about 50 feet long. The front only is glazed. Scaffolds are erected, one higher than another, on which the plants in pots or tubs are placed—so that it is representing the declivity of a mountain. At each end are step-ladders for the purpose of going on each stage to water the plants—& to a walk at the back-'''wall'''. On the floor a walk of 5 or 6 feet extends along the glazed '''wall''' & at each end a door opens into an [[Hot house]]—so that a long walk extends in one line along the stove '''walls''' of the houses & the glazed '''wall''' of the [[green house]].
: "The [[hothouse|Hot houses]], they may extend in front, I suppose, 40 feet each. They have a '''wall''' heated by flues—& 3 glazed '''walls''' & a glazed roof each. In the center, a frame of wood is raised about 2 1/2 feet high, & occupying the whole area except leaving a passage along by the '''walls'''. In the flue '''wall''', or adjoining, is a cistern for tropic aquatic plants. Within the frame, is composed a hot [[bed]]; into which the pots & tubs with plants, are plunged. This [[conservatory|Conservatory]] is said to be equal to any in Europe. It contains between 7 & 8000 plants. To this, the Professor of botany is permitted to resort, with his Pupils occasionally. . . .
:". . . .From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the [[yard]]. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer '''walls''' <u>concealed</u> by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage <u>out of sight</u> from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] [[lawn]]."

* Stebbins, William, February 6, 1810, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1968: 37)<ref>William Stebbins, ''The Journal of William Stebbins'', ed. by Pierce W. Gaines (Hartford, CT: Acorn Club, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2TA7CCFU view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Extended my walk alone to the President’s House:—a handsome edifice, tho’ like the [[United States Capitol|capitol]] of free stone: the south [[yard]] principally made ground, bank’d up by a common stone '''wall'''.”

* [[Hosack, David]], 1811, describing the establishment of the [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (1811: 10, 15)<ref>David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SE9V2UDD view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Accordingly, in the following year, 1801, I purchased of the corporation of the city of New York twenty acres of ground. . . .
: “At a considerable expense, the establishment was inclosed by a well constructed stone '''wall'''....
: “The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone '''wall''', two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high.”

* [[Peale, Charles Willson]], March 15, 27, and 29, 1814, in a letter to his sons, Benjamin Franklin Peale and Titian Ramsey Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:239)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The stone and ground is remooved at the Bottom of the Garden but the '''Wall''' is not as high and access into the Garden is not so easey as it used to be, even before any '''wall''' is made.”

* Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, describing the [[Vale]], estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>

: “He took me to the [[seat]] of Mr. Lyman. . . . It is a perfect paradise. . . . A hard rolled [[walk]], by the side of a brick '''wall''', about ten feet in height and covered with peach and apricot [[espalier]]s which seemed to grow to it, like the creeping sumach to the bark of an elm.”

* Hunt, Henry, William P. Elliot, and William Thornton, 1826, requesting a Memorial to the House of Representatives of the Congress in Washington, DC (U.S. Congress, 19th Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, doc. 123, book 138)

: “That, with a [[view]] to promote the public good, and to ornament and improve the [[public ground]]s, they would recommend . . . That a '''wall''' five feet high, with a stone coping, be put round the ground appropriated for a [[Botanic Garden]].”

* Anonymous, July 16, 1826, describing in the ''St. Philip’s Parish Vestry Book'' meeting resolutions made in Charleston, SC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

: “The Vestry inform the Meeting that they have entered into an agreement with Corporation of the City to take down the present old brick '''walls''' around the church, on Church Street, and to erect in its place a low '''wall''' of brick to be capped with marble and finished with an iron pallisade and three iron [[gate]]s.”

* Viator [pseud.], August 15, 1828, “Nurseries and Gardens on Long Island,” describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], Brooklyn, NY (''New England Farmer'' 7: 25)

: “At Brooklyn we called at the celebrated Horticultural Garden of Mr. [[ANDRE PARMENTIER]]. This is a recent establishment begun in 1825. It contains 20 acres, and is surrounded by a '''wall''' of masonry, after the manner which we are told is practised on the old continent.”

* [[Breck, Joseph]], February 1, 1836, “Gardens, Hothouses, &c., in the vicinity of Boston,” describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43–44)<ref>Joseph Breck, “Gardens, Hot-Houses, &c., in the Vicinity of Boston,” ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (1836), 41–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IK2ZAWSC view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The garden is a [[square]], level [[plot]], bounded on the north side by the [[conservatories]], which, if we are not mistaken, are four hundred feet in length. On the east and west are high, substantial brick '''walls''', to which are trained a choice collection of fruit trees imported the last season, already formed for the purpose, some of which are protected by glass. The southern '''wall''' is very ornamental and substantial, and so low that the whole area and houses may be seen at a single glance outside the '''wall'''.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1841, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 17)<ref>Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846-7-8-9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero].
</ref>

: “[[PLEASURE GROUND]] AND FARM.—Of the one hundred and eleven acres in the farm, about forty-one around the Hospital are specially appropriated as a vegetable garden and the pleasure ground of the patients, and are surrounded by a substantial stone-'''wall'''. This '''wall''' is five thousand four hundred and eighty-three feet long, and is ten and a half feet high.
: “Owing to the favourable character of the ground, the '''wall''' has been so placed that it can be seen but in a very small part of its extent, from any one position; and the enclosure is so large, that its presence exerts no unpleasant influence upon those within. Although it is probably sufficient to prevent the escape of a large proportion of the patients, that is a matter of small moment, in comparison with the quiet and privacy which it at all times affords, and the facility with which the patients are enabled to engage in labour, to take exercise, or to enjoy the active scenes which are passing around them, without fear of annoyance from the gaze of idle curiosity or the remarks of unfeeling strangers.”

* [[Smith, Margaret Bayard]], 1841, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1906: 393)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “He [[[Thomas Jefferson]]] was very anxious to improve the ground around the President’s House; but as Congress would make no appropriation for this and similar objects, he was obliged to abandon the idea, and content himself with enclosing it with a common stone '''wall''' and sewing it down in grass.” [See Fig. 6]

* [[Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing the [[National Mall]], Washington, DC (quoted in Scott 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A range of trees is proposed to surround three sides of the [[square]] which is intended to be laid open by an iron or other railing, the north side to be enclosed with a high brick '''wall''' to serve as a shelter and to secure the various hot houses and other buildings of an inferior character.”

* Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Harrisburg, PA (1843: 233)<ref>Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “These public buildings stand in a large enclosure, planted with trees, and surrounded by a brick '''wall''' on which is a neat paling.”

* Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the pleasure grounds and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 347)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (1848), 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “As much as possible of the grounds belonging to a hospital for the insane should be permanently enclosed by a substantial '''wall''' of stone or brick. This '''wall''' should always be so arranged as in at least a considerable part of its extent, to be completely out of [[view]] from the buildings, either by being placed in low ground, if that is practicable, or if not, it can readily be arranged by being sunk in certain places in an artificial trench, and thus to prevent its being an unpleasant feature, or to give the idea of a prison enclosure. Such a '''wall''' however, useful as it is, had much better not be put up, unless to enclose a large number of acres, or unless it can be kept from being a prominent object from the buildings.”

* [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing Waltham House at the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1850: 330)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed., corr. and improved (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “844. ''Waltham House''. . . . to the left and rear of the house are the [[kitchen-garden]], grapery, [[greenhouse]], [[hothouse]], '''wall''' for fruit, &c. ...(''Downing’s Landscape Gardening''.)”

* [[Ranlett, William H.]], 1851, describing Waldwic Cottage (formerly Little Hermitage), property of Elijah Rosencrantz, Hohokus, NJ (1851; repr., 1976: 2:43)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

: “hog pen and [[yard]], 20 by 27, with a good substantial stone '''wall'''.”
{{Break}}

===Citations===

* Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 537)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (London: Humfrey Lownes and Robert Young, 1629), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GVTA97MJ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Having an [[Orchard]] containing one acre of ground, two, three, or more, or lesse, walled about, you may so order it, by leaving a broad and large [[Walk|walke]] betweene the '''wall''' and it . . . and by compassing your [[Orchard]] on the inside with a hedge (wherein may bee planted all sorts of low shrubs or bushes.”

* [[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WALLS''', in gardening, ''&c.''—The position, matter, and form of '''''walls''''', for fruit-trees, are found to have a great influence on the fruit: though authors differ as to the preference. See GARDEN, [[ORCHARD]], &c.
: “The reverend Mr. Lawrence directs, that the '''WALLS''' of a garden be not built directly to face the four cardinal points, but rather between them, viz. south-east, south-west, north-east, and northwest: in which the two former will be good enough for the best fruit, and the two latter for plums, cherries, and baking pears. See EXPOSURE. Mr. Langford, and some others, propose garden-'''''walls''''' to consist chiefly of semicircles; each about six or eight yards in front, and two trees; and between every two semicircles, including-a space of two feet of plain '''''wall'''''.—By such a provision every part of a '''''wall''''' will enjoy an equal share of the sun, one time with another; beside, that the warmth will be increased, by the collecting and reflecting of the rays in the semicircles; and the trees within be screened from injurious winds.
: “As to the materials of '''''walls''''' for fruit-trees, brick, according to Mr. Switzer, is the best; as being the warmest and kindest for the ripening of fruit, and affording the best conveniency for nailing.
: “Mr. Lawrence, however, affirms, on his own experience, that ''mud-'''walls''''', made of earth and straw tempered together, are better for the ripening of fruit, than either brick or stone '''''walls''''': he adds, that the coping of straw laid on such '''''walls''''', is of great advantage to the fruit, in sheltering them from perpendicular rains, &c. ''
: “M. Fatio, in a particular treatise on the subject, instead of the common perpendicular '''walls''', proposes to have the '''walls''''' built sloping, or reclining from the sun; that what is planted against them, may lie more exposed to his perpendicular rays; which must contribute greatly to the ripening of fruit in our cold climate.”

* [[Miller, Philip]], 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1505–14)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WALLS''' are absolutely necessary in Gardens, for the ripening of all such Fruits as are too delicate to be perfected in this Country, without such Assistantce. These are built with different Materials; in some Countries they are built of Stone, in others with Brick, according as the Materials can be procured best and cheapest.
: “Of all Materials proper for building '''Walls''' for Fruit-trees, Brick is the best; in that it is not only the handsomest, but the warmest and kindest for the ripening of Fruit; besides that, it affords the best Conveniency of Nailing. . . .
: “Where the '''Walls''' are built intirely of Stone, there should be Trelases fix’d up against them, for the more convenient fastening of the Branches of the Trees. . . .
: “There have been several Trials made of '''Walls''' built in different Forms; some of them having been built semicircular, others in Angles of various Sizes, and projecting more toward the North, to screen off the cold Winds: but there has not been any Method as yet, which has succeeded near so well, as that of making the '''Walls''' strait, and building them upright. . . .
: “According to the modern Taste in Gardening, there are very few '''Walls''' built round Gardens; which is certainly very right, not only with regard to the Pleasure of viewing the neighbouring Country from the Garden, but also in regard to the Expence, 1. Of building these '''Walls''': 2. If they are planted with Fruit, as is frequently practised, to maintain them will be a constant Charge . . . therefore the Quantity of '''Walling''' should be proportion’d to the Fruit consumed in the Family: but as it will be necessary to inclose the [[Kitchen-garden]], for the Security of the Garden-stuff, so, if that be '''walled''' round, it will contain as much Fruit as will be wanted in the Family. ...
: “In the building of the '''Walls''' round a [[Kitchen-garden]], the Insides, which are design’d to be planted with Fruit-trees, should be made as plain as possible, so that the Piers should not project on those Sides above four Inches at most. . . .
: “The usual Thickness which Garden-'''walls''' are allow’d, if built with Bricks, is thirteen Inches, which is one Brick and an half: but this should be proportionable to the Height. . . .
: “But I shall now proceed to give some Directions for the building of Hot-'''walls''', to promote the ripening of Fruits, which is now pretty much practis’d in ''England''.
: “In some Places these '''Walls''' are built at a very great Expence, and so contriv’d as to consume a great Quantity of Fuel; but where they are judiciously built, the first Expence will not be near so great, nor will the Charge of Fuel be very considerable. . ..
: “The ordinary Height of these Hot-'''walls''' is about ten Feet, which will be sufficient for any of those Sorts of Fruits which are generally forced. . . .
: “The Foundations of these '''Walls''' should be made four Bricks and an half thick, in order to support the Flues; otherwise, if Part of them rest on Brick-work, and the other on the Ground, they will settle unequally, and soon be out of Order. . . .
: “The Ovens in which the Fires are made, must be contrived on the Back-side of the '''Walls''', which should be in Number proportionable to the Length of the '''Walls'''....
: “The Borders in Front of these Hot-'''walls''' should be about four Feet wide, which will make sufficient Declivity for the sloping Glasses. . . . On the Outside of these [[Border]]s should be low '''Walls''' erected, which should rise an Inch or two above the Level of the [[Border]]s; upon which the Plate of Timber should be laid, on which the sloping Glasses are to rest: and this '''Wall''' will keep up the Earth of the [[Border]], as also preserve the [[Wood]] from rotting.”

* Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 641, 649)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref>

: “When a garden is already made in an ill spot, all that can be done is to open agreeable [[view]]s by clearing away '''walls''' and [[hedge]]s in the ground; and trees, and sometimes even buildings, when ill-placed, ill-looking and of little value: this is to be done when something pleasing, some [[view]] of elegant, wild nature can be let in; and where that cannot be, some [[pavilion]], such as we have described, or shall describe, must shut out unalterable deformity.”
: “Extent and freedom we have directed largely. He who builds high '''walls''' about a small garden must climb to his [[summer-house]]: this we have named with due contempt. . . .
: “This closeness of a garden is one of the first things against which a person of any degree of taste will resolve.”

* [[Miller, Philip]], 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard . . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc.'', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on zotero].</ref>

: “Another thing absolutely necessary is where the Boundaries of the Garden are fenced with '''Walls''' or Pales, they should be hid by [[Plantation]]s of Flowering Shrubs, intermixed with laurels, and some Evergreens, which will have a good effect, and at the same time conceal the [[fence]]s which are disagreeable, when left naked and exposed to the Sight.”

* Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . .'', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WALL''', wa’l. s. A series of brick or stone carried upwards and cemented with mortar. . . .
: “'''WALL'''FRUIT, wa’l-frot. s. Fruit which, to be ripened, must be planted against a '''wall'''.”

* [[Deane, Samuel]], 1790, ''The New-England Farmer'' (1790: 88–89)<ref>Samuel Deane, ''The New-England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary'' (Worcester, MA: Isaiah Thomas, 1790), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S8QQDHP6 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[[FENCE]], a [[hedge]], '''wall''', ditch, or other enclosure made about farms, or parts of farms, to exclude cattle, or include them. Fencing is a matter of great consequence with farmers. . . .
: “When ground is wholly subdued, and the stumps of its original growth of trees quite rotted out, if stones can be had without carrying too far, stone '''walls''' are the fences that ought to be made. Though the cost may be greater at first than that of some other [[fence]]s, they will prove to be cheapest in the end.”

* Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 146–47, 150)<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “It [a garden] should be '''walled''' round with a brick '''wall''' from ten to twelve feet high: But, if there be plenty of '''walling''', which there may be when you are not stinted with respect to ground, I would prefer '''walls''' ten feet high, to those that are higher, and I am convinced they will be found more convenient. . . .
: “By making slips on the outside of the garden '''wall''', you will have plenty of ground for gooseberries, currants, strawberries &c. You may allot that part of the slips which lies nearest to the stables . . .for melon and cucumber beds; and you can plant both sides of the garden-'''wall'''....
: “'''Walls''' of kitchen gardens should be from ten to fourteen feet high; the foundation should be two bricks or two bricks and a half thick; the offset should not be above one course higher than the level of the [[border]]; and the '''wall''' should then set off a brick and a half thick. If the '''walls''' are long, it will be necessary to strengthen them with piers from forty to sixty feet apart; and these piers should not project above half a brick beyond the '''wall'''.”

* [[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year. . . . '' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The [pleasure] ground should be previously fenced, which may be occasionally a [[hedge]], paling or '''wall''', &c. as most convenient.”

* [[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[vol. 2] GARDENING. . . .
: “The situation of a garden should be dry, but rather low than high, and as sheltered as can be from the north and east winds. These points of the compass should be guarded against by high and good [[fence]]s; by a '''wall''' of at least ten feet high; lower '''walls''' do not answer so well for fruit-trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated, to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision [[fence]]s. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered. . . .
: “Yet the fall of the leaves by autumnal winds is troublesome, and a high '''wall''' is therefore advisable. Spruce firs have been used in close-shorn hedges; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single row, though not very near to the '''wall'''; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the evergreen oak and the cork-tree. ...
: “[vol. 3] '''WALL''', in gardening. Of all materials for building '''walls''' for fruit-trees, brick is the best, it being not only the handsomest, but the warmest and kindest for the ripening of fruit; and affording the best conveniency for nailing, as smaller nails will serve in brick than will in stone '''walls''', where the joints are larger; and if the walls are caped with free-stone, and stone pilasters or [[column]]s at proper distances to separate the trees, and break off the force of the winds; they are very beautiful, and the most profitable walls of any others. In some parts of England there are '''walls''' built both of brick and stone, which are found very commodious. The bricks of some places are not of themselves substantial enough for '''walls'''; and therefore some persons, that they might have walls both substantial and wholesome, have built these double, the outside being of stone, and the inside of brick; but there must be great care taken to bond the bricks well into the stone, otherwise they are very apt to separate one from the other, especially when frost comes after much wet.
: “There have been several trials made of '''walls''' built in different forms; some of them having been built semicircular; others in angles of various sizes; and projecting more towards the north, to screen off the cold winds; but there has not as yet been any method which has succeeded near so well as that of making the '''walls''' straight, and building them upright. Where persons are willing to be at the expense in the building of their '''walls''' substantial, they will find it answer much better than those which are slightly built, not only in duration, but in warmth; therefore a '''wall''' two bricks thick will be found to answer better than that of one brick and a half. The best aspect for ripening fruit is south, with a point to the east; and the next best due south. It is a great improvement to have a trellis of wood against the '''wall''', to train the trees to, as it prevents the '''wall''' being spoiled by nails, &c.”

* Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1818, ''The American Gardener'' (1818: 136–37)<ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener'', expanded ed. of 1804 original (Georgetown, DC: Joseph Milligan, 1818), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RISZAN8M/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “For gardens, [[hedge]]s are advisable for two distinct purposes: The first, outward [[fence]]s to serve as a '''wall''' for the exclusion of tresspassers [sic]; the other inward, for the purposes of ornament and shade.
: “For the former, the haw-thorn is excellent. . . .
: “For internal ornamental [[hedge]]s, privet, yew, laurel and box, cedar and juniper, are most generally used.”

* [[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WALL''', ''n''. [L. ''vallum''; Sax. ''weal''; D. ''wal''; Ir. Gaelic, ''balla'' and ''fal''; Russ. ''val''; W. ''gwal''. In L. ''vallus'' is a stake or post, and probably ''vallum'' was originally a [[fence]] of stakes, a palisade or stockade; the first rude fortification of uncivilized men. The primary sense of ''vallus'' is a shoot, or that which is set, and the latter may be the sense of '''''wall''''', whether it is from ''vallus'', or from some other root.].
: “1. A work or structure of stone, brick or other materials, raised to some highth [''sic''], and intended for a defense or security. '''''Walls''''' of stone, with or without cement, are much used in America for [[fence]]s on farms; '''''walls''''' are laid as the foundation of houses and the security of cellars. '''''Walls''''' of stone or brick from the exterior of buildings, and they are often raised round cities and forts as a defense against enemies.”

* [[Thomas Bridgeman|Bridgeman, Thomas]], 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 134)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>

: “When [[Shrub]]s, Creepers, or Climbers are planted against '''walls''' or [[trellis]]es, either on account of their rarity, delicacy, or to conceal a rough fence or other unsightly object, they require different modes of training.”

* [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1834, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834: 575–80, 615, 728, 1131)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed., improved and enlarged (London: Longman et al., 1834), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TGQ5WTNR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “2413. ''Fixed structures'' consist chiefly of erections for the purpose of improving the climate of plants by shelter, by supplying heat, and by exposing them to the influence of the sun. The genera are '''walls''' and [[espalier]] rails, of each of which the species are numerous.
: “2414. ''Garden-'''walls''''' are formed either of brick, wood, stone, or earth, or brick and stone together; and they are either solid, flued, or cellular, upright or sloping, straight or angular.
: “2415. ''Brick, stone, or mud '''walls''''' consist of three parts, the foundation, the body of the '''wall''', and the coping. . . .
: “2416. ''The brick and stone '''wall''''' is a stone '''wall''' faced with four inches of brick-work, or what is called ''brick'' and ''bed'', on the side most exposed to the sun, as on the south sides of east and west '''walls''', and on the insides for the sake of appearance of the two end, or north and south '''walls''' of enclosed gardens. . . .
: “2417. ''The solid brick '''wall''''' is the simplest of all garden-'''walls''', and where the height does not exceed 6 feet, 9 inches in thickness will suffice; when above that to 13 feet, 14 inches, and when from 13 to 20 feet, 18 inches in width are requisite. . . .
: “2418. ''The flued '''wall''', or hot-'''wall'''''. . . is generally built entirely of brick, though where stone is abundant and more economical, the back or north side may be of that material. A flued wall may be termed a hollow '''wall''', in which the vacuity is thrown into compartments (''a, a, a, a''), to facilitate the circulation of smoke and heat, from the base or surface of the ground to within one or two feet of the coping. . . . A wooden or wire [[trellis]] is also occasionally placed before flued '''walls'''. . . .
[[File:1314.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[J. C. Loudon]], “The cellular wall,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 577, figs. 562a and b.]]
: “2420. ''The cellular '''wall''''' (''fig''. 562.) is a recent invention (''Hort. Trans''. vol. iv), the essential part of the construction of which is, that the '''wall''' is built hollow, or at least with communicating vacuities, equally distributed from the surface of the ground to the coping. . . . The advantages of this '''wall''' are obviously considerable in the saving of material, and in the simple and efficacious mode of heating; but the bricks and mortar must be of the best quality. . . . [Fig. 10]
: “2421. ''Hollow '''walls''''' may also be formed by using English instead of Flemish bond: that is, laying one course of bricks along each face of the '''wall''' on edge, and then bonding them by a course laid across and flat. . . .
: “2422. ''Where '''wall'''-fruit is an object of consideration'', the whole of the '''walls''' should be flued or cellular, in order that in any wet or cold autumn, the fruit and wood may be ripened by the application of gentle fires, night and day, in the month of September. . . .
: “2423. ''The mud or earth-'''wall'''''. . . is formed of clay, or better of brick earth in a state between moist and dry, compactly rammed and pressed together between two moveable boarded sides ... retained in their position by a frame of timber . . . which form, between them the section of the '''wall''' . . . these boarded sides are placed, inclining to each other, so as to form the '''wall''' tapering as it ascends. . . .
: “2424. ''Boarded or wooden '''walls'''''. . . are variously constructed. One general rule is, that the boards of which they are composed, should either be imbricated or close-jointed, in order to prevent a current of air from passing through the seams; and in either case well nailed to the battens behind, in order to prevent warping from serpentine wall.'' . . has two avowed objects; first, the saving of bricks, as a '''wall''' in which the centres of the segments composing the line are fifteen feet apart, may be safely carried fifteen feet high, and only nine inches in thickness from the foundations; and a four-inch '''wall''' may be built seven feet high on the same plan. The next proposed advantage is, shelter from all winds in the direction of the '''wall'''; but this advantage seems generally denied by practical men. ...
: “2428. ''The angular '''wall'''''. . . is recommended on the same general principles of shelter and economy as above; it has been tried nearly as frequently, and as generally condemned on the same grounds. . . .
: “2429. T''he zig-zag '''wall''''' (''fig''. 568.) is an angular '''wall''' in which the angles are all right angles, and the length of their external sides one brick or nine inches. This '''wall''' is built on a solid foundation, one foot six inches high, and fourteen inches wide. It is then commenced in zig-zag, and may be carried up to the height of fifteen or sixteen feet of one brick in thickness, and additional height may be given by adding three or four feet of brick on edge. . . .
[[File:1316.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[J. C. Loudon]], “The zig-zag wall” and “The square fret wall,” in ''An Encyclopædia of gardening'' (1834), pp. 578 and 579, figs. 568 and 569. ]]
: “2430. ''The square fret '''wall'''''. . . is a four-inch '''wall''' like the former, and the ground-plan is formed by joining a series of half-[[square]]s, the sides of which are each of the proper length for training one tree during two or three years. [Fig. 11]
: “2431. ''The nurseryman’s, or self-supported four-inch '''wall'''''. . . is formed in lengths of from five to eight feet, and of one brick in breadth, in alternate planes, so that the points of junction form in effect piers nine by four and a half inches. . . .
: “2432. ''The piered '''wall'''''. . . may be of any thickness with piers generally of double that thickness, placed at regular distances, and seldom exceeding the '''wall''' in height, unless for ornament. . . .
: “2441. Of ''fixed structures'', the brick '''wall''', both as a fence, and retainer of heat, may be reckoned essential to every [[kitchen-garden]]; and in many cases the mode of building them hollow may be advantageously adopted. . . .
: “2617. '''''Walls''''' are unquestionably the grandest [[fence]]s for [[park]]s; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the [[hedge]] or pale, and [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and [[fence]]s, will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. . . .
: “3257. '''''Walls''''' are built round a garden chiefly for the production of fruits. A [[kitchen-garden]], Nicol observes, considered merely as such, may be as completely fenced and sheltered by hedges as by '''walls''', as indeed they were in former times, and examples of that mode of fencing are still to be met with. But in order to obtain the finer fruits, it becomes necessary to build '''walls''', or to erect pales and railings. . . .
: “6380. ''Fences''. Masses, in the [[ancient style]] of planting, were generally surrounded by '''walls''' or other durable [[fence]]s. Here the barrier was considered as an object or permanent part of the scene, and for that reason was executed substantially, and even ornamentally. They were generally '''walls''' substantially coped, and furnished with handsome [[gate]]s and piers. The rows of [[avenue]]s and small [[clump]]s, or platoons intended to be finally thrown open, were enclosed by the most convenient temporary [[fence]].”

* [[Sayers, Edward]], 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 129)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck and Company, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “The ''[[trellis]]es, [[arbor]]s, '''walls''', [[fence]]s'', and so on, should be covered with ''vines'' and ''creepers'', so that the whole may have a corresponding appearance.”

* [[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 410–11)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''WALLS''' for gardens are either used as boundary [[fence]]s, and at the same time for the purpose of training plants on, or they are erected in gardens for the latter purpose only. They may be formed of different materials, according to those that are most abundant in any given locality; but the best of all '''walls''' for garden purposes are those which are built of brick. . . . In no case, however, ought garden '''walls''', or indeed division or [[fence]] '''walls''' of any kind which have not a load to support perpendicularly, or a pressure to resist on one side, to be built with piers. . . . Walls of nine inches in thickness, and even four-inch '''walls''', if built in a winding or zigzag direction, may be carried to a considerable height without either having piers or being built hollow; and such '''walls''' answer perfectly for the interior of gardens.”

* [[Johnson, George William]], 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221, 620–21)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

: “[[FENCE]]S are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live [[fence]]s, and are then known as ''[[hedge]]s'', or dead, and are then either ''banks'', ''ditches'', ''palings'', or '''''walls'''''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred. . . .
: “'''WALLS''' are usually built in panels, from fifteen to thirty feet in length, one brick thick, with [[pillar]]s for the sake of adding to their strength, at these specified distances; the foundation a brick and a half thick. . . .
: “It is a practice sanctioned by economy, to build the '''wall''' half brick thick, on a nine inch foundation, and to compensate for its want of strength, a waved form is given. Both the smallness of its substance and its form, are found, however, to be inimical to the ripening of fruit.
: “In every instance a '''wall''' should never be lower than eight feet. The thickness usually varies with the height of the '''wall''', being nine inches, if it is not higher than eight feet; thirteen and a half inches, if above eight and under fourteen feet; and eighteen inches, from fourteen up to twenty feet.
: “Fruit trees will succeed quite as well against a stone '''wall''' as against a brick one, although the former is neither so neat in appearance, nor can the trees be trained in such a regular form upon it as upon the latter. The last disadvantage may be in a great measure remedied by having a wooden or wire [[trellis]] affixed to it.—''Gard. Chron''.
: “If it be desirable that the roots of the trees should benefit by the pasturage outside the '''wall''', it is very common to build it upon an arched foundation.
: “Colour has very considerable influence over a body’s power of absorbing heat. . . . The lightest coloured rays are the most heating, therefore light colored '''walls''', but especially white, are the worst for fruit trees. The thermometer against a '''wall''' rendered black by coal tar, rises 5° higher in the sunshine, than the same instrument suspended against a red brick structure of the same thickness; nor will it cool lower at night, though its radiating power is increased by the increased darkness of its colour, if a proper screen be then employed.— ''Johnson’s Princ. of Gard''.
: “''Inclined or Sloping '''Walls''''' have been recommended, but have always failed in practice. It is quite true that they receive the sun’s rays at a favourable angle, but they retain wet, and become so much colder by radiation at night than perpendicular '''walls''', that they are found to be unfavourable to the ripening of fruit.”

* [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 343–44)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “An old stone '''wall''' covered with creepers and climbing plants, may become a [[picturesque]] barrier a thousand times superior to such a fence.”

==Images==

===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1042.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, Illustration for chapter entitled: “Of different Terrasses and Stairs, with their most exact Proportions,” in [[A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville]], ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening''(1712), pl. opp. p. 117.

File:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century.

File:0554.jpg|John Hawks, “Plan and Elevation of a Prison for the District of Edenton,” June 1, 1773.

File:0072.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of an orchard at Monticello, c. 1778.

File:0553.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Plan of a Lot and Wharf Belonging to Florian Charles Mey, Esq.'', 1797.

File:0555.jpg|Anonymous, Plat of 117 Broad Street, Charleston, 1797.

File:0331.jpg|[[George Washington]], ''Drawing and Notes for a Ha-Ha Wall at Mount Vernon, October 1798'', 1798.

File:0095.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of Mr. Derby['s] Land,” 1800.

File:1237.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''General Plan of a Marine Asylum and Hospital proposed to be built at Washington'', 1812.

File:0414.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Plan of the west end of the public appropriation in the city of Washington, called the Mall, as proposed to be arranged for the site of the university'', 1816.

File:1313.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The flued wall, or hot-wall,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 304, figs. 236 and 237.

File:1315.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The wavy or serpentine wall” and “the angular wall,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 307, figs. 241 and 242.

File:1340.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Cross walls,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 471, fig. 427.

File:1820.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The mud or earth-wall,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 306, fig. 239.

File:1821.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The nurseryman's, or self-supported four-inch wall” and “The piered wall,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 308, figs. 245 and 246.

File:1982.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The cellular wall,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 305, fig. 238.

File:1314.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The cellular wall,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 577, figs. 562a and b.

File:1316.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The zig-zag wall” and “The square fret wall,” in ''An Encyclopædia of gardening'' (1834), pp. 578 and 579, figs. 568 and 569.

File:0877.jpg|Anonymous, Section of a terrace of the Messrs. Winship, in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6 (November 1840): 403, fig. 10.

File:0787.jpg|Frances Palmer, “Ground Plot,” in [[William H. Ranlett]], ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0168.jpg|Thomas Jefferson, Third variant for range and gardens, showing serpentine walls at the University of Virginia, c. 1817–22.

File:1804.jpg|Sophie Madeleine du Pont, “Starecatus's gallant exploit--(ie) putting Azor [''sic''] to fight with no other weapon but the broomstick--,” November 17, 1824.

File:1103.jpg|W. Mason, “Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane,” c. 1841.

File:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

File:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4 (April 1848): plate opp. p. 280.

File:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''The Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. p. 353.

File:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye view of Mt. Vernon the home of Washington'', c. 1859.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

File:0925.jpg|William Burgis, ''A South East View of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

File:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], A Draught of John Bartram's House and Garden as it appears from the River, 1758.

File:0037.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772.

File:0613.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine'' 1, no. 7 (July 1789): pl. 7, opp. p. 394.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''View of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0262.jpg|John Brewster, Jr., ''Lucy Gallup Eldredge (Mrs. James Eldredge)'', 1795.

File:0408.jpg|David Leonard, ''A S. W. view of the College in Providence, together with the President's House & Gardens'', c. 1795.

File:0154.jpg|C. Milbourne, ''View of Broadway at Bowling Green with the Government House, New York City'', 1797.

File:0176.jpg|Samuel B. Malcolm, ''The President's House'', 1798.

File:0236.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “The Light Horseman,” 1799.

File:0029.jpg|Michele Felice Cornè, ''Ezekiel Hersey Derby Farm'', c. 1800.

File:0135.jpg|Unknown, Gardiner Gilman House Overmantel, c. 1800.

File:0165.jpg|Jonathan Budington or Dr. Francis Forgue, attr., ''View of Main Street in Fairfield, Connecticut'', c. 1800.

File:0273.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Thomas Earle'', 1800.

File:0307.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “Pennsylvania Hospital, in Pine Street Philadelphia,” 1800.

File:0127.jpg|Nancy Baker, Brick House with Brick Wall and People, 1803, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 58.

File:0909.jpg|Barthélémy Lafon, “Plan de l'Habitation de Feu Jn. Bte. de Marigny Pour servir au partage des héritiers. . . .,” September 15, 1806.

File:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Foreyards and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby's New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012), p. 72.

File:0325.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], ''Sweet Briar'', c. 1808, in Emily T. Cooperman and Lea Carson Sherk, ''William Birch: Picturing the American Scene'' (2011), p. 201, fig. 116.

File:1469.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel (attrib.), ''Sunday Morning in front of the Arch Street Meeting House, Philadelphia'', 1811– c. 1813.

File:0054.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite Hyde de Neuville]], ''Le coin de F. Street Washington vis-à-vis nôtre maison été de 1817'', 1817.

File:1015.jpg|George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois—Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.

File:0157.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite Hyde de Neuville]], ''Washington City'', 1821.

File:0121.jpg|Alexander Francis, ''Ralph Wheelock's Farm'', c. 1822.

File:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “View of the White House,” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

File:1112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]] (artist), B. King (lithograper), ''Riversdale, near Bladensburg'', 1827.

File:1432.jpg|Milo Osborne, “Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” in Theodore S. Fay, ''Views in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831).

File:1458.jpg|[[Henry Cheever Pratt]], ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

File:0663.jpg|John Warner Barber, “College of New Jersey, Princeton,” in ''Historical collections of the state of New Jersey'' (1844), pl. opp. p. 266.

File:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0556.jpg|John William Hill, ''Blandford Church, Petersburg, Virginia'', 1847.

File:0519.jpg|David Ryder, ''Arabella Sparrow'', 1848.

File:0383.jpg|Anonymous, “Residence of Gov. Morehead, North Carolina,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 387, fig. 46.

File:0114.jpg|Rubens Peale, ''Old Museum'', 1858–60.

</gallery>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Boundaries]]

Fence

2019-06-17T15:58:47Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ added M'Mahon link

See also: [[Espalier]], [[Gate]], [[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha-Ha]], [[Hedge]], [[Wall]]

==History==

[[File:1467.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.]]
[[File:0234.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Lewis Miller]], “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in [[Lewis Miller]], ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.]]

Humphry Repton wrote in 1803 in reference to England that “every county has its peculiar mode of fencing, both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener.”<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), 84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI/q/repton view on Zotero].</ref> In America, where the tasks of partitioning, cultivating, and embellishing the landscape were considered inseparable, the distinction between farmer and gardener was less easily made. Frequent references to the fence in both the written and visual record place it among the most fundamental elements of the designed landscape in America. A fence, as dictionary definitions agree, enclosed areas such as gardens, cornfields, [[park]]s, [[woods]], or groups of trees. As <span id="Gregory_cite"></span>[[G. (George) Gregory|G. Gregory]] (1816) noted, the feature could be formed by a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, or bank ([[#Gregory|view citation]]). Terms for different fence types abound in American landscape design vocabulary: blind, board, close, cradle, cross, double, foss, hurdle, invisible, live, open board, pale/paling, palisade, picket, post-and-plank, post-and-rail, snake, sunk, [[trellis]], Virginia, wattle, wire, worm, and zigzag.<ref>For a more detailed discussion of fence types, see Vanessa Patrick, “Partitioning the Landscape,” ''Colonial Williamsburg Research Report''(Williamsburg, VA: Williamsburg Foundation, 1983), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero]; Elizabeth Wilkinson and Marjorie Henderson, eds., ''Decorating Eden: A Comprehensive Sourcebook of Classic Garden Details'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1992), 42–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5TNM2M83/q/Decorating%20Eden%3A%20A%20Comprehensive%20Sourcebook%20of%20Classic%20Garden%20Details view on Zotero]; Wilbur Zelinsky, “Walls and Fences,” in ''Changing Rural Landscapes'', ed. Ervin H. and Margaret J. Zube (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 53–63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0197.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Francis Guy]], ''Rose Hill'', 1798. The home of William Gibson in Baltimore, MD, which is depicted in this detail from a John and Hugh Finley armchair, illustrates the use of a fence to frame the view of the façade.]]
[[File:1701.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), 412, fig. 276.]]
The choice of fence type was dictated by the materials available, local custom, and the need at hand. For instance, worm fences (also called zigzag, snake, split rail, or Virginia fences) did not require posts or post holes and therefore were easily moved to accommodate changing field use and avoided the problem of posts rotting in soil. They were also useful in areas where rocky soil made it difficult to dig post holes or in wooded areas where trees made straight fence lines impractical, as seen in the watercolor sketch by John Lewis Krimmel [Fig. 1]. Paled fences offered a more solid line of defense against deer and rabbits, but had less flexibility and required more labor and finished lumber [Fig. 2]. Such high fences were effective barriers for animals as well as humans, as attested by <span id="Waln_cite"></span>Robert Waln Jr.’s 1825 description of the board fence at the Friends Asylum for the Insane in Pennsylvania ([[#Waln|view citation]]).

[[File:0476.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''View of Union Park, New York, from the Head of Broadway,'' 1848. The ironwork fence, at 14th Street, encircles what was known as Union Square Park.]]
[[File:0424.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, [[Washington Square (New York)|Washington Square]]'', 1833.]]
Paling fences created visual barriers and were sometimes erected to screen unpleasant views or to provide privacy, particularly in urban settings. For instance, in 1857 <span id="Watson_cite"></span>John Fanning Watson complained that “in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds” at William Bingham’s Philadelphia residence, “the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high fence” ([[#Watson|view citation]]). Fences were also used to direct the gaze, whether toward a house, as in [[Francis Guy|Francis Guy’s]] chairback painting of Rose Hill in Baltimore [Fig. 3], or other focal point. In other cases, fences such as sunken types (later replaced by wire fences) were desired for their inconspicuous presence in the landscape. Numerous descriptions and horticultural advice columns praised the effect of unobstructed views created by enclosures that kept animals or human traffic at bay with minimal visibility (see [[Ha-ha]]).

[[File:1086.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. 40.]]
[[File:1078.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after 94. This book includes a description of a “neat iron paling surrounds the hill, marking it as the appropriate final home of a large family.”]]
Fences were constructed from a variety of materials. In the Tidewater’s sedimentary soils where stone was scarce, wood was the most common material and was used mainly in paled, post-and-rail or board, and worm fences. Although types of wood that could be used were varied, a typical paling fence utilized different types of wood. For example, hard wood, such as locust, cedar, or oak, was often used for posts; wood with tensile strength, such as oak, poplar, or pine, was used for rails; and lightweight wood, such as pine, could be employed for the pales.<ref>Patrick 1983, 2, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KK726D7T/q/partitioning%20the%20landscape view on Zotero].</ref> Although worm fences [Fig. 4] have been documented in Delaware, New York, and as far north as Canada, they were so common in the Tidewater area that they were often identified as Virginia fences. <span id="Anburey_cite"></span>Thomas Anburey even reported that New Englanders described a drunken man’s impaired movements as “making Virginia fences” ([[#Anburey|view citation]]). In southern New England’s glacier-formed topography, abundant fieldstone was used for stone [[wall]]s, which sometimes were referred to as stone fences.<ref>While treatise and dictionary definitions of “fence” list stone and brick as building materials, it was common practice in America to refer to stone and brick barriers as [[wall]]s. In 1871, the first year for which statistics were kept, a study of fence types in New England revealed that stone fences ranged from 32 percent in Vermont and 33 percent in Connecticut to 67 percent in Maine and 79 percent in Rhode Island; see Zelinsky 1977, 59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X8FV99J7/q/Changing%20rural%20landscapes view on Zotero].</ref> Fences could also be created from live plants, predominantly thorn (hawthorn and buckthorn), although writers including Edward James Hooper (1842) and Charles Wyllys Elliott (1848) recommended osage orange, cedar, Chinese arbor vitae, privet, holly, honey and black locust, beech, willow, and hemlock. The advantages of live fences were a matter of great debate, particularly in early nineteenth-century publications that advocated the “new agriculture.” These writings included those by the New York and Massachusetts Agricultural Societies, and later, in periodical form, the ''Horticulturist''. In addition to their durability and long-term cost savings, it was argued that live fences harmonized better with the surrounding landscape (see [[Hedge]]). A similar effect could also be achieved with other fences, as suggested by <span id="Sayers_cite"></span>Edward Sayers (1838), by training “vines and creepers” to conceal old and unsightly fences ([[#Sayers|view citation]]).

[[File:1677.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape View of a House and Garden'' [detail], 1836.]]
[[File:1752.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[William Halfpenny]], “A Chinese Acute angular Paleing” and “A Chinese Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.]]
Iron [[gate]]s were used in the 18th century at such sites as [[Westover]], on the James River, Virginia, and the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, and iron fences were employed for the fronts of elite dwellings and notable institutions.<ref>At Westover, research has revealed that the iron-gate was originally painted white (Carl Lounsbury, personal communication).</ref> It was not, however, until the second quarter of the 19th century when the expansion of America’s domestic iron industry and advances in cast iron made iron fences affordable for those of more modest means. This availability is reflected in the more than one hundred fence patents that were registered between 1801 and 1857.<ref>See Gregory K. Dreicer, “Wired! The Fence Industry and the Invention of Chain Link,” in ''Between Fences'', ed. Gregory K. Dreicer (Washington, DC: National Building Museum; New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6MWKQ3AI/q/wired view on Zotero].</ref> Treatises, such as those by [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] (1849) and [[William H. Ranlett]] (1851), provided examples of fashionable designs to be installed in front of suburban [[yard]]s. Elaborate iron-work fences were particularly popular as enclosures for urban [[park]]s [Fig. 5], educational institutions [Fig. 6], and family burial [[plot]]s [Fig. 7]. These [[plot]]s, with their elaborate fences, were favorite subjects in illustrated books of the new rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] [Fig. 8].

[[File:0184.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, Caroline Betts, “A view of Col. Lincoln’s seat, Casnovia,” c. 1821.]]
[[File:0754.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Samuel Barnard, ''View Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.]]
Despite the variety of materials and designs, fences shared many common functions. Garden fences, like [[wall]]s, created micro-climates for plants: southern façades were ideal for promoting early harvests of fruit trees trained on [[espalier]]s or protecting tender [[nursery]] plants, while northern sides provided sheltered, shady spots in long dry summers. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819) emphasized the value of fences as shelters in America, given its extremes of heat and cold in contrast to the more temperate English climate ([[#Cobbett|view citation]]).

[[File:1130.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 13, Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.]]
[[File:0203_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[Francis Guy]], ''Perry Hall from the northwest'' [detail], c. 1805.]]
Fences were the primary boundary markers that defined property lines and distinguished “improved” from “unimproved” land, and early legislation frequently required the fencing of landholdings. Fences also marked divisions within a property owner’s estate, such as those between field, [[meadow]], pasture, [[orchard]], and [[yard]]; and, within the garden itself, fences separated areas such as the [[flower garden]], [[kitchen garden]], and [[nursery]] [Fig. 9]. The form of the fence often reflected its position or function. For example, post-and-rail fences would mark the boundaries and the divisions of the fields, while a palisaded brick [[wall]] served as a retaining [[wall]] along a [[slope]], and a picket fence delineated the [[geometric style|geometrically]] regular garden adjacent to the house. Not surprisingly, the public [[view]] of the property was often framed by more ornamented fence types, and aspiring owners could draw from pattern books, such as that by [[William and John Halfpenny]] (1755), for inspiration [Fig. 10]. Numerous images, including Caroline Betts’s painting of Lorenzo on Lake Cazenovia [Fig. 11], show a more elaborate treatment given to the fences in front of houses in contrast to the pale or post-and-rail fences that lined roads and enclosed [[meadow]]s. <span id="Cobbett_cite"></span>William Cobbett (1819), in this vein, described a hierarchy of fences from the “rudest barriers” to the “grandest” and “noblest,” along with “every degree of gradation” in between ([[#Cobbett|view citation]]), and <span id="Benjamin_cite"></span>Asher Benjamin (1830) recommended that the size of front fences be suited to the scale of the house ([[#Benjamin|view citation]]).

[[File:0003-detail.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 15, William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'' [detail], 1748–50.]]
[[File:0515.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.]]
Distinctions in the fence in the landscape were also made by painting sections or the sides of fences. In several New England examples, including the Dennie overmantel, utilitarian fences were painted red, while more formal fence sections near the house were painted white. In still other instances, such as the painting ''View Along the East Battery'' [Fig. 12], parts of the fence furthest from the house were left unpainted in contrast to the painted fence in front of the house. [[View]]s, such as Marie L. Pilsbury’s Louisiana [[plantation]] scene [Fig 13], are especially striking since the white [[gate]] of the [[drive]] stands out in sharp contrast to the unpainted brown post-and-rail fence. While the selective use of white served to highlight portions of the fence, it also conserved white paint, which was more costly.<ref>Robert Emlen, ''Shaker Village Views: Illustrated Maps and Landscape Drawings by Shaker Artists of the Nineteenth Century'' (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1987), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CNV6HPEC/q/shaker%20village%20views view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0020.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 17, Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c.1820. This sketch depicts a fence demarcating the boundary between the house’s [[yard]] and the landscape beyond.]]
Fences were critical for keeping livestock in and garden pests contained. During the early years of settlement when livestock (such as pigs) were not restrained, colonists fenced their garden [[plot]]s, while animals wreaked havoc on the open fields of Native Americans.<ref> William Cronon, ''Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 130–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/PAVPD9HR/q/changes%20in%20the%20land view on Zotero].</ref> In large estates, above-ground fences or [[ha ha|sunken fences]] around the house were used to separate animals grazing in the open land of larger, more naturalistic landscape [[park]]s from more densely planted areas immediately surrounding the house, as depicted in [[Francis Guy|Francis Guy’s]] 1805 painting of Perry Hall in Baltimore [Fig. 14]. Urban gardens faced their share of potential intruders as well, both animal and human, and fences were an important element in defining urban public spaces such as [[common]]s, [[squares]], roads, and [[park]]s.

Fences were symbolic, as well as practical, boundaries.<ref>The functions, both symbolic and practical, of fences have been explored in an exhibition organized by Gregory K. Dreicer with an accompanying catalogue, ''Between Fences'', cited above.</ref> Churchyards were often fenced, in part to protect them from wandering animals, and in part to demarcate the sacred space within. The similarity of [[yard]]-like enclosures created around family burials suggests an expression of the eternal domestic unit represented within. In both images and actual landscapes, fences around residences signified the division between personal property and the world beyond. This boundary made the presence and treatment of openings, such as [[gate]]s, particularly important as they marked the passage between these realms of the public and the private. Residential fences were also a visual statement of their owners’ resources and abilities. For example, in William Dering’s portrait of George Booth, the fence in the background divides the near and middle grounds [Fig. 15]. Dering extended the [[view]] into the distant, irregular landscape, but signaled the proprietor’s control over the space within the confines of his fence with the regular plantings and trimmed path. Countless representations of houses offer a similar demarcation, usually from the reverse perspective, showing the area surrounding the dwelling separated from the larger landscape by a fence. This division of domestic space is seen in modest gardens from Eunice Pinney’s ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'' [Fig. 16] to more elaborate estates such as Janika de Fériet’s ''The Hermitage'' [Fig. 17].

Descriptions by travelers, such as Timothy Dwight, also demonstrate the significance of fences as an indication of the prosperity or decline of an area. <span id="Bigelow_cite"></span>Timothy Bigelow (1805) described the Shaker Village of Hancock, New York, as “much better fenced than any other in [the] vicinity” ([[#Bigelow|view citation]]). With some pride, a writer in the <span id="Register_1836_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' in 1836 found Maine wanting in comparison to Massachusetts since there was “not that attention paid to the appearance of fences about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us” ([[#Register_1836|view citation]]). In something of an horticultural parable the <span id="Register_1837_cite"></span>''Horticultural Register'' (1837) described the proprietor who spent all his money on his house leaving it to stand “dreary and alone . . . an unsightly broken fence to enclose it” while, with more foresight, “a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted . . . and a picket fence encircles it” ([[#Register_1837|view citation]]).

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Rex, Charles, August 1641, instructions to Sir William Berkeley (quoted in Billings 1975: 56)<ref>Warren M. Billings, ed. ''The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689'' (Williamsburg, VA: Institute of Early American History and Culture at Williamsburg, Virginia, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S2TZJIN9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“25. That they apply themselves to the Impaling of [[orchard]]s and gardens for Roots and fruits, which that Country is so proper for and that every Planter be compelled for every 200 Acres Granted unto him to inclose and sufficiently '''Fence''', either with Pales or Quick sett, and ditch, and so from time to time to preserve inclosed and '''Fenced''' a Quarter of an Acre of Ground in the most Convenient place near his dwelling house for [[Orchard]]s and Gardens.”

*Fitzhugh, William, April 1686, in a letter to Dr. Ralph Smith, describing Greensprings, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:46)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931–34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . the [[Plantation]] where I now live contains a thousand acres, grounds and '''fencing''' . . . a large [[orchard]] of about 2500 Apple trees most grafted, well '''fenced''' with a locust '''fence''', which is as durable as most brick [[wall]]s, a Garden, a hundred foot square, well pailed in, a [[yard|Yeard]] wherein is most of the aforesaid necessary houses, pallizad’d in with locust Punchens which is as good as if it were walled in and more lasting than any of our bricks.”

*[[William Penn|Penn, William]], c. 1687, in a letter to James Harrison, inquiring about Pennsbury Manor, country estate of [[William Penn]], near Philadelphia (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 1)<ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (MS thesis, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I should be glad to see a draugh of Pennsberry w<sup>ch</sup> an Artist would quickly take, w<sup>th</sup> y<sup>e</sup> land scip of y<sup>e</sup> hous, out houses, [[orchard]]s, also w<sup>t</sup> grounds you have cleered w<sup>t</sup> improvem<sup>t</sup>s made. an account how the peach & apple [[orchard]]s grow; Bear. if any [[walk]]s be made, & steps at ye water & how yt garden next y<sup>e</sup> water towards ye house, is layd out & thrives, how farr you advance . . . w<sup>t</sup> '''fence''' about ye yards gardens & [[orchard]]s.”

*Virginia General Assembly, October 23, 1705, describing a legislative ruling in Virginia (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“(I) Be it enacted . . . that if any horses, mares, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats, shall break into any grounds, being inclosed with a strong and sound '''fence''', four foot and half high, and so close that the beasts or kine breaking into the same, could not creep through; or with an [[hedge]] two foot high, upon a ditch of three foot deep, and three foot broad, or instead of such [[hedge]], a rail '''fence''' of two foot and half high, the [[hedge]] or '''fence''' being so close that none of the creatures aforesaid can creep through, (which shall be accounted a lawful '''fence''',) the owner . . . shall for the first trespass by any of them committed, make reparation to the party injured.”

*Anonymous, 4 August 1733, describing in the ''South Carolina Gazette'' a cemetery in Berkeley County, SC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“The new [[cemetery|Burying Ground]] '''Fence''' to be done in the same manner it formerly was, the posts of both to be of the best light wood, Chinquepin or Cedar.”

*Ball, Joseph, February 1734, describing a property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letter Book)
:“The apple [[Nursery]] '''Fence''' must be kept upright good & strong, but set upon blocks, so that small hogs may go in, to keep down the weeds.”

*Kalm, Pehr, September 21, 1748, and January 22, 1749, describing fences in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York (1770; repr., 1937: 1:47, 238–39)<ref>Pehr Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. (1770; repr., New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''fences''' and pales are generally made here of wooden planks and posts. But a few good economists, having already thought of sparing the [[woods]] for future times, have begun to plant quick [[hedge]]s round their fields; and for this purpose they take the above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank that is thrown up for it.”
:“'''''Fences'''''. The '''fences''' built in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, but especially in New York, are those which on account of their serpentine form resembling worms are called ‘worm '''fences'''’*in English. The rails which compose this '''fence''' are taken from different trees, but they are not all of equal duration. . . . In order to make rails the people do not cut down the young trees . . . but they fell here and there large trees, cut them in several places, leaving the pieces as long as it is necessary, and split them into rails of the desired thickness; a single tree affords a multitude of rails. . . . Thus the worm '''fence''' is one of the most useful sorts of inclosures, especially as they cannot get any posts made of the wood of this county to last above six or eight years in the ground without rotting . . . the worm '''fences''' are easily put up again, when they are forced down. . . . Considering how much more wood the worm-'''fences''' require (since they zigzag) than other '''fences''' which go in straight lines, and that they are so soon useless, one may imagine how the forests will be consumed, and what sort of an appearance the country will have forty or fifty years hence.
:“*The well-known zigzag '''fence''' of rails crossing at the ends. It is also called ‘snake '''fence'''’ or ‘Virginia rail '''fence'''.’

*Alexiowitz, Iwan, 1769, in a letter describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 50)<ref>Williams Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Thence we rambled through his fields, where the rightangular '''fences''', the heaps of pitched stones, the flourishing clover, announced the best husbandry, as well as the most assiduous attention.”

*<div id="Anburey"></div>Anburey, Thomas, January 20, 1779, describing Jones’s [[Plantation]], near Charlottesville, VA (1789; repr., 1969: 2:323–24)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'' 2 vols. (1789; repr. New York: New York Times and Arno Pres, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Anburey_cite|back up to History]]
:“The '''fences''' and enclosures in this province are different from others, for those to the northward are made either of stone or rails let into posts, about a foot asunder; here they are composed of what is termed '''''fence''''' ''rails'', which are made out of trees cut or sawed into lengths of about twelve feet, that are mauld or split into rails from four to six inches diameter.
:“When they form an inclosure, these rails are laid so, that they cross each other obliquely at each end, and are laid zig zag to the amount of ten or eleven rails in height, then stakes are put against each corner, double across, with the lower ends drove a little into the ground, and above these stakes is placed a rail of double the size of the others, which is termed the rider, which, in a manner, locks up the whole, and keeps the '''fence''' firm and steady.
:“These enclosures are generally seven or eight feet high, they are not very strong but convenient, as they can be removed to any other place, where they may be more necessary; from a mode of constructing these enclosures in a zig zag form, the New-Englanders have a saying, when a man is in liquor, ''he is making Virginia'' '''''fences'''''.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:263)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[Mall]] is at present nearly surrounded with buildings, which stand near to the board '''fence''' that incloses it, and the parts now vacant will, in a short time, be filled up.”

*Brissot de Warville, J. P., August 9, 1788, describing the journey from Boston to New York, NY (1792: 127–28)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States Performed in 1788'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKXB2WAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But the uncleared lands are all located, and the proprietors have inclosed them with '''fences''' of different sorts. These several kinds of '''fences''' are composed of different materials, which announce the different degrees of culture in the country. Some are composed of the light branches of trees; others, of the trunks of trees laid one upon the other; a third sort is made of long pieces of wood, supporting each other by making angles at the end; a fourth kind is made of long pieces of hewn timber, supported at the ends by passing into holes made in an upright post; a fifth is like the garden '''fences''' in England; the last kind is made of stones thrown together to the height of three feet. This last is most durable, and is common in Massachusetts.”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing [[Elias Hasket Derby Farm]], Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'', 4 vols. (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[231] 22. . . . The Principal Garden is in three parts divided by an open slat '''fence''' painted white, & the '''fence''' white washed. It includes 7/8 of an Acre. . . . The House is [lined?] with a superb '''fence''', but is itself a mere country House, one story higher than common with a rich owner.”

*Moreau de Saint-Méry, M. L. E., May 25, 1794, describing the fences of houses in America (Roberts and Roberts, eds., 1947: 121–22)<ref>Kenneth Roberts and Anna M. Roberts, eds., ''Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey, [1793–1798]'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1947), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5TDSZ2UB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In America almost everything is sacrificed to the outside [[view]]. To accomplish this the '''fences''' of the houses are sometimes varied by these six combinations: 1. Planks are laid vertically and close together. 2. Planks are laid the same way, with a space between them. 3. Little narrow boards are laid across without joining. 4. Vertically placed laths are joined. 5. Vertically placed laths are not joined. 6. Laths are placed vertically, but passing alternately on the outside and the inside of cross members. Further elegance is obtained by using different shades of paint on lattices and partitions.”

*Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la, 1795–97, describing Norristown, PA (1800: 1:18)<ref>François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Yet the uninterrupted and high '''fences''' of dry wood greatly disfigure the landscape, and produce a tedious sameness. These might be easily replaced by trees which endure the frost, as thorns are supposed here (I think without any just ground) to be unsuitable to the climate. Some of the fields along the road are bordered with ''traga'' or cedar, but these experiments are rare; and, in general, the land is inclosed with double '''fences''' of wood.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:184)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821–22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Fences''', and out-houses are also in the same style [neat and tidy]: and being almost universally painted white, make a delightful appearance to the eye; and appearance, not a little enhanced, by the great multitude of shade-trees: a species of ornament, in which this town is unrivalled.”

*Anonymous, April 18, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' Willow Brook, seat of John Donnell, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 137)<ref> Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9, no.3 (July–September 1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That beautiful, healthy and highly improved [[seat]], within one mile of the city of Baltimore, called Willow Brook, containing about 26 acres of land, the whole of which is under a good post and rail '''fence''', divided and laid off into grass lots, [[orchard]]s, garden.”

*<div id="Bigelow"></div>Bigelow, Timothy, 1805, describing visit to Hancock Shaker Village, NY (quoted in Hammond 1982: 201)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Bigelow_cite|back up to History]]
:“[The] lands (are) easily ascertained by the most transient observer; for they are more highly cultivated, laid out with more taste and regularity, and much better '''fenced''' than any other in their vicinity.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54–55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''Fences''' separating the [[Park]]-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. The former are made with posts & lathes—the latter with posts, rails & boards. They are concealed with evergreeens [[hedge]]—of juniper I think. A common post & rail '''fence''', [not in sight from the house,] winds from the public road [[gate]], & joins to the garden '''fence''', which is a double sloped ditch, with a low '''fence''' of posts & 3 rails. They seemed insufficient—at least for turbulent horses or even Sheep. The [[park]] [[lawn]] is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. Its '''fences''' where it is not visible from the house, is of common posts & rails.”

*Stebbins, William, February 6, 1810, describing the [[White House]], Washington, DC (1968: 37)<ref>William Stebbins, ''The Journal of William Stebbins'' ed. Pierce W. Gaines (Hartford, CT: Acorn Club, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2TA7CCFU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Extended my walk alone to the [[White House|President’s House]]:—a handsome edifice, tho’ like the capitol of free stone: the south [[yard]] principally made ground, bank’d up by a common stone [[wall]]: a plain picket '''fence''' on each side, the passage way to the house on the north: —some of the pickets lying on the ground.”

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], July 29, 1810, in letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of [[Charles Willson Peale]], Germantown, PA (Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:55)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', 5 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[View]] is taken at a point [from] the Tennants house a small distance, by which you see the Roof of the Mantion over the Garden '''fence''' which are of boards on a Stone [[Wall]].” [Fig. 18]

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Skenesborough, NY, and the Northern and Mid-Atlantic states (1816: 2:28–29, 231–32)<ref>John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The other parts of the farms were covered with the stumps of trees, and enclosed by worm '''fences''', which gave to these settlements a very rough appearance.”
:“A contrary practice is adopted in the northern and middle states, where a succession of farms, [[meadow]]s, gardens, and habitations, continually meet the eye of the traveller; and if [[hedge]]s were substituted for rail '''fences''', those States would very much resemble some of the English counties.”

*Hulme, Thomas, June 28, 1818, describing the settlement of Morris Birkbeck, New Harmony, IN (quoted in Cobbett 1819: 475)<ref>William Cobbett, ''A Year’s Residence in the United States of America'' (London: Sherwood, Neely and Jones, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HA3Q8TX8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“910. I very much admire Mr. Birkbeck’s mode of '''''fencing'''''. He makes a ditch 4 feet wide at top, sloping to 1 foot wide at bottom, and 4 feet deep. With the earth that comes out of the ditch he makes a bank on one side, which is turfed towards the ditch. Then a long pole is put up from the bottom of the ditch to 2 feet above the bank; this is crossed by a short pole from the other side, and then a rail is laid along between the forks. The banks were growing beautifully, and looked altogether very neat as well as formidable; though a live [[hedge]] (which he intends to have) instead of dead poles and rails, upon top, would make the '''fence''' far more effectual as well as handsomer.”

*Green, Samuel, May 13, 1820, receipt for Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Hermitage Collections, Andrew Jackson Papers: DLC 9967)
:“To putting up one hundred & twenty one pannel of post and rail cedar '''fence''' at half a dollar pr pannel, $60.50”

*Hening, William Waller, 1823, describing a legislative action by the Virginia General Assembly (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 138)<ref>Carl R. Lounsbury, ed. ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . every freeman shall '''fence''' in a quarter of an acre of ground before Whitsuntide next to make a garden.”

*<div id="Waln"></div>Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 231)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., “An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,” ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1, no. 2 (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Waln_cite|back up to History]]
:“In the rear of the wings are situated the [[yard]]s or airing grounds, for the use of the male and female patients, separated by the space in the rear of the centre building, and each containing about five-ninths of an acre of ground, in grass, surrounded by [[walk]]s. These are enclosed by board '''fences''', ten feet in height, on the top of which is a simple, but effectual, apparatus for preventing escape of the patients. Boards about eight feet long and eight inches broad, and apparently forming part of the stationary '''fence''', but detached from it, are placed around the whole circuit of the enclosure: these are connected to the '''fence''' beneath by hinges. Blocks of wood, about two feet long, are attached to these boards on the outside, at the lower part of which, are rings through which a strong wire is conducted: at the extremities of these wires alarum bells are attached. When the patient, in attempting to escape, seizes one of these moveable boards, it turns inwards on its hinges, the adventurer falls back into the [[yard]], and the appendant blocks of wood, protruding, stretch the wire, and sound the alarm, which is distinctly heard through the building.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Sweet Briar, seat of Samuel Breck, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 425)<ref name="Boyd_1929">James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. Breck has taken considerable pains with a [[hedge]] of white hawthorn (Crataegus), which he planted in 1810, and caused to be plashed, stalked, and dressed last Spring by two Englishmen, who understood the business well. Yet he apprehends the whole of the plants will gradually decay, and oblige him to substitute a post and rail '''fence'''. Almost every attempt to cultivate a live '''fence''' in the neighborhood of Philadelphia seems to have failed. The foliage disappears in August, and the plant itself is short lived in our climate.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing Eaglesfield, country residence of John J. Borie, vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 441)<ref name="Boyd_1929"></ref>
:“The [[lawn]] is extensive, and divided from the house by a handsome chain '''fence''', supported by posts painted green and very neatly turned. We notice this triple chained barrier, so light and beautiful, because we were informed that its price is as cheap as wood; to which, its graceful curve, and light appearance, render it every way superior.”

*Mason, General John, c. 1830, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:100)<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The isthmus on the northern boundary is narrow and the whole estate was kept completely enclosed, by a '''fence''' on that side of about one mile in length running from the head of Holt’s to the margin of Pohick Creek. This '''fence''' was maintained with great care and in good repair in my father’s time, in order to secure his own stock the exclusive range within it, and made of uncommon height, to keep in the native deer which had been preserved there in abundance from the first settlement of the country, and indeed are yet there in considerable numbers.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing the villas and gardens along the Mississippi River (1835: 1:230)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An hour’s drive, after clearing the suburbs, past a succession of isolated villas, encircled by slender [[column]]s and airy galleries, and surrounded by richly foliaged gardens, whose '''fences''' were bursting with the luxuriance which they could scarcely confine, brought us in front of a charming residence.”

*<div id="Register_1836"></div>B., J., October 1, 1836, “Horticulture in Maine” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 385)<ref> J. B. “Horticulture in Maine,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (October 1, 1836): 380–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HDTD7A9V/q/horticulture%20in%20maine view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_1836_cite|back up to History]]
:“Through the whole country, the substantials of life seem to be more attended to than ornament or the luxuries of horticulture.—There is not that attention paid to the appearance of '''fences''' about the dwellings, door [[yard]]s, &c. as with us.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 42–43)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The iron '''fence''' and brick side-walk which surround the [[Common]] are noble monuments of public enterprise and of the energy of American mechanics. The [[burial ground|burial-ground]] formerly reached to the southern line of the [[Common]]. It was resolved to continue the [[mall]] through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]], but it was foreseen that, in doing it, public accomodation would interfere with the private and sacred attachment of individuals to their ancestral tombs. . . . [After the burials were moved] The [[mall]] was continued through the [[burial ground|burial-ground]] to make the entire circuit of the [[Common]]. A slight and graceful iron '''fence''' was thrown around the tombs, and a rich and durable '''fence''' of the same material, with a brick [[wall]] outside, surrounding the whole [[Common]], a circumference of five thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven feet, was begun and completed within six months.”

[[File:1047.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, [[Alexander W. Longfellow]], Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844.]]
*Longfellow, Samuel, September 3, 1845, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 1:40)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'', 2 vols. (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A buckthorn [[hedge]] has been made between us & Mr. Hastings, and Mr. Worcester not satisfied with the rustic open '''fence''' which separates between us demands a [[hedge]] there also which will cover up entirely the glimpse that I get from my western window and which I do not at all like to loose [''sic''].” [Fig. 19]

*Cleaveland, Nehemiah, 1847, describing Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Walter 1847: 20)<ref>Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (New York: Martin and Johnson, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CN79BMN8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In 1844, the increasing funds of the corporation justified a new expenditure for the plain but massy iron '''fence''' which encloses the front of the [[Cemetery]]. This '''fence''' is ten feet in height, and supported on granite posts extending four feet into the ground. It measures half a mile in length, and will, when completed, effectually preserve the [[Cemetery]] inviolate from any rude intrusion. The cost of the gateway was about $10,000—the '''fence''', $15,000.
:“A continuation of the iron '''fence''' on the easterly side is now under contract, and a strong wooden palisade is, as we learn, to be erected on the remaining boundary during the present year.”

*Notman, John, 1848, describing his designs for the Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 145)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The east hill should be planted densely, the plants may be of any kinds—better it should be overgrown with the common pine than remain in its present state; anything growing on that side would make the [[Cemetery]] seem more private, which is very desirable, as all who feel must know—and indeed it may be laid down as a rule, that all the exterior '''fences''' of a rural [[cemetery]] ought to be enveloped in shade of trees or young plantings of trees, else why do we '''fence''' our lots, or shut out the world’s otherwise, if not in grief—therefore, all along the east and west '''fences''' should be thickly planted, occasionally spreading out wide as I have marked upon the plan on these two lines.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 347, 349)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, With Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/q/kirkbride view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the [[deer park|deer-park]], surrounded by a high palisade '''fence''', but the [[Park]] itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full view from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes. . . .
:“Between the north lodge and the [[deer park|deer-park]], separated from the latter by a sunk palisade '''fence''', is a neat [[flower garden]]. . . .
:“The '''fences''' that have been put up, were rendered necessary by the uses to which the different parts of the grounds were appropriated. A large part of the palisade '''fences''', like those enclosing the [[deer park|deer-park]] and drying-[[yard]], were to effect the separation of the sexes, and the close '''fences''' have been made, almost invariably, for the sole purpose of protecting the patients from observation, and giving them the proper degree of privacy.”

*[[Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline) Tuthill|Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline)]], 1848, describing New Haven Burying Ground, New Haven, CT (1848: 337)<ref>Louisa Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ‘[[cemetery|burying-ground]]’ at New Haven, Connecticut, has long been celebrated for its beauty. It has recently been enclosed with a massive [[wall]] on three sides, and a bronzed iron '''fence''' in front. The entrance is of free-stone, in the Egyptian style. . . . H. Austin architect.”

*<div id="Watson"></div>Watson, John Fanning, 1857, describing the house of Israel Pemberton, [[Washington Square (Philadelphia)|Washington Square]], and the house of William Bingham, Philadelphia, (1:375, 405, 414)<ref>John Fanning Watson, ''Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania in the Olden Time; Being a Collection of Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Incidents of the City and Its Inhabitants . . .'', 2 vols. (Philadelphia: E. Thomas, 1857), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5PTKBUW2 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Watson_cite|back up to History]]
:“The low '''fence''' along the garden on the line of Third street, gave a full expose of the garden [[walk]]s and [[shrubbery]], and never failed to arrest the attention of those who passed that way.”
:“THIS beautiful [[square]], now so much the resort of citizens and strangers, as a [[promenade]], was, only twenty-five years ago, a ‘Potter’s Field.’ . . . It was long enclosed in a post and rail '''fence''', and always produced much grass.”
:“The grounds generally he had laid out in beautiful style, and filled the whole with curious and rare [[clump]]s and shades of trees; but in the usual selfish style of Philadelphia improved grounds, the whole was surrounded and hid from the public gaze by a high '''fence'''.”

===Citations===

*Worlidge, John, 1669, ''Systema Agriculturae'' (1669: 85–86)<ref>John Worlidge, ''Systema Agriculturae, The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered'' (London: T. Johnson. 1669), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GP82B2GE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Seeing that '''Fencing''', and Enclosing of Land is most evident to be a piece of the highest Improvement of Lands, and that all our [[Plantation]]s of Woods, Fruits, and other Tillage, are thereby secured from external Injuries, which otherwise would lie open to the Cattel. . . . And also subject to the lusts of vile persons. . . .

:“For which reason we are obliged to maintain a good '''Fence''', if we expect an answerable success to our Labors.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:114–15, 124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For ''[[hedge]]s'' about a garden, (i.e. for the ''divisions'' of it) the ''laurel'', ''yew'', and ''holly'' are the principal ''evergreens'': the former as a lofty and open '''fence''', the second as close and moderate in height, and to be cut to any thing, the last as trainable by judicious pruning to an impregnable and beautiful '''fence'''. . . .
:“Here [about the house] should be also a good portion of grass [[plat]], or ''[[lawn]]''which so delights the eye when neatly kept, also [[border]]s of shewy ''flowers'', which, if backed by any kind of '''fence''', it should be hid with evergreens, or at least with deciduous [[shrub]]s, that the scene may be as much as possible vivacious.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:258–59)<ref>Williams Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol; G. and J. Robinson; T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE '''FENCE''', where the place is large, becomes necessary: yet the eye dislikes constraint. Our ideas of liberty carry us beyond our species: the imagination feels a dislike in seeing even the brute creation in a state of confinement. Beside, a tall '''fence''' frequently hides, from the sight, objects the most pleasing; not only the flocks and herds, but the surface they graze upon. These considerations have brought the ''unseen'' '''''fence''''' into general use.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 80, 84)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“That the boundary '''fence''' of a place should be concealed from the house, is among the few general principles admitted in modern gardening; but even in this instance, want of precision has led to error; the necessary distinction is seldom made between the '''fence''' which incloses a [[park]], and those '''fences''' which are adapted to separate and protect the subdivisions within such inclosure. . . .
:“To describe the various sorts of '''fences''' suitable to various purposes, would exceed the limits and intentions of this work: every county has its peculiar mode of '''fencing''', both in the construction of [[hedge]]s and ditches, which belong rather to the farmer than the landscape gardener; and in the different forms and materials of pales, rails, hurdles, [[gate]]s, &c.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 57, 65)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done . . . for Every Month of the Year . . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground|[pleasure] ground]] should be previously '''fenced''', which may be occasionally a [[hedge]], paling or [[wall]], &c. as most convenient. . . .
:“It being absolutely necessary to have the whole of the [[pleasure ground]] surrounded with a good '''fence''' of some kind, as a defence against cattle, &c. a foss being a kind of concealed '''fence''', will answer that purpose where it can conveniently be made, without interrupting the [[view]] of such neighbouring parts as are beautified by art or nature, and at the same time affect an appearance that these are only a continuation of the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]. Over the foss in various parts may be made [[Chinese style|Chinese]] and other curious and fanciful [[bridge]]s, which will have a romantic and pleasing effect.”

*Main, Thomas, September 28, 1807, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants'' (1807: 37–38)<ref>Thomas Main, ''Directions for the Transplantation and Management of Young Thorn or Other Hedge Plants, Preparative to Their Being Set in Hedges, with Some Practical Observations on the Method of Plain Hedging'' (Washington, DC: A. G. and Way, 1807), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UEDDDN6J/q/main view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A promiscuous assemblage of several different kinds of plants in a [[hedge]] cannot be recommended; such a heterogeneous composition will neither make a good '''fence''' nor look handsome.
:“It may, however, be allowable for me to say, that this mode of '''fencing''', whenever it is practised in the United States, will contribute its share to give an orderly and systematic turn to our plans of rural policy, conducive to a permanent neatness and regularity among arrangements that are commonly in a continual state of confusion and change.”

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 3 vols, (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Gregory_cite|back up to History]]
:“'''FENCE''', in country affairs, a [[hedge]], [[wall]], ditch, bank, or other inclosure, made around gardens, [[woods]], cornfields, &c. See HUSBANDRY. . . .
:“GARDENING. . . .
:“The situation of a garden should be dry, but rather low than high, and as sheltered as can be from the north and east winds. These points of the compass should be guarded against by high and good '''fences'''; by a [[wall]] of at least ten feet high; lower [[wall]]s do not answer so well for fruit-trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated, to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision '''fences'''. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 3, 339, 461–63)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Competent '''fences''' are also serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm [[border]]s for early crops and winter-standing plants; while, in another direction, some part of the line of '''fence''' will afford a shady [[border]] in summer, which is required by the peculiar constitutions of many small annual plants. . . .
:“'''''Fences'''''.—The [[Flower Garden]], which is not an appendage to ornamented grounds, will require a '''fence''', wherever the domestic buildings do not serve as a boundary. For the inclosure, a [[wall]] or close paling is on two accounts to be preferred on the north side; both to serve as a screen, and to afford a warm internal face for training fruit-trees. When one of those is not adopted, recourse may be had to a good hedge-'''fence''', planted on a bank, and defended by an outward ditch. The best outer hedge-'''fence''' is formed of white-thorn and holly. The [[ha-ha]], or sunk-''fence'' in a fosse, is a happy contrivance for preserving a distant [[prospect]]: but this is seldom adopted when the adjoining land belongs to another occupier. . . .
:“''External'' '''''Fences'''''.—'''Fences''' of all kinds are rather necessary and useful, as instruments of shelter and security, than to be chosen as materials of ornament. Whether the [[view]] terminates on the '''fence''', or is directed beyond it, the effect on the scene at best is negative: thus a '''fence''' is sometimes made higher than its proper use requires, merely to shut out something more unsightly; and, in judiciously employing that capital invention, the sunk '''fence''' or ''[[ha-ha]]'', the advantage, though great, is purely negative—some [[prospect]] worth retaining at considerable cost is not obstructed. . . .
:“''Internal'' '''''Fences'''''.—These must be lighter and more elegant: but the materials will equally vary with the local position and purpose. What has been said of [[shrub]]s for internal '''fences''' under ''[[Flower Garden]]'', is applicable to the most extensive ornamented grounds; except that regularity is less requisite, if not out of place; and primness ought to be avoided. Posts, with a single chain, or a rope well pitched, are sometimes enough to keep cattle from a [[walk]]. When a stronger barrier is wanted against animals grazing the pasture near the house, so as not to intercept a distant [[view]], one of the best devices is what is termed the ''invisible'' '''fence'''; which is composed of lines of elastic wire passed through upright iron stancheons, the whole painted green. . . .
:“Instead of the ''ha-ha'', or the ''invisible'' '''''fence''''', the landscape-gardener sometimes forms a [[terrace]] three feet high; at the verge of this, an iron rail, or a double rail, run along two feet high, is a sufficient '''fence'''. . . . ''Raised'' '''''fences''''', in straight lines, and meeting so as to form angles, are totally at variance with all ideas of picturesque beauty: but a perfectly straight ''fence'', drawn across a valley, appears to the eye as though serpentine; and therefore, without controverting any assumed principle, '''fences''' may run in the shortest direction over unequal surfaces; a few trees or bushes may be planted where the straightness, in a coincident line of view from the garden, would be most visible.”

*<div id="Cobbett"></div>Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 19–21, 28–29, 106, 355, 957)<ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cobbett_cite|back up to History]]
:“31. The '''''fence''''' of a garden is an important matter; for, we have to view it not only as giving ''protection'' against intruders, two-legged as well as four-legged, but as affording ''shelter'' in cold weather and ''shade'' in hot, in both which respects a '''fence''' may be made of great utility in an American Garden, where cold and heat are experienced in an extreme degree. . . .
:“33. In America a '''fence''' is not wanted for this purpose [raising fruit]; but it is very necessary for ''protection''; for ''shelter''; and for ''shade''. . . .
:“34. With regard to the second point; the ''shelter''; this is of great consequence; for, it is very well known, that, on the south side of a good high '''fence''', you can have peas, lettuces, radish, and many other things, full ten days earlier in the spring, than you can have them in the unsheltered ground. . . .
:“49. And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English ''[[hedge|Hedges]]'', instead of post-and-rail and board '''fences'''? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and [[meadow]]s and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set [[hedge]]s, what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real ''value'' too, of those gardens, [[meadow]]s and fields! . . .
:“486. ''Forest trees''. . . . From the Transactions of the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn [[hedge]]s and other live '''fences''' are generally adopted in the cultivated districts; but the time is not yet arrived for forming timber-[[plantation]]s. . . .
:“1803. ''Rails or'' '''''fences''''', for [[park]]s and garden-scenery, are, as to lines, similarly characterized as [[gate]]s; and, like [[gate]]s, '''fences''' are of many species, from the rudest barriers without nails or iron work . . . to the numerous sorts of iron and wire barriers. . . .
:“1804. ''[[Wall]]s'' are unquestionably the grandest '''fences''' for [[park]]s; and arched portals, the noblest entrances; between these and the [[hedge]] or pale, and [[rustic style|rustic]] [[gate]], designs in every degree of gradation, both for lodges, [[gate]]s, and '''fences''', will be found in the works of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron [[gate]]s and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted. . . .
:“6874. '''''Fences'''''. Masses, in the [[ancient style]] of planting, were generally surrounded by [[wall]]s or other durable '''fences'''. Here the barrier was considered as an object or permanent part of the scene, and for that reason was executed substantially, and even ornamentally. They were generally [[wall]]s substantially coped, and furnished with handsome [[gate]]s and piers. The rows of [[avenue]]s and small [[clump]]s, or platoons intended to be finally thrown open, were enclosed by the most convenient temporary '''fence'''.”

*Parmentier, André, 1828, ''The Art of Landscape Gardening'' (1828: 186)<ref>André Parmentier, “The Art of Landscape Gardening,” in ''The New American Gardener'', ed. Thomas Fessenden (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3C29XRTH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most should be made of the agreeable and interesting [[view]]s which may be had in the neighbouring landscape. They may be made useful to the general plan by being represented as the property of the proprietor.

:“For this reason, I highly approve of blind '''fences''', and live [[hedge]]s. But '''fences''', necessary as enclosures, should be concealed so as not to appear as boundaries to the establishment, and present to the eye a disagreeable interruption in the [[prospect]].”

[[File:1294.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr., 1972), pl. 33.]]
*<div id="Benjamin"></div>Benjamin, Asher, 1830, “Front Fences” (1830; repr., 1972: 68–69)<ref> Asher Benjamin, ''The Practical House Carpenter'' (1830; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B9AW7F95 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Benjamin_cite|back up to History]]
:“PLATE XXXIII. On this plate are three designs for '''fences''', suitable for the enclosure of a country residence, which may be made of wood, when iron is not to be obtained, or when expense is to be avoided. . . .
:“It is not supposed that the size of these examples will suit all situations. There are many situations which require the size of front '''fences''' to be varied; as for instance, when the house is very large and located on an elevated piece of ground, and at a considerable distance from the road: in this case the '''fence''' should be of the largest dimensions. But if the house be small, and so situated as to have the '''fence''' near it, the '''fence''' ought then to be small and low, so that it may not appear as a principal in the structure.” [Fig. 20]

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 110, 134, 170)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A [[Flower Garden]] should be protected from cold cutting winds by close '''fences''', or [[plantation]]s of [[shrub]]s, forming a close and compact [[hedge]], which should be neatly trimmed every year. . . .
:“When [[Shrub]]s, Creepers, or Climbers are planted against [[wall]]s or [[trellis|trellises]], either on account of their rarity, delicacy, or to conceal a rough '''fence''' or other unsightly object, they require different modes of training. . . .
:“The following observations on Fruit Gardens are taken from the third volume of the New-York Farmer and Horticultural Reposity [''sic'']. Article 190, page 225, communicated by an ''Old Man'':
:“‘A ''fruit garden'' in this ''free'' country ought to be protected by nothing less formidable than a pale or picket '''fence'''. It is in vain to think of having good fruit in small quantities, unless the proprietor can control every thumb and finger within his grounds, so that his stone-fruit, more especially, may be fully ripe before it be removed from the tree. . . .
:“‘A pale or picket '''fence''' is a great protection to a ''fruit garden''; for though some desperadoes may break through a few times in a season, it will effectually prevent the inroads of the small fry; and it has another important advantage: there are men and grown boys whose ''business'' frequently leads them across lots, through Peach [[orchard]]s, and directly under Pear trees, that stand in a common enclosure, but who are too cautious to scale a garden '''fence''', because they have no excuse for appearing on the inside; and these constitute a majority of the prowlers.
:“‘Further, ''those who shoot into a garden at night, generally take aim in the day time''. Prevent their observations, (this '''fence''' will in many cases prevent it,) and the temptation and danger will greatly be lessened.’”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 409)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/teschemacher view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Suppose the area or garden space to be small, one great object would be to shut out by [[shrubbery]] the boundaries, so that the small extent might not appear, to fill every angle and corner with the Lilac or other large and spreading plant, and to take every advantage of the adjoining land. Thus imagine the neighboring piece to be grass; by means of a very open or of a sunk '''fence''' and a grass [[plat]] the grass on both lands would appear to combine and present an extensive expanse of green, or if [[wood]] adjoins, then by judicious transplantation an uninterrupted line of copse would be formed, on which the eye would rest with pleasure. The invisible '''fences''' commonly used in England, might here be of great service, they are made of thick iron wire, about four feet high, with thin iron posts at distances of eight or ten feet, painted black, so that they form no impediment to such combinations of [[prospect]] with contiguous properties. The same may be done where a rivulet or a piece of water exists near, observing always that such innocent appropriations of our neighbor’s property is much better enjoyed when only caught at glimpses and between intervals of [[shrubbery]] . . .”

*<div id="Register_1837"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 121–23)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7/q/landscape%20gardening view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Register_1837_cite|back up to History]]
:“The first thing, when a spot is fixed on for a house, if it be in a new country especially, is to cut down all the native trees and [[shrub]]s within several rods of it. The proprietor then sets to work and applies his whole resources to build as large a house as possible. When the work is completed his funds are exhausted; he can make no further improvements about his house; it is left standing, dreary and alone, perhaps unpainted, an unsightly broken '''fence''' to enclose it, and the nakedness of the [[yard]] only relieved by an old barrel, a pile of wood, and broken hoops and boards. Sometimes indeed a more finished appearance is presented; the house is neatly painted, a handsome grass [[plat]] extends before it, and a picket '''fence''' encircles it.”

*<div id="Sayers"></div>Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 18, 129)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Sayers_cite|back up to History]]
:“Ivy and Virginian creepers [are most proper] for [[wall]]s, tall [[shrub]]s for concealing old boarded '''fences''', and unsightly objects. . . .
:“The ''[[trellis|trellises]], [[arbor]]s, [[wall]]s'', '''''fences''''', and so on, should be covered with ''vines'' and ''creepers'', so that the whole may have a corresponding appearance.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1838, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 6, 43)<ref>A. J. Downing, “On the Cultivation of Hedges in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 2 (February 1838): 41–44, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W2IAAB7S/q/downing view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In many sections of the Union, where timber is becoming scarce, and stone for '''fencing''' does not abound, a substitute is anxiously sought after, and must be found in some species of plant, capable of making a close and impenetrable [[hedge]]. The advantages of live '''fences''' are great durability, imperviousness to man and beast, a trifling expense in keeping in order, and the great beauty and elegance of their appearance. Harmonizing in color with the pleasant green of the [[lawn]] and fields, they may, without (like board '''fences''') being offensive to the eye, be brought, in many places, quite near to the dwelling-house. . . .
:“The [[wall]] of masonry, the iron paling, or the wooden '''fence''', may be well suited to the vicinity of houses or crowded towns; but for harmony of color, freshness of foliage, durability, and, in short, all that is most desirable for beauty and protection, the ''verdant [[hedge]]'' is without an equal.”

*Kenrick, William, April 1838, “Live Hedges” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 4: 121)<ref> William Kenrick, “Live Hedges,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 4, no. 4 (April 1838): 121–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DE94DN27 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Live [[hedge]]s constitute the most durable and effectual, as well as the most beautiful '''fences''' known, when properly managed and well trained. A perfect [[hedge]] should form a barrier, close and compact to the surface of the earth.”

*Gentle, Andrew, 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: the author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I would prefer a [[kitchen garden]] near the house, but not fully in sight, partly surrounded with trees, ornamental as well as fruit, or grape vines, sloping a little to the south, and facing the sun at 11 o’clock, with a variety of soils, all of good depth, and free from stones or gravel, or rain water standing on it. It may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[fence]], the [[walk]] half the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. <p></p>
:“For a market garden the same sort of ground, with a good [[fence]] all round. . . .”

*Hooper, Edward James, 1842, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife'' (1842: 99–100, 155)<ref>Edward James Hooper, ''The Practical Farmer, Gardener and Housewife, or Dictionary of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Domestic Economy'' (Cincinnati, OH: George Conclin, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2T83BDXR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES'''. This subject is of great importance to the farmer. There is no tax upon his purse and labor so great, as that which demands the continual making and repairing of his '''fences'''. . . . According to the present system, hundreds of half starved animals of all kinds are continually breaking into, or jumping over, or knocking down, the best kind of worm '''fences'''. It would be much to the ultimate advantage of the proprietors of land, if they would, wherever it is practicable, resort to the making of stone '''fences'''. . . . With respect to live '''fences''', they are found, in England, to be the best sort under general circumstances, excepting where there is abundance of stone at hand. . . . In making '''fences''' of this kind, we should of course try our native plants and trees, before resorting to foreign kinds, on account of the uncertainties of climate. . . . The plants in America which are at all suitable for [[hedge]]s, are the American thorn, the cedar, the holly, the crab, the honey locust, the beech, the willow, the hemlock and the black locust. . . .
:“[[hedge|HEDGES]]. These are becoming, and in some situations have become, highly desirable. Where there is plenty of rail timber, it will naturally be used for '''fences''' before any live enclosures. Where there is plenty of rocks also, these are the best and in the end the most economical materials for '''fences''' that can be used. But where no rocks are found, and no rail timber, it will be useful to substitute live [[hedge]]s. In different sections of the country different kinds of plants proper for live '''fences''' will naturally exist. The locust for this purpose is one of the most valuable trees in the south. The Buckthorn in New England. . . . The European hawthorn . . . in the west.”

*Anonymous, July 28, 1842, “Words of a Solomon and Sacred Roll . . .” (Western Reserve Historical Society Library, Shaker Manuscript Collection, reel 67VIIA43)
:“I do require that ye '''fence''' your meeting ground after the following order, as soon as ye consistently can, after you have ascertained the sacred spot which I have chosen. Build ye a smooth board '''fence''' and paint it white. **Make it 4 1/2 feet high, with a board flatwise on top.”

*[[Jane Loudon|Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 205–6)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' for [[flower garden|flower-gardens]] and [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], are either such as are intended to be invisible, or, more properly, not acknowledged,—such as barriers of wire, or, light iron rods, and sunk '''fences'''; or such as are intended to be acknowledged, and to form part of the landscape,—such as architectural parapets and [[hedge]]s. . . .
:“Architectural '''fences''' are used in small gardens, close to the house; and they should generally be low [[wall]]s, of open work, in the style of the architecture of the building; and these [[wall]]s may have piers at regular distances, terminating in [[vase]]s, or other architectural ornaments, provided these are in harmony with the house. These [[wall]]s, and indeed all other architectural '''fences''', should be varied with [[shrub]]by plants planted against them, so as to harmonize them with the plants in the [[bed]]s and [[border]]s within.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 221–22)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''FENCES''' are employed to mark the boundary of property, to exclude trespassers, either human or quadrupedal, and to afford shelter. They are either live '''fences''', and are then known as ''[[hedge|hedges]]'', or dead, and are then either ''banks, ditches, palings'', or ''[[wall|walls]]''; or they are a union of those two, to which titles the reader is referred.
:“The following is the English law on the subject:—
:“In the eye of the law a [[hedge]], '''fence''', ditch, or other inclosure of land, is for its better manuring and improvement; and various remedies are therefore provided for their preservation. . . .
:“Stealing metal garden-'''fencing''' is a felony. In America each State has its own peculiar laws on this as on other subjects. In Pennsylvania, by an Act of 1700, entitled ''‘An act for the regulating and maintaining of '''Fences''',’'' it was provided that ‘all cornfields and grounds kept for inclosures within the said province and counties annexed, shall be well '''fenced''' with '''fence''' at least five feet high, and close at the bottom, &c.’ By an Act of 1729, it was provided that ‘to prevent disputes about the sufficiency of '''fences''', all '''fences''' shall be esteemed lawful and sufficient, though they be not close at the bottom, so that the distance from the ground to the bottom thereof, exceed not nine inches; and that they be four feet and a half high, and not under.’ Both acts are operative in certain counties only.—See ''Purdon’s Digest''.
:“Ornamental '''fences''' for enclosing gardens, [[yard]]s, &c., are almost as diversified as the ideas of beauty in the human mind. ‘The impression, on viewing grounds laid out with some pretension to taste, is governed in a degree, by the style and character of the surrounding '''fence'''. It is a great mistake to suppose the most elaborate (and of course costly) are the most pleasing; yet acting on this supposition, we see exhibited '''fences''' which appear to have been planned as if to show the amount of money which could be thus expended, and after all, they rather disgust than please.
:“‘The figures 42, 43, 44, illustrate three simple designs, formed by straight slats or pales, and therefore of the least expense; they are readily executed, and agreeable from their simplicity. The colour which should be used, is of course a matter of taste; white is generally preferred, though dark shades, even jet black, are the most pleasing to many; for ourselves, we should choose the latter, though it be not the best, so far as the preservation of the wood is concerned.’—''Rural Reg''.”

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/3IU3P9QS/q/cottages%20and%20cottage%20life view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As far as practicable, make divisions which are ''necessary'' about the house of the [[ha-ha]] or blind '''fence''', or of [[hedge]]s, for which purpose the Maclura or Osage Orange is believed to be one of the most desirable plants.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 218)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A. What a fine place you have got! that is a neat, well painted front '''fence'''; the flower [[plat]] between it and the house, with the evergreen in the centre is beautiful, and that [[veranda|verandah]] over the door, covered with flowering vines, looks well.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Johnson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 343–44)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America . . .'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''''Fences''''' are often among the most unsightly and offensive objects in our country [[seat]]s. Some persons appear to have a passion for subdividing their grounds into a great number of fields; a process which is scarcely ever advisable even in common farms, but for which there can be no apology in elegant residences. The close proximity of '''fences''' to the house gives the whole place a confined and mean character. . . . It is frequently the case that, on that side of the house nearest the outbuildings, '''fences''' are, for convenience, brought in its close neighborhood, and here they are easily concealed by [[plantation]]s; but on the other sides, open and unobstructed views should be preserved, by removing all barriers not absolutely necessary.
:“An old stone [[wall]] covered with creepers and climbing plants, may become a [[picturesque]] barrier a thousand times superior to such a '''fence'''. But there is never one instance in a thousand where any barrier is necessary.”

*Sargent, Henry Winthrop, November 1849, “Invisible Iron Fences” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 212–13)<ref> Henry Winthrop Sargent, “Invisible Iron Fences,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 5 (November 1849): 211–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UMNRR9NP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Too much has been already said and written upon the subject of wire '''fences''', to require any remarks from me upon their beauty and economy. Even upon farms, they are cheaper and more durable, and vastly more economical, than anything else, since no ground is lost on either side; and the plough and the scythe can be used immediately up to and under them. Upon ornamental places, especially of any size, I consider them almost indispensable to high keeping.
:“The great fault of our places in America, is the want of a proper termination to the ornamental grounds; or, rather, some intelligible division between the ornamental and practical. . . .
:“The wire '''fence''', therefore, forms an agreeable termination or setting to our ornamental grounds; or, if needs be, a division between the dressed and undressed portions of the estate. By its adoption, we might materially diminish the amount of [[lawn]] now kept under the scythe,—producing similar effects by substituting cattle—especially sheep—and increasing very much the charm of the landscape by the introduction of animated nature.
:“I doubt if the keenest eye can detect my '''fence''' at 30 or 40 yards distance. Consequently, our finest places even do not require a [[lawn]] larger than twice this breadth in diameter, provided the grass on the other side is kept equally short by sheep.”

*Jeffreys [pseud.], January 1850, “Critique on November Horticulturist” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 313)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], “Critique on November Horticulturist,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 7 (January 1850): 310–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/9A7JZZ9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Invisible Wire'' '''''Fences'''''.—Yes, and visible ones too, I trust, will soon begin to appear in this rail-'''fence''' and stone-[[wall]] distracted country of ours. Why it is that in the grounds of our wealthy country residents, they have not long ago been adopted, is passing strange. In all the long catalogue of farm, [[park]], [[lawn]] and garden enclosures, there is nothing equal to it. . . .
:“The substitution of wire '''fences''' for those now in use, will give to every farm, [[park]], or [[lawn]] where they are introduced, a higher value. The improvement will be incalculable. Instead of rickety, zig-zag rail and board '''fences''', and dilapidated stone [[wall]]s with their interminable attendants of brush, briars and vermin, they will afford clean cultivation, and save a great amount of labor and waste now suffered by every one who has them to support.”

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0555a.jpg|Unknown, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0555b.jpg|Unknown, [[Plat]] of 117 Broad Street, 1797.

Image:0116.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0234.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Jesse Hines. Black Smith, menden his pale fence,” 1813, in Lewis Miller, ''Sketches and Chronicles: The Reflections of a Nineteenth-Century Pennsylvania German Folk Artist'' (1966), 86.

Image:0237.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], “Old Philip Waltemeyer makeing a fence of boards at the old Southern Church [[yard]],” 1813.

Image:1294.jpg|Asher Benjamin, “Front Fences,” in ''The Practical House Carpenter'' ([1830] 1972), pl. 33.

File:1701.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Diagram of worm fence, in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1834), p. 412, fig. 276.

Image:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., Map of the residence & park grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[pleasure ground|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in ''American Journal of Insanity'', vol. 4, (April 1848).

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 115, fig. 25.

Image:0788.jpg|Frances Palmer, Elevations and profiles of wood fences, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' vol. 2 (1851), pl. 30.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c.1787–92.

Image:0408.jpg|David Leonard, “A S. W. View of the College in Providence, together with the President’s House & Gardens,” c. 1790.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, “Government House,” January 1795.

Image:0022.jpg|Clarissa Deming, “Map of Deming [[Orchard]],” after 1798.

Image:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), ''[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,'' 1800.

Image:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0560.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Ground [[plot]] of [[Belfield]], 1810.

Image:0816.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “[[Yale College]]. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 1, pl. 35.

Image:0758.jpg|Robert Brammer and Augustus Von Smith, ''Oakland House and Race Course, Louisville'', 1840.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Eastern View of the Public Square or Green in New Haven,” 1840.

File:1086.jpg|James Smillie (artist), O. J. Hanks (engraver), “The Tour—Oaken Bluff,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. opp. p. 40.

File:1078.jpg|George W. Stilwell, Patterns of railings at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), pl. after p. 94.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Bowling Green]] Fountain,” in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. p. 30.

Image:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]], the home of Washington,” c. 1861.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0086.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Greenspring, home of William Ludwell Lee, James City County, Virginia,” n.d.

Image:0002.jpg|Anonymous, Surveyor’s [[plat]] of the courthouse and adjacent land in Charles County, MD, 1697.

Image:0180.jpg|Anonymous, “Fairhill, The [[Seat]] of Isaac Norris Esq.,” 18th century.

File:0883.jpg|Edward Crisp (surveyor), James Akins (engraver), ''A Plan of Charles-Town'', 1704 [1969].

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Issac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0008.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of Anne Byrd Carter (Mrs. Charles Carter) (1725–1757)'', c. 1742–46.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748–50.

Image:1752.jpg|William Halfpenny, “A Chinese Acute angular Paleing” and “A Chinese Obtuse & Diamond Paleing,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 3.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective View of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:0026.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''Parnassus'', c. 1769.

Image:0065.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West Prospect of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire'', 1774.

Image:0126.jpg|Eliza Coggeshall, Brick House with Flowers and Birds on Fence, 1784, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 53.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c. 1787–93.

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, ''Plan of the [[Seat]] of John Penn jun’r: Esqr: in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia,'' c. 1785.

Image:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, “A View of the present [[Seat]] of His Excel. the Vice President of the United States,” 1790.

Image:0015.jpg|Samuel McIntire, Design for a Fence, c. 1791.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A View of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0140.jpg|Thomas Coram, “View at St. James’s Goose Creek,” 1792.

Image:0130.jpg|Anne Pope, Beige House, Birds Flying Over with Fore[[yard]], 1796, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 15.

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

File:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:0272.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain Elijah Dewey'', 1798.

File:0449.jpg|Anonymous, ''The End of the Hunt'', c. 1800.

File:0450.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Sargent Family'', 1800.

Image:0142.jpg|Thomas Coram, “View on the Road, Foot of Coll. Motte’s Rice field, Goose Creek,” 1800.

Image:0141.jpg|Thomas Coram, “The [[Grove]], seat of G. A. Hall esq.,” c. 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, ''[[Box Grove]]'', c. 1800.

Image:0029.jpg|Michele Felice Cornè, ''Ezekiel Hersey Derby Farm'', c. 1800.

Image:0135.jpg|Unknown, Gardiner Gilman House Overmantel, c. 1800.

Image:0165.jpg|Jonathan Budington or Dr. Francis Forgue, attr., ''View of Main Street in Fairfield, Connecticut'', c. 1800.

Image:0004.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Beehive'', 1800–20.

Image:0418.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with a Stag Hunt'', 1800–50.

Image:0471.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Vauxhall Garden (New York)|Vauxhall Garden]],” 1803.

Image:0123.jpg|Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

Image:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

Image:0515.jpg|Eunice Pinney, attr., ''Mother and Child in Mountain Landscape'', 1805–25.

Image:0124.jpg|Jane Shearer, Brick House with [[Terrace]]s, 1806, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 80.

Image:0125.jpg|Mary Antrim, Brick House with Two Fore[[yard]]s and Animals, 1807, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 72.

Image:0043.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

Image:0301.jpg|[[William Russell Birch]], “View from Belmont Pennsyla. the [[Seat]] of Judge Peters,” 1808, in William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808).

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full View of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:1468.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel (attrib.), ''Black Sawyers Working in front of the Bank of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia'', c. 1811–13.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the [[Fairmount Waterworks|Water Works]] at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of fRing'' (January 2012): 27.

File:1467.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, Tree and rocks near a split-rail fence, c. 1813.

Image:0122.jpg|Abigail Warren (possibly), ''Part of the Town of Chelmsford, Massachusetts'', c. 1813.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'' [detail], 1815, in Roger G. Kennedy, ''Orders from France: The Americans and the French in a Revolutionary World, 1780–1820'' (1990), 271.

Image:0118.jpg|Eunice Pinney, A Couple in a Landscape, c. 1815, in Susan Foster, “Couple & Casualty: The Art of Eunice Pinney Unveiled,” ''Folk Art'' (Summer 1996): 30.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''View of the Garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1023.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences,” 1817.

File:0284.jpg|William Strickland after John Moale, ''Baltimore in 1752'', 1817.

Image:0129.jpg|Dorcas Berry, [[White House]], 1818, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 39.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved . . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:1130.jpg|Marie L. Pilsbury, ''Louisiana [[Plantation]] Scene'', 1820.

Image:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

Image:0184.jpg|Caroline Betts, “A view of Col. Lincoln’s seat, Caznovia,” c. 1821.

Image:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after [[Thomas Birch]], ''View of the Dam and [[Fairmount Waterworks|Water Works]] at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park, From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0457.jpg|Anonymous, ''The [[Plantation]]'', c. 1825.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825–28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J.D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825–30.

Image:0052.jpg|W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the [[Bowling Green]]'', c. 1826.

Image:0112.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “View of the [[White House]],” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

Image:1140.jpg|[[Hugh Bridport]], ''The Pagoda and [[Labyrinth]] Garden'', c. 1828.

File:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:0754.jpg|Samuel Barnard, ''View Along the East Battery, Charleston'', 1831.

File:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, New York University, [[Washington Square (New York)|Washington Square]], 1833.

Image:1981.jpg|John Smith Rubens (artist), J.B. Neagle (engraver), ''Washington'', in Conrad Malte-Brun, ''A System of Universal Geography'', 2 vols. (1834), vol. 2, opp. 222.

Image:1677.jpg|W. R. Hamilton, ''Landscape View of a Garden and House'' [detail], 1836.

File:0764.jpg|F. A. Holtzwart, ''A View of Reading Taken from the West Side of the Schuylkill'', 1837.

Image:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the [[White House|President’s House]],” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

Image:1193.jpg|David J. Kennedy, “McAran’s Garden,” 1840.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949): 132.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], “[[Picturesque]] View of the Building, and Grounds in front,” 1841.

File:0441.jpg|Susan C. Waters, ''Henry L. Wells'', 1845.

Image:0523.jpg|Frances Palmer (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), “Union Place Hotel, Union Square New-York,” c. 1845.

Image:0007.jpg|Charles H. Wolf, attr., ''Pennsylvania Farmstead with Many Fences'', c. 1847.

File:0349.jpg|George Washington Mark, ''Marion Feasting the British Officer on Sweet Potatoes'', 1848.

File:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''View of Union Park, New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, “View of Washington,” c. 1850.

File:1213.jpg|C. A. Hedin, “Front Elevation on Live Oak Street,” 1853.

Image:0041.jpg|Anonymous, Capitol Under Construction, View Looking East Toward the Capitol From Third Street Vicinity, July 1860.
</gallery>

== Notes ==

<references/>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Boundaries]]

M’Mahon, Bernard

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#REDIRECT [[Bernard M’Mahon]]

Bernard M'Mahon

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#REDIRECT [[Bernard M’Mahon]]

Bernard M'Mahon

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William Hamilton

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A-brey: /* Texts */ fixing m'mahon links

'''William Hamilton''' (April 29, 1745–June 5, 1813) was an accomplished amateur horticulturalist and botanist from Philadelphia. He was known especially for developing the [[English style|English-style]] gardens at his estate, [[The Woodlands]], during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

==History==

[[Image:0826.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 1, James Peller Malcolm, ''[[The Woodlands]] From the Bridge at Gray’s Ferry'', c. 1792–94, The Dietrich American Foundation.]]
William Hamilton was a renowned amateur horticulturalist and botanist whose [[Schuylkill River]] estate, [[The Woodlands]], was one of the premier examples of the [[English style]] of architecture and landscape design in the United States during the late 18th and early 19th centuries [Fig. 1]. He was born into a wealthy and prominent Philadelphia family, and, although he studied law at the College of Philadelphia, he never pursued a professional career.<ref>Hamilton was the grandson of the famous colonial lawyer and politician Andrew Hamilton (1676?–1741), who is best known for successfully defending the freedom of the press in the 1735 trial of the New York printer John Peter Zenger. Aaron V. Wunsch, ''Woodlands Cemetery'', Historic American Landscapes Survey PA-5 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 2004), 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U4GPMNJT view on Zotero]; Richard J. Betts, “The Woodlands,” ''Winterthur Portfolio'' 14, no. 3 (Autumn 1979): 221, 223–24, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ANUFI943 view on Zotero].</ref> Instead, as Catherine E. Kelly has noted, Hamilton “adopt[ed] the life of a leisured, landed gentleman”—an option made possible by his elite social position and family resources.<ref>Hamilton earned income by leasing land he had inherited from his father and his uncle, James Hamilton (1715?–1783); see Catherine E. Kelly, ''Republic of Taste: Art, Politics, and Everyday Life in Early America'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), 122, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITZQPX44 view on Zotero].</ref> Hamilton treated “[[The Woodlands]] as his principle occupation,” according to Timothy Preston Long, spending a large share of his fortune “to perfect it as a work of art and to provide for himself a place for contemplation and scientific inquiry in agreeable retirement.”<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place,’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), 68, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FMAT4ZTF view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Niemcewicz_cite"></span> One 1798 visitor to the estate reported that the proprietor was so consumed with [[The Woodlands]] that he seemed “interested only in his house, his [[hothouse]] and his Madeira” ([[#Niemcewicz|view text]]).

Hamilton, who, according to Kelly, was a “confirmed loyalist and passionate Anglophile,” looked toward English landscape theory and practice for models as he developed [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Kelly 2016, 120. For a discussion of Hamilton’s politics, especially during and immediately after the American Revolution, see also pages 125–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITZQPX44 view on Zotero].</ref> Soon after he came of age and took control of the property in the late 1760s, Hamilton began making significant changes to the grounds. <span id="Hamilton 1779_cite"></span> He constructed a new mansion, enclosed 100 acres of land “to make a small [[park]]” ([[#Hamilton 1779|view text]]), <span id="Hamilton April 1779_cite"></span> and cut down “the Central [[Wood]]” in order to improve the view of Philadelphia from the estate ([[#Hamilton April 1779|view text]]). However, Hamilton’s ambitions for [[The Woodlands]] grew during a nineteen-month trip to England from 1784–86.<ref>In 1784, the year after the American Revolutionary War ended, Hamilton traveled to England to settle financial matters related to the estate of his recently deceased uncle, James Hamilton (1715?–1783). Although loyal to the Crown, the Hamiltons had managed to survive the Revolution with their property holdings intact, but their finances—like those of most elite families in Philadelphia—were in a state of complete disorder. James A. Jacobs, ''The Woodlands (Revised Documentation)'', Historic American Buildings Survey PA-1125 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service), 50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RCRIUGFR view on Zotero].</ref> While there, he toured regions of the countryside known for [[picturesque]] landscape gardens, such as Buckinghamshire, Wiltshire, Oxfordshire, and Herfordshire, and he soon began making plans for a major renovation of his own house and gardens.<ref>Wunsch 2004, 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U4GPMNJT view on Zotero]; Betts 1979, 225–26, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ANUFI943 view on Zotero]. As Wunsch and Elizabeth Milroy have argued, Hamilton’s plans for The Woodlands reveal the proprietor’s familiarity with principles advanced by some of the leading theorists and practitioners of English landscape and garden design during the period, including Lancelot “Capability” Brown (1716–1783), Thomas Whately (1726–1772), and the nurseryman Nathaniel Swinden (active c. 1768–1805). Wunsch 2004, 1, 8–10 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U4GPMNJT view on Zotero]; Elizabeth Milroy, ''The Grid and the River: Philadelphia’s Green Places, 1682–1876'' (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2016), 130, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBR8QEHX view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Hamilton September 30, 1785_cite"></span> He wrote to his personal secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith, that he desired to make the grounds at [[The Woodlands]] “smile in the same useful & beautiful manner” as the estates he had seen in England ([[#Hamilton September 30, 1785|view text]]), <span id="Hamilton September 30, 1785, 2_cite"></span> and he instructed Smith to send seeds from [[The Woodlands]] that he could trade for new specimens during his trip ([[#Hamilton September 30, 1785, 2|view text]]). <span id="Parke_cite"></span>Hamilton also shipped from England “a number of curious Flowering Shrubs and Forest Trees to be transplanted” at [[The Woodlands]] ([[#Parke|view text]]), thereby greatly increasing the botanical variety found in his garden.<ref>Wunsch 2004, 25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U4GPMNJT view on Zotero]. Hamilton is credited with introducing many plants species to North America, especially the ginkgo (''Ginkgo biloba''), the Lombardy poplar (''Populus nigra ‘Italica’''), the ailanthus (''Ailanthus altissima''), and the Norway maple (''Acer platanoides''). Karen Madsen, “To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” ''Arnoldia'' 49, no. 2 (Spring 1989): 21, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K567H4M4 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[Image:0828.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, William Hamilton, Plan for [[Kitchen Garden]] and [[Orchard]], June 1790.]]
Upon his return to Philadelphia, Hamilton implemented plans for [[The Woodlands]] that integrated architectural and landscape design into a unified whole. He undertook a major renovation of his house, expanding and transforming it into a paragon of the latest English fashions, particularly the late-Georgian style associated with the architect Robert Adam (1728–1792). The house’s interior featured curvilinear forms and an Adamesque sense of movement that showcased views of Hamilton’s gardens and the surrounding landscape.<ref>The use of mirrors hung on the interior doors and window shades enhanced this effect by reflecting views of the landscape throughout the home. Kelly 2016, 133–37 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITZQPX44 view on Zotero]; Long 1991, 56–62, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FMAT4ZTF view on Zotero].</ref> Although Hamilton almost certainly hired an English architect to assist with the plans for his mansion, he was in all likelihood, according to Aaron V. Wunsch, “the principal creative force behind the design of his grounds.”<ref>Wunsch 2004, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U4GPMNJT view on Zotero]. Although the identity of Hamilton’s architect remains unknown, Betts has argued that the architect was probably someone emulating the style of Robert Adam or John Soane. Betts 1979, 226, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ANUFI943 view on Zotero]. More recently, Long and Jacobs have suggested that Hamilton may have consulted with the architect John Plaw (1745?–1820). Long 1991, 101–3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FMAT4ZTF view on Zotero]; Jacobs, ''The Woodlands (Revised Documentation)'', 5–6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RCRIUGFR view on Zotero]. Jacobs also speculates that Hamilton may have designed the house himself, perhaps drawing inspiration from Wrotham Park in Herfordshire. See pages 7–8.</ref> Much of Hamilton’s correspondence reveals his extensive involvement in horticultural matters at [[The Woodlands]] as well as at the family’s other estate, Bush Hill. When he was away from home, Hamilton often voiced frustration that he did not receive more thorough updates about his plants and gardens from the team of caretakers he had hired to execute and maintain his vision; <span id="Hamilton June 12, 1790_cite"></span> on June 12, 1790, for example, Hamilton chastised Smith, writing, “Common sense would point out the necessity of my having constant information respecting the grass grounds at Bush Hill and at [[The Woodlands]] which must be now nearly in a state for mowing. . . .” ([[#Hamilton June 12, 1790|view text]]). Hamilton imported hundreds of trees from England to supplement the native species already growing at the estate and constructed an enormous [[greenhouse]] flanked by two [[hothouse]]s to cultivate his expanding collection of exotics.<ref>Kelly 2016, 132–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITZQPX44 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Drayton_cite"></span> By the early 19th century, Hamilton had amassed “between 7 & 8000 plants,” and his [[conservatory]] at [[The Woodlands]] was “said to be equal to any in Europe” ([[#Drayton|view text]]). He even took an active role in the design of more utilitarian features of his estate, sketching by hand a plan for the [[kitchen garden]] and [[orchard]] at [[The Woodlands]] [Fig. 2].

Hamilton maintained close relationships with leading botanists such as [[Humphry Marshall]], [[David Hosack]], [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|the Bartrams]], and François-André Michaux.<ref>Lisa L. Ford, “A World of Uses: Philadelphia’s Contributions to Useful Knowledge in François-André Michaux’s North American Sylva,” in ''Knowing Nature: Art and Science in Philadelphia, 1740–1840,'' ed. Amy R. W. Meyers (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 293, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KCEMBBVU view on Zotero]; Thomas J. Schlereth, “Early North American Arboreta,” ''Garden History'' 35 (2007): 199, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z265TMPB view on Zotero].</ref> Despite significant political differences, shared interests in horticulture drew Hamilton into the social orbits of national leaders such as [[George Washington]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]], with whom he exchanged seeds and plants and corresponded about matters of estate development.<ref>Kelly 2016, 141–42. During the American Revolution, Hamilton was arrested twice (once in 1778 and again in 1779). Following the first arrest, Hamilton was tried and acquitted of high treason. After his second arrest, Hamilton served a brief prison sentence and paid a large fine but was eventually allowed to return home and remain in Pennsylvania for the duration of the conflict. See pages 124–25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITZQPX44 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] even selected Hamilton to be one of two recipients of rare seeds collected during the Lewis and Clark expedition—a testament to Hamilton’s reputation and level of expertise ([[#Jefferson|view text]]).<ref>Hamilton and Jefferson were both members of the American Philosophical Society, to which Hamilton had been elected a member on July 27, 1797. Long 1991, 156, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FMAT4ZTF view on Zotero].</ref> While Hamilton was apparently generous in sending specimens to [[George Washington|Washington]] and [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], he appears to have been more protective of his plants with other collectors. <span id="Hamilton August 13, 1792_cite"></span>Hamilton once chastised Smith for “not properly secur[ing] von Rohrs agave” because he had “wish’d to prevent its getting into other hands” ([[#Hamilton August 13, 1792|view text]]).<ref>See also Therese O’Malley, “Cultivated Lives, Cultivated Spaces: The Scientific Garden in Philadelphia, 1740–1840,” in Meyers 2011, 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E8AQDKGJ view on Zotero].</ref>

Nonetheless, Hamilton earned a reputation for generosity because he readily welcomed visitors to [[The Woodlands]] to tour his house, gardens, and fine art collection.<ref>For a description of Hamilton’s art collection, see Jacobs, ''The Woodlands (Revised Documentation)'', 68–70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RCRIUGFR view on Zotero]; Oliver Oldschool [Joseph Dennie], “American Scenery—for the ''Port Folio''. The Woodlands,” ''Port Folio'' 2, no. 6 (December 1809), 505–7 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FDWRDFDT view on Zotero].</ref> Rev. [[Manasseh Cutler]] wrote after an 1803 trip to [[The Woodlands]] that Hamilton had spent the entire evening with his guests, <span id="Cutler_cite"></span> poring over his collection of illustrated botanical books and comparing the drawings to real plants fetched from Hamilton’s [[greenhouse]] by his gardener ([[#Cutler|view text]]).<ref>By the mid-1780s Hamilton’s library included sixty-one books on botany alone. Wunsch 2004, 85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U4GPMNJT view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Jefferson 2_cite"></span>Hamilton also opened his plant collection for study by students training under Benjamin Smith Barton, Professor of Natural History and Botany at the University of Pennsylvania ([[#Martin|view text]]). <span id="Cutler_cite"></span>Contemporaries praised the “liberality” that Hamilton had “shown in [giving] free access to the house & grounds,” a supposedly selfless gesture that was declared “''Non sibi sed aliis''” [not for himself but for others] ([[#Martin|view text]]).

—''Lacey Baradel''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Hamilton 1779"></div>Hamilton, William, April 1779, in a letter to William Tilghman Jr. (quoted in Wunsch 2004: 23)<ref>Wunsch 2004, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U4GPMNJT view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hamilton 1779_cite|back up to History]]
:“I have just been making some considerable Improvements at [[the Woodlands]], and I long to have you see them. . . . From the scarcity of [[Fence]] Nails, High prices and Difficulty of getting Labourers I have been obliged to throw 100 acres on the back of my House, into only one Enclosure which although not inconvenient has never [had a?] handsome Effect. You may recollect the Ground is Hill & Dale Woodland and plain and therefore well enough calculated to make a small [[park]], and I am endeavoring to give it as much as possible a parkish Look. My [[Lawn]] too I expect will shine this summer, it already looks elegantly. And so it ought, you’ll say, when you are told the manuring it this last Winter has cost me £1500.”

*<div id="Hamilton April 1779"></div>Hamilton, William, April 1779, in a letter to William Tilghman Jr. (quoted in Long 1991: 83)<ref name="Long_1991_1">Letter from William Hamilton to William Tilghman Jr., Society Collection, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, quoted in Long 1991, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hamilton April 1779_cite|back up to History]]
:“As to Philadelphia, I never go there without business calls me. Do you remember how anxious I was two or three years ago to have a peep at the Town, thro the Central [[Wood]]. ‘Twas then an object of my regard, but at present I do cordially hate it, that altho the [[prospect]] of it lately open’d by the total removal of the [[Wood]] is a most commanding one, & would at any other time have been admired, it is now absolutely disgusting to me. Judge by this what must be the Frame of my Mind.”

*Hamilton, William, April 1779, in a letter to William Tilghman Jr. (quoted in Long 1991: 84)<ref name="Long_1991_1"/>
:“The necessity I am under of repairing in some Degree, the Damage my [[The Woodlands|Estate]] has sustained, gives me constant employment, & obliges me to stir about a good deal, and as it leaves less time for Thought, is I believe of considerable Service to my Health which I am persuaded would otherwise suffer, from my Reflexions on past and present Scenes.”

*[[George Washington|Washington, George]], January 15, 1784, in a letter from [[Mount Vernon]] to William Hamilton<ref>Washington Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/04-01-02-0033 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“If I recollect right, I heard you say when I had the pleasure of seeing you in Philadelphia, that you were about a Floor composed of a Cement which was to answer the purpose of Flagstones or Tiles, and that you proposed to variegate the colour of the squares in the manner of the former.
:“As I have a long open Gallery in Front of my House to which I want to give a Stone, or some other kind of Floor which will stand the weather; I would thank you for information respecting the Success of your experiment—with such directions and observations (if you think the method will answer) as would enable me to execute my purpose. If any of the component parts are scarce & expensive, please to note it, & where they are to be obtained—& whether all seasons will do for the admixture of the Composition.
:“I will make no apology for the liberty I take by this request, as I persuade myself you will not think it much trouble to comply with it.”

*Hamilton, William, February 20, 1784, in a letter from Bush Hill to [[George Washington]]<ref>George Washington, ''The Papers of George Washington'', Confederation Series, ed. William Wright Abbot and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 1: 135–36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G2R8EXJI/q/1992 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I engaged a person of the name of Turner, newly arrived from England, to do some stucco work at Bush Hill. While he was at the work I frequently talk’d with him about the different compositions now so much used in England particularly that for covering floors, Roofs, & fronts of Houses. He professed to understand the method of preparing & applying it & wished me to encourage him in giving a Specimen. To this, I at length consented, and he undertook to make a variegated floor in my [[Green House]], one for an open [[portico]] on the front of [[The Woodlands|my House]] on the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]], and to cover the flats of two Bow Windows. . . . I have enquired of [[Samuel Vaughan|Mr. Vaughan]] & several other english [''sic''] gentlemen who say great things of it.”

*[[George Washington|Washington, George]], April 6, 1784, in a letter from [[Mount Vernon]] to William Hamilton<ref>Washington Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/04-01-02-0198 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“I have been favored with your letter of the 20th of Feb. & pray you to accept my thanks for the information contained in it.
:“I expect to be in Phila. the first of May, but if, in the meanwhile, you should be perfectly satisfied of the skill of Mr Turner and the efficiency of his work you would add to the favor already conferred on me by desiring him not to be engaged further than to yourself until I see him.
:“I have a large room which I intend to finish in Stucco & Plaister of Paris—besides this I have a [[Piazza]] in front of my House (open & exposed to the weather) of 100 feet by 12 or 14 which I want to give a Floor to of stone or a cement which will be proof against wet & frost——and I am, as you were, plagued with leaks at a Cupulo &ca which requires a skilful artist to stop. These, altogether, would afford Mr Turner a good job, whilst the proper execution of them would render me an acceptable Service.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>Parke, Thomas, April 27, 1785, in a letter from Philadelphia to [[Humphry Marshall]] (quoted in Harshberger 1929: 278)<ref>John W. Harshberger, “Additional Letters of Humphry Marshall, Botanist and Nurseryman,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 53 (1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/58HQXQQZ view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]
:“W. Hamilton has sent a number of curious Flowering Shrubs & Forest Trees to be transplanted at his [[Seat]] on the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]].”

*Hamilton, William, September 24, 1785, in a letter from England to Dr. Thomas Parke (quoted in Betts 1979: 224–25)<ref name="Betts_1979">Betts 1979, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ANUFI943 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Having resolved on my return in the Spring I am daily looking forward to the arrangements for making my situation convenient and agreable. Some addition to the House, a stable & other offices are immediately necessary at [[the Woodlands]], and as I have most severely felt the consequences of having workmen at extravagant prices, I mean to take from hence some who will ''engage'' with me for a ''certain number'' of ''years'' on moderate terms, & if the remittances will admit I will also purchase in this Country every kind of material by which any thing can be saved. Some indeed there are that will depend on taste, and as I am vain enough to like my own as well as that of any one, cannot be so well got by anybody else when my back is turn’d. In order to take time by the forelock, Mr. Bob Barclay has been so good as to write for me to Glasgow, & had order’d out two or three stone quarriers the expence of whose passages & c. will probably have to be paid by you. I know not yet the terms but will give you the earliest information. You will on their arrival fix them at [[the Woodlands]] & employ them during the winter at the quarry where the stones were raised for building the [[Bridge]] over the mill creek as I think that the best kind of stone. By the way I wish to have an experiment made with some of our stone & beg you will be so kind as to send me a block from that very quarry of about 12 Inches square & six Inches thick as also a block of the chester stone of the same size. You must be sensible too that I can get a first rate gardiner to go with me on very moderate terms compared with what that branch at present costs me & I shall not fail to suit myself.”

*<div id="Hamilton September 30, 1785"></div>Hamilton, William, September 30, 1785, in a letter from England to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Betts 1979: 225)<ref name="Betts_1979"/> [[#Hamilton September 30, 1785_cite|back up to History]]
:“Having observed with attention the nature, variety & extent of the [[plantation]]s [in England] of shrubs trees & fruits & consequently admired them, I shall (if God grant me a safe return to my own country) endeavour to make it [the Woodlands] smile in the same useful & beautiful manner. To take time by the forelock, every preparation should immediately be made by Mr. Thompson who is on the spot, & I have no doubt you will assist him to the utmost of your power. The first thing to be set about is a good [[nursery]] for trees, shrubs, flowers, fruit, &c. of every kind. I do desire therefore that seeds in large quantities may be directly sown of the white flowering locus, the sweet or aromatic birch, the chestnut oak, horse chestnuts, chincapins. . . .”

*<div id="Hamilton September 30, 1785, 2"></div>Hamilton, William, September 30, 1785, in a letter from England to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Smith and Hamilton 1905: 77)<ref name="Smith and Hamilton_1905_1">Benjamin H. Smith and William Hamilton,”Some Letters from William Hamilton, of the Woodlands, to His Private Secretary,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 29, no. 1 (1905), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G5B2ARMP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hamilton September 30, 1785, 2_cite|back up to History]]
:“You have doubtless in the course of the summer collected many sorts of seeds, which you mean to send for the purpose of my exchanging them for others here. I enclose a list of such as are more particularly valuable & therefore the more of them that are sent the better. I have also named some plants that I shall be glad to obtain as being rare here. The violets I wish to have a large quantity of & if any of the particolor’d sort which I took from the field and planted in [[pot]]s are yet in being, I must request that they be put up most carefully & sent to me. As I intend shipping another very large collection of plants shortly no time should be lost in preparing ground. If done this Fall the more like to be ready.”

*Hamilton, William, November 2, 1785, in a letter from England to Dr. Thomas Parke (quoted in Betts 1979: 225)<ref name="Betts_1979"/>
:“As I can by no means afford to live in Bush Hill, I shall be under the necessity of adding to the House & building Offices at [[the Woodlands]]. Altho the state of my finances will not allow me to do much at present & the improvements must be gradual, It will be proper however to fix on some general plan for the whole & according as I have wherewithal while I am on the spot mean to procure whatever materials in the way of finishing & furnishing may be here purchased on a saving plan. The more I can do in this way the better as besides lessning the Expence There will be a great savings of time. I mention this to prove to you how very useful it will be to me for you to remit whatever Cash can be spared from my American occasions. I have the vanity to think I shall be thereby enable to introduce many conveniences & improvements that will be useful to my country as well as myself.”

*Hamilton, William, November 2, 1785, in a letter from England to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Hamilton and Smith 1905: 145)<ref name="Hamilton and Smith_1905_2">William Hamilton and Benjamin H. Smith, “Some Letters from William Hamilton, of the Woodlands, to His Private Secretary (Continued),” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 29, no. 2 (1905), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WJNN834B view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Besides these I must beg you to direct Mr Thomson to pack up the same number of plants of the like sorts & two or three dozen of the Double Tuberose roots & forward them to my address. The Roots should be put into dry sand & you should endeavor to have them kept in a dry part of the Ship. The plants must be packed in cases of Boxes with that kind of swamp moss that grows at the Head of the valley about the spot where the dwarf Laurels are (in the manner which M<sup>r</sup> Young used to put up his plants of [which] Mrs Young will give you particular information. If my stock of Tuberose roots should have been from any accident exhausted you can be supplied by Jn° Slaughter who lived when I left home in a new House at the upper end of Arch St (the last next the common) where was a very large quantity of fine ones.”

*G., L., June 15, [1788?], in a letter to her sister Eliza (quoted in Betts 1979: 216–17)<ref name="Betts_1979"/>
:“Mr. Hamilton was remarkably polite—he took us round his [[walk]]s which are planted on each side with the most beautiful & curious flowers & shrubs. . . .”

*Hamilton, William, July 1788, in a letter from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Hamilton and Smith 1905: 150–51)<ref name="Hamilton and Smith_1905_2"/>
:“I have personally play’d the Dun within these three or four days at more than 500 Houses & have applied for rents on unimproved lots, pastures & out lots. The people far from being displeased, are many of them flatter’d with what they call my condescension, & all approve the measure so unlike what they have been formerly used to. Not an uncivil word did I receive from any one, nor have I discovered one instance of a disinclination for payment, or an attempt at evasion. Scarcity of money is their only plea & there is surely every reason to believe it a just one. But although the poor of which there are a very great proportion can possibly never pay, they all acknowledge the justice of my claims & their wish to have the power to satisfy them. . . .”

*Hamilton, William, 1789, in a letter to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Madsen 1988: A4)<ref>“William Hamilton’s Woodlands.” Paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck. Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University. 1988, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In my Hurry at the time of coming off from Home I omitted to put in the ground the exotic Bulbous roots & as I gave no direction to Hilton respecting them they may suffer more especially as they were all taken out of the [[pot]]s & left dry on the Back flue of the [[Hot House]].”

*Hamilton, William, October 3, 1789, in a letter from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Hamilton and Smith 1905: 157–58)<ref name="Hamilton and Smith_1905_2"/>
:“Mr Child told me he would not fail to remind you of getting McIlvee out to mend the [[hot house]]. Unless this is done the West India plants cannot be safe. . . . I think it will be well enough for you to go to [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartrams]] & know from him what [[Hot House]] plants he intended for me and also his prices for each of the plants in y<sup>e</sup> enclosed list. Its possible Mrs Rulen and her daughter will sail for the West Indies before my return. In case Miss Markoe comes to [[the Woodlands]] I wish Ann & Peggy would beg her to think of me in the flower seed way when she is at Santa Cruz. Those of all fragrant and beautiful plants will be agreeable, particularly y<sup>e</sup> Jasmines. . . .”

*<div id="Hamilton June 12, 1790"></div>Hamilton, William, June 12, 1790, in a letter from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Hamilton and Smith 1905: 258–59)<ref name="Hamilton and Smith_1905_3">William Hamilton and Benjamin H. Smith,”Some Letters from William Hamilton, of the Woodlands, to His Private Secretary (Concluded),” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 29, no. 3 (1905), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MW5WVDUF view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Hamilton June 12, 1790_cite|back up to History]]
:“Common sense would point out the necessity of my having constant information respecting the grass grounds at Bush Hill and at [[the Woodlands]] which must be now nearly in a state for mowing. . . . It would have been an agreeable circumstance to me to have heard the large sumachs & lombardy poplars as well as the magnolias have not been neglected. The immense number of seeds from foreign countries must certainly have produced (if attended to) many curious plants. The ''casheros'', ''conocarpus Arnott’s walking plants'' &c which I planted out the day before I left home have I hope been taken care of. I should however been glad to have heard of their fate as well as respecting the Gooseberries and Antwerp Raspberries given me by Dr Parke. After the immense pains I took in removing the exotics to the north front of the House by way of experiment, & the Hurry of coming away preventing my arranging them, you will naturally suppose me anxious to know the success as to y<sup>e</sup> plants and the effect as to appearance in y<sup>e</sup> approach & also their security from cattle. The curious exotic cuttings & those of the ''Franklinea'' I did not believe it possible for ''even you'' to be inattentive to. . . . I wished you to be very active on the arrival of the India ships, in finding out whether any passengers had seeds &c . . . I find Bartram has Cape plants & seeds but hear not a word of your having got any for me. By the way, I should be glad if you had given the reason of Bartrams ill Humour when you called. He certainly had no cause for displeasure respecting his plants left under my care during the winter. . . Mr Wikoff promised me some seeds of a cucumber six feet long.”

*Hamilton, William, September 1790, in a letter from [[The Woodlands]] to his private secretary Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Hamilton and Smith 1905: 260)<ref name="Hamilton and Smith_1905_3"/>
:“In case you go to Brannan’s I beg you to look particularly at his largest Gardenias & Arbutus so as to give an account of the size as well as the prices of them. I mentioned to you the Teucrium or Germander & I now recollect his having what he called a china rose. I have moreover a shrewd suspicion that Gray’s single Arabian Jasmine came from Brannans although Brannan may not know it by that name. You will therefore find out what Jasmines he has & their prices & see whether he has any aloes, Geraniums, myrtles &c which I have not. Possibly he may have another plant of the African Heath which Gray got from him & other large d'ble myrtles as good as Gray’s. You will also make the same enquiries of Spurry…. <p></p>
:“Brannan had a trefoil which he called a cinquefoil. I know not whether it has yet travelled to Grays. I take it to be the moon-trefoil? a very pretty shrub.”

*Hamilton, William, November 22, 1790, in a letter from [[The Woodlands]] to [[Humphry Marshall]] (Darlington 1849: 577)<ref name="Darlington">William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I was truly sorry that I did not see you when you were last at Philadelphia. I hope, the next time you come down, you will give me a call. If I can tempt you no other way, I promise to show you many plants that you have never yet seen, some of them curious.”

*Hamilton, William, June 6, 1791, in a letter from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, to his secretary, Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Hamilton and Smith 1905: 261)<ref name="Hamilton and Smith_1905_3"/>
:“The plants sent by Mr. Von Rohr are valuable & I hope George will particularly attend to them. The palm is called ''Cornon'' from Cayenne & ''along side of him'' as von Rohr says is a young ''cacao'' or chocolate plant. The last particularly is alive I hope. The ''Hibiscus tiliacens'' in y<sup>e</sup> 2<sup>d</sup> Box, is the ''mahoe tree'', & the Roots are the ''pancratium maritimum''. The flower [[pot]] contains an ''anacardium occidentale''. As to the ''cereus'' cutting I would not have it divided but planted in a ''heavy'' [[pot]] of such a size as not to be over-potted & placed in such a situation as to be properly supported & secured from being blown over by the wind.”

*Hamilton, William, March 17, 1792, in a letter from [[The Woodlands]] to [[George Washington]]<ref>Washington Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-10-02-0068 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref></ref>
:“I will with great pleasure forward you on Monday whatever is in my power of the kinds of plants you desire & will prepare them in the best manner for the voyage.
:“The time being short, I am uncertain at what time of the day they may be ready. You need not therefore send for them. I will have them deliver’d at your House in the course of it.”

*<div id="Hamilton August 13, 1792"></div>Hamilton, William, August 13, 1792, in a letter from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, to his private secretary Benjamin Hays Smith (quoted in Hamilton and Smith 1905: 264)<ref name="Hamilton and Smith_1905_3"/> [[#Hamilton August 13, 1792_cite|back up to History]]
:“It is a disappointment to me to find that you did not properly secure von Rohrs agave at Gray’s. I wish’d to prevent its getting into other hands. The same motive makes me desirous to have the ''Arbutus'' & the ''Rose apple'' which however are priced so high that I do not imagine they will find a ready sale before my return.”

*Hamilton, William, November 23, 1796, in a letter from [[The Woodlands]] to [[Humphry Marshall]] (Darlington 1849: 578)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>
:“I am much obliged to you for the seeds you were so good as to send me, of the ''Pavia'', and of the ''Podophyllum'' or ''Jeffersonia''.<p></p>
:“When you were last here it was so late, and you were of course so much hurried, as to prevent your deriving any satisfaction in viewing my exotics. I hope when you come next to Philadelphia, that you will allot one whole day, at least, for [[the Woodlands]]. It will not only give me real pleasure to have your company, but I am persuaded it will afford some amusement to yourself.
:“Your nephew [[Moses Marshall|[Moses Marshall]]] did me the favour of calling, the other day; but he, too, was in a hurry, and had little opportunity of satisfying his curiosity. I flatter myself, however, that during his short stay he saw enough to induce him to repeat his visit. The sooner this happens, the more agreeable it will be to me.<p></p>
:“When I was at your house, a year ago, I observed several matters in the gardening way, different from any in my possession. Being desirous to make my collection as general as possible, I beg to know if you have, by layers, or any other mode, sufficiently increased any of the following kinds so as to be able, with convenience, to spare a plant of each of them, viz.: — ''Ledum palustre'', ''Carolina Rhamnus'', ''Azalea coccinea'', ''Mimosa Intsia'', and ''Laurus Borbonia''. Any of them would be agreeable to me; as also would be a plant, or seeds ''Hippophae Canadensis'', ''Aralia hispida'', ''Spiraea nova'' from the western country; ''Tussilago Petasites'', ''Polymnia tetragonotheca'', ''Hydrophyllum Canadense'', ''H. Virginicum'', ''Polygala Senega'', ''P. biflora'', ''Napoea scabra dioica'', ''Talinum'', a nondescript ''Sedum'' from the west, somewhat like the ''Telephium'', two kinds of a genus supposed, by [[Moses Marshall|Dr. MARSHALL]], to be between ''Uvularia'' and ''Convallaria'' [probably the ''Streptopus'', of MICHAUX, which the MARSHALLS proposed to call ''Bartonia''], and ''Rubia Tinctorum''. I should also be obliged to you for a few seeds of your ''Calycanthus'', ''Spigelia Marilandica'', ''Tormentil'' from Italy, and two of your ''Oaks'' with ovate entire leaves.”

*Hamilton, William, March 6, 1797, in a letter from [[The Woodlands]] to [[George Washington]]<ref>Washington Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/06-01-02-0007 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“Having been told you intend leaving Town tomorrow I have sent the Clod of Grass, together with a plant of the upright Italian Myrtle & one of the Box leaved Myrtle for Mrs Washington. The plants will very safely bear the Journey as they are packed in the Basket, provided it is kept in an upright position out of the reach of Frost which would injure the Myrtles in their present growing State [.] a careful Gardener may separate the Clod of grass so as to make many plants of it. I am persuaded that in good soil & situation rather sheltered from the North West It would prove a valuable acquisition.
:“I lament exceedingly that I have been deprived of the pleasure of paying my respects in person previous to your Departure. I flatter myself however that you will take the will for the deed & believe that my best wishes for Health & every other Happiness will always attend Mrs Washington & yourself. I trust too that you will at all times when occasions offer command freely whatever is in my power You may be assured nothing can afford me more real satisfactn than an opportunity of serving you & that I am with sincere Regards Dear Sir your most devoted & very obedt Servant W. Hamilton
:“I have also sent half of the Seeds of the persian Grass saved last Season at [[The Woodlands|the Woodl[an]ds]].”

*<div id="Niemcewicz"></div>Niemcewicz, Julian Ursyn, March 24, 1798, journal entry describing [[The Woodlands]] (1965: 52–53)<ref name="Niemcewicz">Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, ''Under Their Vine and Fig Tree: Travels through America in 1797–99, 1805, with Some Further Account of Life in New Jersey'', ed. and trans. Metchie J. E. Budka, Collections of The New Jersey Historical Society at Newark (Elizabeth, NJ: Grassmann Publishing Company, 1965), xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/URG5ABAD view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Niemcewicz_cite|back up to History]]
:“On returning we saw the house of Hamilton. . . . Hamilton was not there. He is a man of 50 who in the time of the Revolution took the side of the English. He narrowly missed being hung for his fine loyalty. His farm contains 200 to 300 acres of very mediocre land as is all that in the environs of Philad, but which cultivated could produce something. He leaves it fallow; he is interested only in his house, his [[hothouse]] and his Madeira. He carries his fastidiousness about the countryside to such a point that he is in a dreadful humor when one comes to visit it during low tide.”

*da Costa Pereira Furtado de Mendonça, Hipólito José, February 24, 1799, in a diary entry describing [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Smith 1954: 94–95)<ref name="Smith_1954">Robert C. Smith, “A Portuguese Naturalist in Philadelphia, 1799,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 78, no. 1 (January 1954), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6HUWNJF view on Zotero]</ref>
:“Today I dined with Mr. Hamilton, who lives on the other side of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]]. He is a learned man very much taken with the subject of botany. In his [[hothouse]] he has many plants from China and Brazil, including 15 species of the sensitive plant and many other kinds of mimosa. He had one variety of sugar cane that comes from an island in the Pacific and which is already being cultivated in the West Indies. It gives twice as much sugar as the regular plants and requires no more labor. He promised me seeds, etc., etc. I will make a catalogue of all the plants he has. He also has tea trees, jambo trees, guavas, etc.”

*da Costa Pereira Furtado de Mendonça, Hipólito José, March 6, 1799, in a diary entry describing [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Smith 1954: 97)<ref name="Smith_1954"/>
:“I went to Mr. Hamilton’s [[hothouse]], where he awaited me with a catalogue of questions and then wrote down the answers as I gave them to him. . . .”

*da Costa Pereira Furtado de Mendonça, Hipólito José, March 26, 1799, in a diary entry describing [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Smith 1954: 99)<ref name="Smith_1954"/>
:“Today I saw in Mr. Hamilton’s [[hothouse]] two more varieties of mimosa, which I sketched.”

*da Costa Pereira Furtado de Mendonça, Hipólito José, March 26, 1799, in a diary entry describing [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Smith 1954: 99)<ref name="Smith_1954"/>
:“Today I dined with Mr. Hamilton, who sent me a precious collection of seeds. . . .”

*da Costa Pereira Furtado de Mendonça, Hipólito José, March 26, 1799, in a diary entry describing [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Smith 1954: 105)<ref name="Smith_1954"/>
:“Today I was at Mr. Hamilton’s and there I talked with Mr. Muhlenberg, a German who lives in Lancaster. He is the best botanist in the United States and a pastor in that area, but he was so crude and gross in his manners that I found him unbearable.”

*Hamilton, William, May 3, 1799, in a letter from [[The Woodlands]] to [[Humphry Marshall]] (Darlington 1849: 579–580)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>
:“I have not until this time been able to comply with my promise of sending you a Tea Tree.<p></p>
:“I now take the opportunity of forwarding you... a very healthy one, as well as several of other kinds, which I believe are not already in your collection; together with a small parcel of seeds. . . .
:“Should anything else, in my possession, occur to you as a desirable addition to the variety in your garden, I beg you will inform me. You may be assured, whatever it is, if I have two of the kind, you will be welcome to one. Sensible as I am of your kindness and friendship to me, on all occasions, you have a right, and may freely command every service in my power.
:“Doctor Parke informs me you were lately in Philadelphia. Had it been convenient to you to call at [[the Woodlands]], I should have had great pleasure in seeing you. I have not heard of [[Moses Marshall|Dr. MARSHALL’S]] having been in this neighbourhood since I was last ''Bradford''. From the pressing invitation I gave him, I am willing to hope that, in case of his coming to town, he will not forget to give me a call. I beg you will present him with my best respects, and request of him to give me a line of information, as to the ''Menziesia ferruginea'', particularly of its ''vulgar name'', if it has one, where it grows, if he knows the name of any person in its neighbourhood, who is acquainted with it, so, as to direct or show it to any one who may go to look after it.
:“I intend, next month, to go to Lancaster; and if convenient to me, when there, to spare my George, I have thoughts of sending him to Redstone, for the ''Menziesia'', and ''Podophyllum diphiyllum''. If [[Moses Marshall|Dr. MARSHALL]] knows of any curious and uncommon plants, growing in the neighbourhood with those I have mentioned, I will be obliged to him to give me any intelligence by which he may suppose they can be found: or, if he knows any person or persons at Redstone, or Fort Pitt, who are curious in plants, of whom any questions on the subject may be asked, he cannot do me a greater service than by giving me their names and place of abode.<p></p>
:“I do not know how your garden may have fared during this truly long and severe winter, which has occasioned the loss of several valuable ones in mine; amongst which are the Wise Briar [probably ''Schrankia uncinata'', Willd.; ''Mimosa Intsia'', Walt.] and ''Hibiscus speciosus'', which I got from you. The plants, also, of ''Podophyllum diphyllum'', which I raised last year, from seeds I received from your kindness, have, I fear, been all destroyed. They have not shown themselves above ground this spring. A tree, too (the only one I had of ''Juglans Pacane'', or Illinois Hickory), which I raised twenty-five years ago from seed, is entirely killed.
:“In case you have seeds of the kinds named in the list hereto adjoined, I will thank you exceedingly for a few. Any of them which you have not, at present, I beg you will oblige me with them in the ensuing fall. I am very desirous to know if your ''Iva'', or Hog’s Fennel, from Carolina, produces seeds. In that case, I must entreat you for a few of them.<p></p>
:“You will permit me, also, to remind you of your promise to spare me a plant or two of the ''White Persimmon'', one of ''Azalea coccinea'', and of the sour ''Calycanthus''. If convenient to let me have a plant or two of your ''Stuartia Malachodendron'', and of ''Magnolia acuminata'', you will do me a great favour.
:“Anything left for me at the toll-gate, on the middle ferry wharf to the care of Mr. TRUEMAN, who constantly attends there, will reach me the same day that it arrives there. . . .
:“I am very desirous to compare a flower of your Stuartia with [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|J. Bartram’s]]; and will be obliged to you for a good specimen.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], April 22, 1800, in a letter from Philadelphia to William Hamilton<ref>Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-31-02-0445 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“I am happy to find you as clear of political antipathies as I am: and am particularly obliged by the frankness of your explanation. I owe to it the opportunity of placing myself justly before you, and of assuring you there was no person here to whom I had less disposition of shewing neglect than to yourself. the circumstances of our early acquaintance I have ever felt as binding me in morality as well as in affection: and there are so many agreeable points in which we are in perfect unison, that I am at no loss to find a justification of my constant esteem.
:“Among the many botanical curiosities you were so good as to shew me the other day, I forgot to ask if you had the Dionaea muscipula, and whether it produces a seed with you. if it does, I should be very much disposed to trespass on your liberality so far as to ask a few seeds of that, as also of the Acacia Nilotica, or Farnesiana whichever you have.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, in a letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at the [[Elgin Botanic Garden]] and [[The Woodlands]] (Long 1991: 144)<ref>Ms. letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Long 1991, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero]; and Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]
:“I duly received the plans of Mr. Hamiltons [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing— it will not differ very individually from Mr. Hamiltons. . . . I hope William Hamilton will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants — I will supply him anything I possess.”

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], November 22, 1803, in a letter to his daughter Mrs. Torrey, describing [[The Woodlands]] (1888: 2:144–46)<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co, 1888), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Cutler_cite|back up to History]]
:“Since you are quite a gardener, I will mention a visit I made, on my journey, near Philadelphia, to a garden, which in many respects exceeds any in America. It is at the country-[[seat]] of Mr. Hamilton, a gentleman of excellent taste and great property. . . . As soon as we had dined, he [Mr. Pickering] called me aside, and told me he had been acquainted with Mr. Hamilton, who was noted for his hospitality, and who lived but half a mile up the river, where he did not doubt we should be kindly entertained. We immediately set out, and arrived about an hour before sunset. His [[seat]] is on an eminence, which forms on its summit an extended plain, at the junction of two large rivers.
:“Near the point of land a superb but ancient house built of stone is situated. In the front, which commends an extensive and most enchanting [[prospect]], is a [[piazza]], supported on large [[pillar]]s, and furnished with chairs and sofas, like an elegant room. Here we found Mr. H., at his ease, smoking his cigar. He instantly recognized Mr. Pickering, and expressed much joy at seeing him. On Mr. Pickering introducing me, he took me by the hand with a pretty hard squeeze. 'Ah, [[Rev. Manasseh Cutler|Dr. Cutler]], I am glad to see you at last. I have long felt disposed to be angry that I should hear of you so often at Philadelphia, and passing to and from the southward, and yet never make me a visit, and Dr. Muhlenburg, of Lancaster, a few days ago, made to me the same complaint. Come, gentlemen, walk in and take some refreshments, for I have much to show you, and it will directly be night.' This, and much more, was said as fast as he could utter it. . . . We then walked over the [[pleasure ground]]s in front and a little back of the house. . . .
:“. . . We retired to the house. The table was spread with decanters of different wines, and tea was served.
:“Immediately after, another table was loaded with large botanical books, containing most excellent drawings of plants, such as I never could have conceived. He is himself an excellent botanist. . . . When we turned to rare plants, one of the gardeners would be called, and sent with lanterns to the [[green-house]] to fetch me a specimen to compare with it. This was done perhaps twenty times.
:“Between 10 and 11 an elegant table was spread, with, I believe, not less than twenty covers. After supper, we turned again to the drawings, and at one we retired to bed. . . .”

*Hamilton, William, October 30, 1805, in a letter from [[The Woodlands]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-2544 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“On the strength of our long acquaintance I trust you will permit me the liberty I take of introducing to your notice, my nephew Andrew Hamilton, who intends passing a few days at the city of Washington & will have the pleasure of presenting you with this letter. He will at the same time, deliver to you a small deciduous plant of the silk tree of Constantinople (Mimosa salibrisin) which if well preserved for two or three years in a [[pot]], will afterwards succeed in the open ground. I have trees of 20 feet height which for several years past have produced their beautiful & fragrand flowers & have shewn no marks whatever of suffering from the severity of the last winter.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], November 6, 1805, in a letter from Washington to William Hamilton<ref>Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-2587 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“Your nephew delivered safely to me the plant of the Chinese silk tree in perfect good order, and I shall nurse it with care until it shall be in a condition to be planted at [[Monticello]]. mr Madison mentioned to me your wish to recieve any seeds which should be sent me by Capt Lewis or from any other quarter of plants which are rare. I lately forwarded to [[Charles Willson Peale|mr Peale]] for the Philosophical society a box containing minerals & seeds from Capt Lewis, which I did not open, and I am persuaded the society will be pleased to dispose of them so well as into your hands. [[Charles Willson Peale|mr Peale]] would readily ask this. I happen to have two papers of seeds which Capt Lewis inclosed to me in a letter, and which I gladly consign over to you, as I shall any thing else which may fall into my hands & be worthy your acceptance. one of these is of the Mandan tobacco, a very singular species uncommonly weak & probably suitable for segars. the other had no ticket but I believe it is a plant used by the Indians with extraordinary success for Curing the bite of the rattle snake & other venomous animals. I send also some seeds of the Winter melon which I recieved from Malta. some were planted here the last season, but too early. they were so ripe before the time of gathering (before the first frost) that all rotted but one which is stil sound & firm & we hope will keep some time. experience alone will fix the time of planting them in our climate, so that a little before frost they may not be so ripe as to rot, & still ripe enough to advance after gathering in the process of maturation or mellowing as fruit does. I hope you will find it worthy a place in your [[kitchen garden]].”

*Hamilton, William, July 7, 1806, in a letter from The Woodlands to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-3973 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“N.B. In the autumn I intend sending you if I live those kinds of trees which I think you will deem valuable additions to your garden viz. Gingko biloba or china maidenhair trees, Broussenatia papyrifesa vulgarly called paper mulberry tree & Mimosa abrisia or silk tree of Constantinople—The first is said by Kampfer to produce a good eatable nut—The 2d in its bark &c yields a valuable material for making paper to the inhabitants of China, Japan, & the East Indies, & for clothing to the people of Tahiti & other South Sea Islands & the third is a beautiful flowering tree at this time in its highest perfection, the seeds of which were collected on the shore of the Caspian Sea. They are all hardy having for several years past borne over severest weather in the open ground without th. smallest protection.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 31, 1806, in a letter to William Hamilton<ref>Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4111 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“Your favor of the 7th came duly to hand and the plant you are so good as to propose to send me will be thankfully rec’d. The little Mimosa Julibrisin you were so kind as to send me the last year is flourishing. I obtained from a gardener in this nbh’d [neighborhood] 2 plants of the paper mulberry; but the parent plant being male, we are to expect no fruit from them,unless your [trees] should chance to be of the sex wanted. at a future day, say two years hence I shall ask from you some seeds of the Mimosa Farnesiana or Nilotica, of which you were kind enough before to furnish me some. but the plants have been lost during my absence from home. I remember seeing in your [[greenhouse]] a plant of a couple of feet height in a [[pot]] the fragrance of which (from it’s gummy bud if I recollect rightly) was peculiarly agreeable to me and you were so kind as to remark that it required only a [[greenhouse]], and that you would furnish me one when I should be in a situation to preserve it. but it’s name has entirely escaped me & I cannot suppose you can recollect or conjecture in your vast collection what particular plant this might be. I must acquiese therefore in a privation which my own defect of memory has produced, unless indeed I could some of these days make an impromptu visit to Phila. & recognise it myself at [[The Woodlands|the Woodlands]]. . . .
:“The grounds which I destine to improve in the [[English style|style of the English gardens]] are in a form very difficult to be managed. They compose the northern quadrant of a mountain for about 2/3 of its height & then spread for the upper third over its whole crown. They contain about three hundred acres, washed at the foot for about a mile, by a river of the size of the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]]. The hill is generally too steep for direct ascent, but we make level [[walk]]s successively along it’s side, which in it’s upper part encircle the hill & intersect these again by others of easy ascent in various parts. They are chiefly still in their native [[wood]]s, which are majestic, and very generally a close undergrowth, which I have not suffered to be touched, knowing how much easier it is to cut away than to fill up. The upper third is chiefly open, but to the South is covered with a dense [[thicket]] of Scotch (Spartium scoparium Lin.) which being favorably spread before the sun will admit of advantageous arrangement for winter enjoyment. You are sensible that this disposition of the ground takes from me the first beauty in gardening, the variety of hill & dale, & leaves me as an awkward substitute a few hanging hollows & ridges, this subject is so unique and at the same time refractory, that to make a disposition analogous to its character would require much more of the genius of the landscape painter & gardener than I pretend to. I had once hoped to get Parkins to go and give me some outlines, but I was disappointed. . . . Should a journey at any time promise improvement to it [Hamilton’s health], there is no one on which you would be received with more pleasure than at [[Monticello]]. Should I be there you will have an opportunity of indulging on a new field some of the taste which has made [[The Woodlands|the Woodlands]] the only rival which I have known in America to what may be seen in England.
:“Thither without doubt we are to go for models in this art. Their sunless climate has permitted them to adopt what is certainly a beauty of the very first order in landscape. Their canvas is of open ground, variegated with [[clump]]s of trees distributed with taste. They need no more of [[wood]] than will serve to embrace a [[lawn]] or a glade. But under the beaming, constant and almost vertical sun of Virginia, shade is our Elysium. In the absence of this no beauty of the eye can be enjoyed. This organ must yield it’s gratification to that of the other senses; without the hope of any equivalent to the beauty relinquished. The only substitute I have been able to imagine is this. Let your ground be covered with trees of the loftiest stature. Trim up their bodies as high as the constitution & form of the tree will bear, but so as that their tops shall still unite & yeild dense shade. A [[wood]], so open below, will have nearly the appearance of open grounds. Then, when in the open ground you would plant a [[clump]] of trees, place a [[thicket]] of shrubs presenting a hemisphere the crown of which shall distinctly show itself under the branches of the trees. This may be effected by a due selection & arrangement of the shrubs, & will I think offer a group not much inferior to that of trees. The [[thicket]]s may be varied too by making some of them of evergreens altogether, our red cedar made to grow in a bush, evergreen privet, pyrocanthus, Kalmia, Scotch broom. Holly would be elegant but it does not grow in my part of the country.
:“Of [[prospect]] I have a rich profusion and offering itself at every point of the compass. Mountains distant & near, smooth & shaggy, single & in ridges, a little river hiding itself among the hills so as to shew in lagoons only, cultivated grounds under the eye and two small villages. To prevent a satiety of this is the principal difficulty. It may be successively offered, & in different portions through [[vista]]s, or which will be better, between [[thicket]]s so disposed as to serve as [[vista]]s, with the advantage of shifting the scenes as you advance on your way.
:“You will be sensible by this time of the truth of my information that my views are turned so steadfastly homeward that the subject runs away with me whenever I get on it. I sat down to thank you for kindnesses received, & to bespeak permission to ask further contributions from your collection & I have written you a treatise on gardening generally, in which art lessons would come with more justice from you to me.”

*<div id="Drayton"></div>[[Charles Drayton|Drayton, Charles]], November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]] (1806: 49, 55–57)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” 1806, Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Drayton_cite|back up to History]]
:“Dined at Mr. Hamilton’s, at his elegant [[seat]] about 3 miles from Philadelphia. . . .
:“The <u>[[Conservatory]]</u> consists of a [[green house]], & 2 [[hot house]]s—one being at each end of it. The [[green house]] may be about 50 feet long. The front only is glazed. Scaffolds are erected, one higher than another, on which the plants in [[pot]]s or tubs are placed—so that it is representing the declivity of a mountain. At each end are step-ladders for the purpose of going on each stage to water the plants—& to a walk at the back-[[wall]]. On the floor a walk of 5 or 6 feet extends along the glazed [[wall]] & at each end a door opens into an [[Hot house]]—so that a long walk extends in one line along the stove [[wall]]s of the houses & the glazed [[wall]] of the [[green house]].
:“The [[hothouse|Hot houses]], they may extend in front, I suppose, 40 feet each. They have a [[wall]] heated by flues—& 3 glazed [[wall]]s & a glazed roof each. In the center, a frame of wood is raised about 2 1/2 feet high, & occupying the whole area except leaving a passage along by the [[wall]]s. In the flue [[wall]], or adjoining, is a cistern for tropic aquatic plants. Within the frame, is composed a hot [[bed]]; into which the [[pot]]s & tubs with plants, are plunged. This [[conservatory|Conservatory]] is said to be equal to any in Europe. It contains between 7 & 8000 plants. To this, the Professor of botany is permitted to resort, with his Pupils occasionally.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 22, 1807, in a letter from Washington to William Hamilton<ref>Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-5329 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]
:“It is with great pleasure that, at the request of Govenor Lewis, I send you the seeds now inclosed, being a part of the Botanical fruits of his journey across the continent: I cannot but hope that some of them will be found to add useful or agreeable varieties to what we now possess. these, with the descriptions of plants, which, not being in seed at the time, he could not bring, will add considerably to our Botanical possessions. he will equally add to the Natural history of our country. on the whole, the result confirms me in my first opinion that he was the fittest person in the world for such an expedition. he will be with you shortly at Philadelphia, where I have no doubt you will be so kind as to shew him those civilities which you so readily bestow on worth. I send a similar packet to [[Bernard M’Mahon|mr McMahon]], to take the chance of a double treatment. in confiding these public deposits to your & his hands, I am sure I make the best possible disposition of them.”
[[File:0304.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, William Russell Birch, “Woodlands, the Seat of Mr. Wm. Hamilton, Pennsylva.,” 1808, in William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States'', ed. Emily Cooperman (2009), 69, pl. 14.]]

*[[William Birch|Birch, William Russell]], 1808, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America'' (1808: unpaginated)<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States'', ed. Emily Cooperman (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 68, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TNTZAF2Q view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This noble demesne has long been the pride of Pennsylvania. The beauties of nature and the rarities of art, not more than the hospitality of the owner, attract to it many visitors. It is charmingly situated on the winding [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] and commands one of the most superb water scenes that can be imagined. The ground is laid out in good taste. There are a [[hothouse|Hot house]] and [[greenhouse|green house]] containing a collection in the horticultural department, unequalled perhaps in the Unites States. Paintings &c. of the first master embellish the interior of the house and do credit to Mr. Wm. Hamilton, as a man of refined taste.” [Fig. 3]

*Hamilton, William, February 5, 1808, in a letter from [[The Woodlands]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-7347 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“Near thirty years ago, I passed some time at ''oxen-Hill'' opposite to Alexandria, in the month of february. at that season all the swamps that branch from ''oxen creek'', were redden’d with the berries of what is there called, the ''winter haw'', which grows not with us. I have since made several attempts to obtain plants from thence which have always been unsuccesful.
:“In the neighbourhood of Washington, there grows a ''tree'' Hazle, ''corylus arborescens'', by which name, it is known to ''Doctr. Ott'', of george town, who well ''knows'' it, & the ''place of its growth''; as ''I have been informed''.
:“Could I, do you think, by your assistance, obtain plants & seeds of one or both of these trees? I know very well how greatly your time is employ’d in more weighty concerns, & that you have scarcely enough of it, for such trifles, but I am persuaded you can in a few words, direct your gardener on the subject, & at the same time I am certain, that except yourself, there is not a man in Washington, that either can or will attend to matters of this kind. I flatter myself, that when you know how much you will oblige me by your attention to this business, you will not withhold it.
:“a little box (say a foot long & eight or ten inches wide) with a few holes, bored in its top, & sides, to allow a free circulation of air, & to prevent mould, will hold a sufficiency of plants. These should be young & not more than ten inches long. When taken from the ground, the earth should be shook well from them, & the bruised roots cut off. As soon as possible afterwards they should be placed in the box, between layers of swamp moss, (''sphagnum palustre'',) to keep them ''merely'' moist, & the roots from bruising each other, the box naild up on all sides, & if well done; they will, at this season of the year, bear a voyage to the West Indies. If some seeds are lightly scattered among the moss, they will be the better prepared for vegetation.
:“I have the pleasure to inform you that my [[greenhouse|green]] & [[hot house]]s are now in great perfection. Although my gardener is an indifferent one, he keeps them clean & neat as a parlour; & notwithstanding his want of knowledge, which occasions the loss of many plants, I am still rich in exotics of the most valuable kinds. I have still the ''camphire, the cinnamon, the clove, & the allspice'' as well as ''the tea & the coffee'' in high preservation. At this moment the coffee is full of fruit. Three or four sorts of ''sago'' & a dozen other palms thrive exceedingly. That most deliciois fruit, the ''india Mango'', & what is nearly as fine ''the Cherimolia of Lima, the otaheite apple, the gooseberry of otaheite,'' the ''South sea plum'', the ''guava, the water lemon'', the ''china, & mandarin oranges, the citrons, the shaddock, the lemon, the lime'' &c &c &c all produce their fruits annually in succession.
:“Mr Lewis’s seeds have not yet vegetated freely, more however may come up this coming spring. I have nevertheless obtained plants of the yellow wood, or ''osage apple'', seven or eight sorts of ''gooseberries & currants'' & one of his kinds of aricasara tobacco, have flower’d so well as to afford me an elegant drawing from it.
:“I have prepared for you plants of ''Broussenetis papysipra'' or paper Mulberry—''Steroulia platamifolia'' (wrongly called china varnish Kew) & ''Mimosa Julibrisia'' or silk tree of constantinople all (with a little pains at first,) hardy enough to stand our climate. They were all design’d to come last year, but as suitable opportunity offerd I hope I will be more lucky this year.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], March 1, 1808, in a letter from Washington to William Hamilton<ref>Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-7521 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref>
:“I recieved in due time your friendly letter of Feb. 5. and was much gratified by the opportunity it gave me of being useful to you even on that small scale. I was retarded in the execution of your request by the necessity of riding myself to the only careful gardener on whom I have found I could rely, & who lives 3. miles out of town. it was several days before I could find leisure enough for such a ride. he has this day brought me a box, in which are packed the plants stated in the inclosed paper from him, that is to say 12. plants of what he calls the Winter berry (Prinus verticillatus) which he does not doubt to be the plant designated in your letter as the Winter haw. in fact the swamps in this neighborhood are now red with this berry. Dr. Ott however concieved another plant to be that you meant, and delivered the gardener some berries of it, which I now inclose you. should these berries be of the plant you meant, on your signifying it to me it may still be in time to procure and forward it to you. apprehending myself that neither of these plants might be the one you wished, but a real ''haw'', now full of beautiful scarlet berries, and which I have never seen but in this neighborhood, I directed mr Maine (the gardener I mentioned) to put half a hundred of them into the box. even should they not be what you had in view still you should know this plant, which is peculiar at least to America & is a real Treasure. as a thorn for hedges nothing has ever been seen comparable to it. certainly no thorn in England which I have ever seen makes a hedge any more to be compared to this than a log hut to a wall of freestone. if you will plant these 6. I. apart you will be a judge of their superiority soon. he has put into the box 8. plants of the tree hazle you desired, taken from the very spot from which Dr. Ott had formerly got them for Doct. Muhlenberg. you will find a nut from them in the top of the box. these were all the small plants which he could get with any roots. to these I have added 9. plants of the Aspen from Monticello which I formerly mentioned & promised to you. it is a very sensible variety from any other I have ever seen in this country, superior in the straitness & paper whiteness of the body; & the leaf is longer in it’s stem, consequently more tremulous, and it is smooth (not downy) on it’s under side. this box goes in the stage of this evening under the immediate care of mr Soderstrom’s servant.
:“I am very thankful to you for thinking of me in the destination of some of your fine collection. within one year from this time I shall be retired to occupations of my own choice, among which the farm & garden will be conspicuous parts. my [[green house]] is only a [[piazza]] adjoining my study, because I mean it for nothing more than some oranges, Mimosa Farnesiane & a very few things of that kind. I remember to have been much taken with a plant in your [[green house]], extremely odoriferous, and not large, perhaps 12. or 16. I. high if I recollect rightly. you said you would furnish me a plant or two of it when I should signify that I was ready for them. perhaps you may remember it from this circumstance, tho’ I have forgot the name. this I would ask for the next spring if we can find out what it was, and some seeds of the Mimosa Farnesiena or Nilotica. the Mimosa Julibrisin or silk tree you were so kind as to send me is now safe here, about 15. I. high. I shall carry it carefully to Monticello. I will not trouble you for the paper Mulberry mr Maine having supplied me with 12. or 15. which are now growing at Monticello. your collection is really a noble one, & in making & attending to it you have deserved well of your country. when I become a man of leisure I may be troublesome to you. perhaps curiosity or health may lead you into the neighborhood of Monticello some day, where I should be very happy to recieve you & be instructed by you how to overcome some of it’s difficulties. I salute you with great friendship & respect.”

*[[Jefferson, Thomas]], July 14, 1808, in a letter to Monsieur de la Cépèd (1944: 373)<ref name="Jefferson 1944">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the meantime, the plants of which he [Governor Lewis] brought seeds, have been very successfully raised in the [[botanical garden]] of Mr. Hamilton of [[the Woodlands]], and by [[Bernard M’Mahon|Mr. McMahon]], a gardener of Philadelphia.”

*[[Bernard M’Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], January 3, 1809, letter from Philadelphia to [[Thomas Jefferson]] (quoted in Long 1991: 149)<ref>Letter from Bernard M'Mahon to Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson Papers, Library of Congress, quoted in Long 1991, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have from time to time given Mr. Hamilton a great variety of plants, and altho’ he is in every respect a particular friend of mine, he never offered me one in return; and I did not think it prudent to ask him, lest it should terminate that friendship; as I well know his jealousy of any person’s attempt to vie with him, in a collection of plants.”

*<div id="Jefferson 2"></div>[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], May 7, 1809, in a letter from [[Monticello]] to William Hamilton<ref>Jefferson Papers, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-01-02-0158 ''Founders Online'', National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson 2_cite|back up to History]]
:“I have a grandson, Tho<sup>s</sup> J. Randolph, now at Philadelphia, attending the Botanical lectures of Doct<sup>r</sup> Barton, and who will continue there only until the end of the present course. altho’ I know that your goodness has indulged D<sup>r</sup> Barton with permission to avail himself of your collection of plants for the purpose of instructing his pupils, yet as my grandson has a peculiar fondness for that branch of the knolege of nature, & would wish, in vacant hours to pursue it alone, I am led to ask for him a permission of occasional entrance into your gardens, under such restrictions as you may think proper. I have so much experience of his entire discretion as to be able with confidence to assure you that nothing will recieve injury from his hands. I have desired him to deliver this to you himself, as well for the honor of personally presenting his respects to you, as of giving you assurances of the discreet use he will make of your indulgence. I have pressed upon him also to study well the style of your [[pleasure ground]]s, as the chastest model of gardening which I have ever seen out of England.”

*<div id="Martin"></div>Martin, William Dickinson, May 20, 1809, journal entry describing [[The Woodlands]] (1959: 34–36)<ref> William D. Martin, ''The Journal of William D. Martin: A Journey from South Carolina to Connecticut in the Year 1809'', ed. Anna D. Elmore (Charlotte, NC: Heritage House, 1959), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IIT5CQGQ view on Zotero]. This passage is reprinted in Oldschool 1809, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FDWRDFDT view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Martin_cite|back up to History]]
:“To the honour of the tasteful proprietor of this place it must be observed, that to him, we are indebted for having brought into this country, the Lombardy poplar, now so usefully ornamental to our cities, as well as our villas. To him we likewise owe the introduction of many other foreign trees, which now adorn our grounds, such as the Sycamore, the witch elm, the Tartarian Maple etc., etc. Altho’ much has been done to beautify this delightful [[seat]], much still remains to be done, for the perfecting it in all the capabilities which nature in her boundless profusion has bestowed. These improvements it is said, fill up the leisure moments, & form the most agreeable occupation of its possessor: and that he may long live to pursue this refined pleasure, must be the wish of the public at large, for to them, so much liberality has even been shown in the free access to the house & grounds, that of the enjoyment of the fruits of his care, & cultivated taste, it may be said truly, ''Non sibi sed aliis''.”

*Obituary of William Hamilton, June 8, 1813 (''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser'': 3)<ref>Obituary of William Hamilton, ''Poulson’s American Daily Advertiser'' 42, no. 11402 (June 8, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BKKEUXZU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“His noble mansion was for many years the resort of a very numerous circle of friends and acquaintances, attracted by the affability of his manners, and a frankness of hospitality, peculiar to himself, which made even strangers feel at once welcome, easy and happy in his society.
:“Mr. Hamilton was distinguished for good taste and judgment in the Fine Arts, as well as for a very general knowledge of botany.—The study of botany was the principal amusement of his life.—He was engaged in extensive correspondence with persons of celebrity in the same pursuit, in distant countries, as well as in the United States, and in an interchange with them of whatever was rare, or useful in that part of natural history.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0828.jpg|William Hamilton, Plan for [[Kitchen Garden]] and [[Orchard]], June 1790.

Image:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''[[The Woodlands]] From the Bridge at Gray’s Ferry'', c. 1792–94, in Beth C. Wees and Medill H. Harvey, ''Early American Silver in the Metropolitan Museum of Art'' (2013), 259.

Image:0827.jpg|William Groombridge, ''[[The Woodlands]], the Seat of William Hamilton, Esq.,'' 1793.

File:2118.jpg|Charles Drayton I, Sketch of [[The Woodlands]], Seat of William Hamilton, in the Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806.

Image:0304.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[The Woodlands|Woodlands]], the Seat of Mr. Wm. Hamilton, Pennsylva.,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), 69, pl. 14.

File:2114.jpg|Pavel Petrovich Svinin, ''View of Morrisville, General Moreau’s Country House in Pennsylvania, Possibly [[The Woodlands]], Pennsylvania'', c. 1811—13.

Image:0051.jpg|William Strickland, “[[The Woodlands]],” 1809, in the ''Casket'' 5 (Oct. 1830): 432.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://woodlandsphila.org/william-hamilton The Woodlands Official Website]

[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/no2015064460.html Library of Congress Authority File]

[http://founders.archives.gov/search/Author%3A%22Hamilton%2C%20William%22 Founders Online]

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

<hr>

[[Category:People|Hamilton, William]]

Botanic garden

2019-06-17T15:49:16Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ fixed M'Mahon link

(Botanical garden, Botanick garden) <br/>
See also: [[Nursery]]

==History==

[[File:0425.jpg|thumb|258px|left|Fig. 1, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.]]
Treatises indicate that the primary object of the botanic garden was to serve the science of botany, the study of plants. The collection and organization of living plants growing in a garden provided a living laboratory for observers’ experimentation. To promote study, botanic gardens were generally arranged according to a classification system that created groupings of plants based on certain scientific principles; generally, in antebellum America, the Linnaean and Jussieu’s natural systems of taxonomic nomenclature were used. The botanic garden as a garden type was encouraged and stimulated by the transatlantic exchange of botanical information and material.
[[File:0701.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Lewis Miller]], Botanic garden at Princeton College, 1847, in ''Lewis Miller, Sketches and Chronicles'' (1966), p. 134.]]

From the earliest period of colonization, European collectors, nurserymen, and natural scientists contracted agents in the New World to establish botanic gardens and to send specimens back to Europe. These gardens, such as the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] in Philadelphia and those of [[François André Michaux]] in Bergen, New Jersey, and Charleston, South Carolina, acted as collecting sites for native plants, as well as centers for the introduction of plants into America. Many early American botanic gardens were associated with medical schools or universities [Fig. 1]. The gardens of Columbia College in New York, Harvard, the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton College [Fig. 2], and the University of South Carolina, for example, were all founded within the first two decades of the 19th century.

[[File:0861.jpg|thumb|255px|left|Fig. 3, William Dandridge Peck, Plan of the botanic garden of Mr. Curtis, Newbury, MA, February 19, 1805.]]
Other botanic gardens were privately owned and exemplified not only the pursuit of science but also the passion for collecting that characterized the Enlightenment [Fig. 3]. The network of early botanical collectors in America included the most prominent members of the ruling elite. They carried on an exchange of plants and botanical knowledge that involved an international network of plant collectors and botanists. One of the finest collections in the colonial and early republican eras was located at [[William Hamilton|William Hamilton's]] [[seat]], [[The Woodlands]], near Philadelphia, built between 1779 and 1789. [[Manasseh Cutler|Manasseh Cutler]], upon whom we rely for many descriptions of early American gardens, reported that “there was not a rare plant in Europe, Asia, Africa, from China and the islands in the South Sea, of which [Hamilton] had any account which he had not procured.”<ref>Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co, 1888), 2:145, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J2DCEB82 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Washington_cite"></span>At [[Mount Vernon]], [[George Washington]] used the phrase “botanical garden” to refer to that part of his garden where he experimented with rare plants ([[#Washington|view citation]]).
[[File:1269.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Solomon Drowne, Detailed plan of a botanic garden at Brown University, n.d.]]

Cities, towns, and the federal government attempted to establish botanic gardens for economic reasons, as well as to promote civic or national pride. Such gardens were built from Boston to Florida promoting these goals. Numerous records document the utility of these garden types in the development of agriculture, medicine, and horticulture.

The physical design of botanic gardens included simple rectangular [[bed]]s that were divided into regular sections or rows, as in the plan of the garden of [[Solomon Drowne]] at Brown University [Fig. 4]. They could also be characterized by complex combinations of designed [[pleasure ground]]s with collections of botanically arranged plants, as in [[Robert Mills|Robert Mills's]] designs of 1841 of the [[National Mall|Mall]]. Another category of botanic garden was the commercial [[nursery]]. Several examples, such as the [[Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nurseries]], Flushing, New York (1771–1871), and [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], Brooklyn, New York (1826), offered a wide variety of exotic plants as well as garden displays to attract the consumer.

During the course of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the botanic garden was influenced by an increasing taste for the [[natural style]] of landscape design, as well as the interest in [[public garden]]s and [[park]]s. [[André Parmentier|Parmentier’s]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]] was famous for its presentation of a scientific collection in the most [[modern style]] with great taste. By the mid-19th century, these trends led to a shift in the nature of the institution so that botanic gardens became emphatically oriented as much toward the education and entertainment of the public and beautification of the site as toward the advancement of botany. This transformation is exemplified in the history of the [[National Mall|Mall]], which was the site of a succession of botanic gardens dating from the earliest plans for the new capital city.<ref>Therese O’Malley, “‘A Public Museum of Trees’: Mid-Nineteenth Century Plans for the Mall,” in ''The Mall in Washington 1791–1991'', ed. Richard Longstreth (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1991), 60–76.</ref>

—''Therese O'Malley''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

*Middleton, Dr. Peter, 1769, regarding the establishment of a botanic garden in New York, NY (quoted in Hosack 1811: 5)<ref name="Hosack">David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, Or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801'', 2nd ed. (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As this continent yields most of the medical plants now in use, and abounds also with a variety of others, whose qualities we are as yet but little acquainted with, or entire strangers to; may we not hope, that among the future literary institutions in this place, a teacher of botany will soon be appointed, and a '''botanical garden''' laid out, and properly furnished?"

[[File:0069.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Samuel Vaughan, Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787.]]
*<div id="Washington"></div>[[George Washington|Washington, George]], 1785 and 1786, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of [[George Washington]], Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:161, 308, 350)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Washington_cite|back up to History]]

:“[8 and 13 July] Sowed one half the Chinese Seed given me by Mr. Porter and Doctr. Craik, in three rows in the Section next the Quarter (in my '''Botanical garden''') beginning in that part next the garden [[Wall]], and at the end next the Middle [[Walk]]. . . .

:“[11 April 1786] In the Section in my '''botanical garden''', next the House nearest the circle, I planted 4 Rows of the laurel berries in the grd. where, last year I had planted the Physic nuts &ca.—now dead & next to these in the same section are [ ] rows of the pride of China. The Rows of both these kinds are 16 inches asunder & the Seeds 6 inches apart in the Rows. . . .

:“[19 June] A Monsr. [[François André Michaux|Andri Michaux]]—a Botanest sent by the Court of France to America (after having been only 6 Weeks returned from India) came in a little before dinner with letters of Introduction & recommendation from the Duke de Lauzen, & [[Marquis de Lafayette|Marqs. de la Fayette]] to me. He dined and returned afterwards to Alexandria on his way to New York, from whence he had come; and where he was about to establish a '''Botanical garden'''.” [Fig. 5]

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:257–58)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“He [[Benjamin Rush|[Benjamin Rush]]] observed that they were endeavoring to raise a fund for establishing a '''Botanical Garden''' in that city, which he hoped they should be able to effect, and assured me that I was the only person who had been in nomination to take the superintendency, and give the Botanical lectures to the students in Physics of the University.”

*New York Agricultural Society, 1794, regarding the establishment of a botanic garden at Columbia College, New York, NY (quoted in Hosack 1811: 6)<ref name="Hosack"></ref>

:“The establishment of a garden is nearly connected with the professorship of botany under the college, and the lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A '''botanical garden''' is not only one of the most useful and most important of public improvements, but it also comprises within a small compass the history of the vegetable species of our own country; and by the introduction of exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true theory of nutrition and manures is such an interesting desideratum, a '''botanic garden''' may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a '''botanic garden''', under the direction of the society, or of the college, with a [[view]] to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision: to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

[[File:1162.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard Botanic Garden, c. 1807.]]
*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Cambridge, MA (1821: 1:483)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels; in New-England and New-York'', 4 vols. (New Haven: T. Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHBP7TH2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the year 1805, $30,833 were raised in Boston, and the other wealthy towns in this vicinity, for the establishment of a '''Botanic garden''', and professorship. The Professor has been chosen, and inducted into office. His official title is professor of Natural History. I know not whether the garden has been begun.” [Fig. 6]

*[[François André Michaux|Michaux, François André]], 1802, describing the botanic garden of François André Michaux, near Charleston, SC (1805: 12–14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains, in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As soon as I had recovered, I quitted Charlestown, and went to live at a small house, ten miles from the city, where my father had formed a '''botanic garden'''. Here he had collected and cultivated with great care the plants which he found in the long and fatiguing journeys which his ardent love of science made him take, almost every year, through the different countries of America. . . . At my arrival in Carolina, I found, in this garden, a beautiful collection of trees and plants of the country, which had survived an almost total neglect, for four years. I also found a great number of trees from the old continent, which my father had planted there, some of which gave marks of the most vigorous vegetation. . . . The agricultural society of Carolina are now in possession of this garden, which they propose to continue, and to cultivate in it those useful vegetables of the old continent, which, from the resemblance of climate, promises a chance of success.”

*Anonymous, November 25, 1805, describing the Museum Naturae, Norfolk, VA (''Norfolk Gazette and Publick Ledger'')

:“MUSEUM NATURÆ, ''of Norfolk and Portsmouth''. . . .

:“'''Botanical Garden''', containing specimens of all the vegetable productions of this country, and furnished with [[greenhouse|green-houses]], for all such exotick and rare plants, as may be procured from abroad. . . .

:“He takes the liberty of soliciting the aid and assistance of the Inhabitants of this State, for the speedy increase of the collections, by favouring his infant institution with all such natural productions and curiosities, as they may have in their possession, and have no particular use for: whether Animals, living or dead; Vegetables, or Minerals. Every object thus proffered, will be carefully preserved, with the name of the donor thereof; and will serve as a lasting proof of his taste and love for Arts and Science, and of his liberality towards the Institution.

:“Subscriptions for the forwardness and increase of this undertaking, at the rate of 25 dollars . . . are still solicited and received at the Museum.”

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1806, describing [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (1806: 3–6)<ref>David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a '''Botanic Garden''' in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance.

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.
:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic. [Fig. 7]

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“It is also my intention to introduce, from different parts of the world, such plants as are most useful in agriculture, in medicine, and the arts, and to ascertain which of them are capable of being naturalized to our soil and climate. There is no doubt that our agriculture may be much improved by the introduction of many foreign grasses and other plants cultivated as food for cattle; and many valuable additions may be made to our tables, by the importation of the best fruits and vegetables of foreign countries.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement, a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their qualities and uses. For this purpose the grounds will be divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties; and these again will be arranged so as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, the sexual system of [[Carl Linnaeus|''Linnaeus'']], and the natural orders of ''Jussieu''. . . .

:“A '''Botanic Garden''', therefore, while it proves useful to society, and contributes to the improvement of science, cannot fail to enhance the reputation of the Medical School of New-York. This, and similar considerations, it is to be presumed, will induce the Legislature of the State, at a future day, to extend its patronage and protection to an institution the first of its kind that has been attempted in the United States.*

:“*I learn, with pleasure, that a '''Botanic Garden''' is proposed to be established near Boston, and connected with the University of Cambridge. . . . Another is also begun at Charleston (South-Carolina), and a third is contemplated in New-Jersey, in connection with the College of Princeton.”

*Anonymous, May 11, 1807, describing a botanic garden in Charleston, SC (''Charleston Courier'')

:“'''''Botanick Garden''' of South-Carolina''.—This excellent establishment has succeeded beyond the expectations of the projectors; and from the liberal support which it is daily receiving, it becomes more valuable and more generally useful. If we take into consideration the infancy of the institution, it has to boast of as large a collection of plants, as any garden in the United States, and it is peculiarly rich in rare and valuable exoticks. An opportunity is now offered to the lovers of science, to acquire a knowledge of the most beautiful and interesting of the works of nature. The Florist may be gratified with viewing the productions of the remotest clime, and the Medical Botanist with the objests [''sic''] of his study.

:“The expense of contributing to the support of this excellent national institution, is so very trifling, that almost every person can afford it. ''Four Dollars'' a year is an inconsiderable sum when compared with the usefulness of the establishment. The garden is at a convenient distance from the city, and affords an agreeable recreation both to those who visit it merely for amusement, and who seek it for information.

:“We have just been informed, that the committee, knowing the difficulty of procuring Medical Herbs, when sickness may render them peculiarly desirable, have determined to appropriate a part of the Garden, for the culture of ''Baum, Horehound, &c''. for the sole use of the subscribers. This will render the institution of general use to its supporters, who will likewise be supplied, at the proper season, with such plants and seeds as can be spared.”

[[File:0039_detail.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Charles Bulfinch]], ''Plan of Grounds adjacent to the Capitol'' [detail], 1822. The "Botanic Garden" formed the large central triangle of the plan.]]
*Anonymous, 1808, proposal for a botanic garden, published in the ''Washington Expositor'' (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 102)<ref name="O'Malley">Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Within the limits of the federal [[seat]] there are large and ample reservations for [[public garden]]s and other national objects, which may advantageously be applied to the purposes of a '''botanical garden''', a public [[nursery]] and an agricultural farm.” [Fig. 8]

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 14, 1808, in a letter to Monsieur de la Cépèd, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1944: 373)<ref name="Jefferson 1944">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the meantime, the plants of which he [Governor Lewis] brought seeds, have been very successfully raised in the '''botanical garden''' of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamilton]] of [[The Woodlands|The Woodlands]], and by [[Bernard M’Mahon|Mr. McMahon]], a gardener of Philadelphia.”

*[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], January 3, 1809, describing a [[nursery]] and botanic garden in Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Jefferson 1944: 401)<ref name="Jefferson 1944"></ref>

:“Last month I purchased in the vicinity of this City [Philadelphia] 20 Acres of ground, well adapted for a [[Nursery]] & '''Botanic Garden''', and hope that, in a few years, I shall enrich that spot, and through it, in some measure, the country in general, with as extensive and useful a collection of vegetable productions, as can reasonably be expected from the small means of which I am possessed.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Twentieth House of Representatives, Legislative Committee Report, March 5, 1810, describing [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (quoted in Miller et al., eds., 1991: 3:24)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al, eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“By complying with the request of your memorialist, your committee are persuaded that the museum, which has acquired a deserved reputation in Europe, would greatly contribute to perserve [preserve] to Pennsylvania that distinguished rank amongst her sister states. . . .

:“And when your committee reflect that the state of New York has lately purchased for the use of the state, the excellent '''botanic garden''' formed by [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]], they flatter themselves the example will justify your committee in offering this extraneous remark.” [Fig. 9]

*[[Frederick Pursh|Pursh, Frederick]], 1814, describing [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (1814: xv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I was called upon to take the management of the '''Botanic Garden''' at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. . . . in 1807 [I] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.”

*Cutbush, Dr. Edward, June 1816, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 115)<ref name="O'Malley"></ref>

:“There is scarcely an art, science, or manufacture, which may not be benefited by this association; and should we be so fortunate as to succeed in establishing a '''botanical garden''', it may excite an emulation among the proprietors of the [[eminence]]s around our city, by inducing them to cultivate and adorn those beautiful heights with gardens; no city in the United States presents a greater assemblage of sublime [[view]]s; nothing is wanting but industry, public spirit, and population, to render them not only pleasing to the eye, but highly advantageous to this district.”

[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, in a letter to [[David Hosack]], describing the [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (1944: 578)<ref name="Jefferson 1944"></ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the '''Botanical''' or King’s '''garden''' at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the '''Botanical garden''' of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.” [Fig. 10]

[[File:0030.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, Map of the Columbian Institute’s plot for a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] on the [[national Mall|Mall]], 1820.]]
*Memorial of the Columbian Institute, December 1818, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 123)<ref name="O'Malley"></ref>

:“[[Columbian Institute|[Columbian Institute]] lottery for] enclosing the grounds, for the erection of their hall—their laboratory—their [[hothouse|hot]] and [[greenhouse|green houses]],—their library and museum, and for the cultivation of the '''botanic garden''', wherein they hoped ‘to soon present to the view of their fellow citizens specimens of all the plants of this middle region of our country, with others exotic and domestic . . . for the promotion of a great national object.’” [Fig. 11]

*[[Benjamin Guild|Guild, Benjamin]], September 20, 1823, “Botanic Garden” (''New England Farmer'' 2: 62)<ref>Benjamin Guild, “Botanic Garden,” ''New England Farmer'' 2, no. 8 (September 20, 1823): 62, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RM93DDBV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At a meeting of the board of visiters [''sic''] of the ''Massachusetts Professorship of Natural History'', September 13, 1823—

:“The Curator of the '''Botanic Garden''' stated, that George Brown, Esq. of Beverly, had presented to the Garden, a very interesting and extensive collection of seeds, and three large boxes of living plants, obtained by him from the royal garden at Rio Janeiro.”

*[[Henry Hunt|Hunt, Henry]], [[William P. Elliot]], and [[William Thornton]], 1826, committee requesting a Memorial to the House of Representatives of the Congress in Washington, DC (U.S. Congress, 19th Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, doc 123, book 138)

:“That, with a view to promote the public good, and to ornament and improve the [[public ground]]s, they would recommend . . . That a [[wall]] five feet high, with a stone coping, be put round the ground appropriated for a '''Botanic Garden'''; and that suitable buildings be erected, and the Garden be properly laid out, and cultivated as a National Garden; to effect which important national objects, a sum not exceeding 30,000 dollars will be required. . . . This National '''Botanic Garden''' may be used to raise all kinds of indigenous and exotic trees, shrubs, roots, grasses, &c. to be distributed to every part of the Union.”

[[File:0168.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Third variant for range and gardens, showing serpentine walls at the [[University of Virginia]], c. 1817–22.]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], August 3, 1826, describing plans for a botanic garden at the [[University of Virginia]], Charlottesville (1944: 596–97)<ref name="Jefferson 1944"></ref>

:“The '''botanical garden''', after being laid off under the direction of Dr. Emmett, to be pursued at all spare time.” [Fig. 12]

*Commissioner of Public Buildings, June 9, 1827, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 133)<ref name="O'Malley"></ref>

:“The '''Botanic Garden''' belonging to your Institute is so directly in [[view]] from the Capitol, that I hope to be pardoned for a remark in relation to the improvement of it. . . . I would be gratified by the location of the '''Botanic Garden''' in its present site from an expectation that it would become an ornamental appendage to the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]], and that under the eye of Congress they would be induced to foster it.”

*Anonymous, July 31, 1829, describing in the ''American Farmer'' the first semi-annual “Exhibition of Fruits, Flowers, and Plants” of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society at the Masonic Hall, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 44)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The recent exhibition collected together for a single day the fragrant and smiling offspring of the earth, in their richest odours and their gaudiest hues,—and then restored them to the possession of their public-spirited and generous proprietors. It afforded, however, a short and limited representation of what is hoped for in the continuing and extended charms of a '''Botanical Garden'''.”

*[[Benjamin Guild|Guild, Benjamin]], August 28, 1829, “Medical Botany, Horticulture Experiments, &c.,” describing plans for a botanic garden in Massachusetts (''New England Farmer'' 8: 46)<ref>Benjamin Guild, “Medical Botany, Horticulture Experiments, &c.,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 8, no. 6 (August 28, 1829): 46, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNDD2CNX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''At a meeting of the Board of Visitors of the Massachusetts Professorship of Natural History, held'' August 8, 1829,

:“VOTED, That the Curator of the '''Botanic Garden''' be requested to publish in the NEW ENGLAND FARMER, the results of any experiments he may have made in the raising of valuable medicinal and other plants, not generally cultivated in New England, and especially such as are now imported by druggists, and are costly, but which may be easily and extensively raised in this part of the United States; and that he state particularly any circumstances in regard to the choice of soil and situation which may be important. And also that he be requested to communicate from time to time to the public, through the same paper, any horticultural experiments of his own, or any information he may possess, the communication of which in his opinion would be useful, and that this be done under his own name as Curator of the '''Botanic Garden'''.”

[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]
*S., J. W., February 1832, “Foreign Notices: North America,” describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural and Botanical Garden]], Brooklyn, NY (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 70–71)<ref>J. W. S., “Foreign Notices: North America,” ''Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 36 (February 1832): 70–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69KZ93MG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . an account of one of the first '''botanic gardens''' which has ever been established in this country, viz. that of [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]], about two miles from Brooklyn, Long Island. The following map . . . will serve to convey some idea of the general disposition of the whole; but I am confident that neither plan nor description can furnish any adequate idea of the particular beauties of the place. Its establishment may, indeed, be looked upon as an epoch in the history of American horticulture; as, though the various branches of that science were before understood and practised by most of our gardeners, it had not attained its full perfection until the arrival of M. Parmentier. . ..the garden of M. [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]], is, perhaps, the most striking instance we have of all the different departments of gardening being combined extensively and with scientific skill. The rapidity with which this garden was formed added to its effect. Nearly twenty-five acres of ground were originally enclosed; and the inhabitants of the vicinity beheld, with astonishment, in the short space of three years, one of the most stony, rugged, sterile pieces of ground on the whole island, which seemed to bid defiance to the labours of man, stored with the most luxuriant fruit, and blooming with the most beautiful flowers.” [Fig. 13]

*[[William Wynne|Wynne, William]], June 1832, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia,” describing the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 272–73)<ref>William Wynne, “Some Account of the Nursery Gardens and the State of Horticulture in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia, with Remarks on the Subject of the Emigration of British Gardens to the United States,” '''Gardener’s Magazine and Register of Rural & Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 38 (June 1832): 272–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKN7ZG86 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I shall begin with [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|Bartram’s '''Botanic Garden''']]; the precedence being due to it, both for antiquity (it having been established 100 years), and from its containing the best collection of American plants in the United States. There are above 2000 species (natives) contained in a space of six acres, not including the fruit [[nursery]] and vineyard, which comprise eight acres. . . . Indeed, the most remarkable feature in this [[nursery]], and that which renders it superior to most of its class, is the advantage of possessing large specimens of all the rare American trees and shrubs; which are not only highly ornamental, but likewise very valuable, from the great quantities of seed they afford for exportation to London, Paris, Petersburgh, Calcutta, and several other parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. This garden is the regular resort of the learned and scientific gentlemen of Philadelphia.”

*[[Harriet Martineau|Martineau, Harriet]], 1835, describing Cambridge, MA (1838: 2:97)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“After refreshing ourselves with lemonade we set out for the '''Botanic Garden''', which is very prettily situated and well taken care of. Here I saw for the first time red water-lilies. None are so beautiful to my eyes as the white; but the red mix in well with these and the yellow in a large [[pond]]. There were some splendid South American plants; but the head gardener seemed more proud of his dahlias than of any other individual of his charge.”

*Columella [pseud.], March 1, 1838, “Experimental Farm and Garden” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 89)<ref>Columella [pseud.], “Experimental Farm and Garden,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 4 (March 1, 1838): 84–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JIWXDZFQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“By a union of the funds of the Massachusetts Agricultural and Horticultural Societies, and the Botanical Department of Harvard University, with the generous co-operation of the officers and members of these three institutions, as well as of the affluent, intelligent and liberal throughout the State, an establishment, of the character proposed, could be formed in the vicinity of Boston, which would do more to diffuse a knowledge of the science and art, and a taste for husbandry, gardening and botany, and to advance the general weal, than has been accomplished, or it is possible to effect, while each of these very valuable institutions is acting with limited means, and independent of the others.

:“There is a tract of land in Brookline, owned by the Hon. David Sears, and Ebenezer Francis, Esq., near the termination of the Western Avenue, where from one hundred and fifty to two hundred acres could be selected, remarkably well adapted for the various purposes of a spacious farm, and Horticultural and '''Botanical Gardens''' of Experiment. Its topographical features, and proximity to the capital, recommend it in preference [illegible] with a proper distance for the convenience of those persons who may be the most active in the foundation, and interested in the success of the establishment.”

*Anonymous, June 1, 1838, “Miscellaneous Matters,” describing a proposed botanic garden in Boston, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 239)<ref>Anonymous, “Miscellaneous Matters,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 4 (June 1, 1838): 238–39, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M4ZI5W8D view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''THE BOTANIC GARDEN'''.—A Meeting of the subscribers to the '''Botanic Garden''', to be established by consent of the city on the vacant lands west of Charles Street, fronting the [[common]], was held on Saturday afternoon, June third, and the subscription lists bearing a sufficient number of names and amount of money to warrant the immediate commencement of operations, the subscribers adopted a Constitution, and proceeded to the election of Five Trustees to represent them until the first Monday in October next, which was appointed as the day of annual meeting. The following gentlemen were chosen:
:HORACE GRAY, SAMUEL A. ELIOT,
:C. P. CURTIS, GEORGE DARRACOTT,
:J. E. TESCHEMACHER.
:“The amount already subscribed, is nearly $20,000. From the spirit manifested at the meeting, we feel confident that before the close of the season a commencement will have been made, and an exhibition of choice flowers presented to our citizens that shall delight and astonish them. The subscription lists are still open, and the advantage, to the subscriber of $100, to the corporate property, is the free admission of himself and household to the Gardens at any time during the hours that they are open. A barren waste will soon be converted into a delightful [[promenade]]—a paradise in miniature.—''Transcript''.”

*[[Alexander Gordon|Gordon, Alexander]], November 1, 1838, “Orange Groves of Florida” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 419)<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Orange Groves of Florida,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 4 (November 1, 1838): 417–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H6ASKCUG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At a former period St. Augustine could boast of a very extensive '''Botanic Garden'''. It was enclosed by a formidable stone [[wall]], and, I believe, established by Governor White. This place now serves for the ''pen of a herd of swine'', which, with the exception of a few ancient fruit trees, appear the only tenants of a spot once devoted to the choicest gifts of Flora.”

[[File:0033.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the Mall'', Washington, DC, 1841.]]
*[[Joel Roberts Poinsett|Poinsett, Joel Roberts]], 1841, describing the [[Smithsonian Institution|National Institute]], Washington, DC (1841: 33, 49)<ref>Joel R. Poinsett, ''Discourse, on the Objects and Importance of the National Institution for the Promotion of Science: Established at Washington, 1840, Delivered at the First Anniversary'' (Washington, DC: P. Force, Printer, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PH6GNAAP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It will be one of the most cherished objects of the [[Smithsonian Institute|National Institution]], to establish, at some future day, a [[botanic garden]], where plants of every country and every clime may be introduced, and their properties studied. . . .

:“There can be no doubt that a [[Smithsonian Institution|National Institution]], such as we contemplate, having at its command an [[observatory]], a museum containing collections of all the productions of nature, a '''botanic''' and zoological '''garden''', and the necessary apparatus for illustrating every branch of physical science, would attract together men of learning and students from every part of our country, would open new avenues of intelligence throughout the whole of its vast extent, and would contribute largely to disseminate among the people the truths of nature and the light of science.” [Fig. 14]

[[File:0034.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, [[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the [[Smithsonian Institution|National Institution]], Washington, DC, 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, in a letter to [[Joel Roberts Poinsett]], describing Mills’s design for the [[National Mall]], Washington, DC (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Agreeably to your requisition to prepare a plan of improvement to that part of the [[National Mall| Mall]] lying between 7th and 12th Street West for a '''botanic garden'''. . . I have the honor to submit the following Report. . . .

:“The principle upon which this plan is founded is two fold, one is to provide suitable space for a '''Botanic garden''', the other to provide locations for subjects allied to agriculture, the propagation of useful and ornamental trees native and foreign, the provision of sites for the erection of suitable buildings to accommodate the various subjects to be lectured on and taught in the Institution. . . .

:“The '''Botanic garden''' is laid out in the centre fronting and opening to the south. On each side of this the grounds are laid out in serpentine [[walk]]s and in [[picturesque]] divisions forming [[plat]]s for grouping the various trees to be introduced and creating shady [[walk]]s for those visiting the establishments. . . .

:“The main building for the [[Columbian Institution|Institution]] is located about 300 feet south of the [[wall]] fronting the '''Botanic garden''', from which it is separated by a circular road, in the centre of which is a [[fountain]] of water from the [[basin]] of which pipes are led underground thro' the [[walk]]s of the garden, for irrigating the same at pleasure, the [[fountain]]s may be supplied from the [[canal]] flowing near the north [[wall]] of inclosure.” [Fig. 15]

*[[Charles Pickering|Pickering, Charles]], February 4, 1843, describing the [[Cambridge Botanical Garden]], Cambridge, MA (Peabody Essex Institute, Phillips Library, Lee Family Papers, mss 129, box 1, folder 3)

:“I was on the point of making a final distribution of the Seeds of the Exploring Expedition. These were sixteen parcels destined to different parts of the United States, and I could not find it in my conscience to divert more than two of them to the vicinity of Boston, viz.—one, for the Cambridge '''Botanic Garden''', and the other for Mr. [[Thomas Lee]].”

*[[John Carroll Brent|Brent, John Carroll]], January 20, 1844, describing the [[Smithsonian Institution|National Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 175)<ref name="O'Malley"></ref>

:“I suggested that a choice '''botanical garden''', similar to that of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, should be established and placed under competent management. Our ministers, consuls and foreign agents, officers of the army and navy should be directed to make collections of plants and seeds, for the use of that garden, and the Smithsonian Fund be held ready to pay for their purchase and cost of transportation.”

*Owen, Robert Dale, 1846, describing the [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 177)<ref name="O'Malley"></ref>

:“The said managers shall appoint a professor of agriculture, horticulture, and rural economy; and the said professor may hire from time to time, so many gardeners, practical agriculturalists and laborers as may be necessary to cultivate the ground and maintain a '''botanical garden'''.

[[File:0056.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, John or William Bartram, ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.]]
*[[William Darlington|Darlington, William]], 1849, describing [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]], vicinity of Philadelphia, PA (1849: 18–19)<ref name="Darlington">William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“He [[John Bartram|[John Bartram]]] was, perhaps, the ''first Anglo-American'' who conceived the idea of establishing a [[Botanic Garden|BOTANIC GARDEN]] for the reception and cultivation of the various vegetables, natives of the country, as well as exotics, and of travelling for the discovery and acquisition of them.*

:“*The [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery|BARTRAM BOTANIC GARDEN]], (established in or about the year 1730,) is most eligibly and beautifully situated, on the right bank of the river Schuylkill, a short distance below the city of Philadelphia. Being the oldest establishment of the kind in this western world, and exceedingly interesting, from its history and associations,—one might almost hope, even in this utilitarian age, that, if no motive more commendable could avail, a feeling of ''state'' or ''city pride'', would be sufficient to ensure its preservation, in its original character, and for the sake of its original objects. But, alas! there seems to be too much reason to apprehend that it will scarcely survive the immediate family of its noble-hearted founder,—and that even the present generation may live to see the accumulated treasures of a century laid waste—with all the once gay [[parterre]]s and lovely [[border]]s converted into lumberyards and coal-landings.” [Fig. 16]

*[[William Darlington|Darlington, William]], 1849, describing botanic gardens in America (1849: 22)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“*The '''botanic garden''' at Charleston, S. C., was established about the year 1804; that by [[David Hosack | DR. HOSACK]], at New York, in 1801; and that at Cambridge, in or about the year 1805. The first two, it is believed, have wholly disappeared. The last-named, now under the skilful supervision of Professor A. GRAY, is in a flourishing condition; and bids fair, if supported by an adequate endowment, to be a perennial monument of the liberality and love of science, of those who projected it.”

*[[William Darlington|Darlington, William]], 1849, describing [[Humphry Marshall’s Botanic Garden]], West Chester, PA (1849: 488)<ref name="Darlington"></ref>

:“The '''''Botanic Garden''''', at Marshallton, was planned and commenced in the year 1773, and soon became the recipient of the most interesting trees and shrubs of our country, together with many curious exotics; and also of a numerous collection of our native herbaceous plants. A large portion of these yet survive, although the garden, from neglect, has become a mere [[wilderness]]; while a number of our noble forest trees, such as Oaks, Pines, and Magnolias (especially the ''Magnolia acuminata''), all planted by the hands of the venerable founder, have now attained to a majestic altitude.”

[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, [[''Elgin Botanic Garden'']], c. 1810.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing botanic gardens in America (1850: 334)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening,'' new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“858. ''The American government'' has shown itself not insensible to the advantages of encouraging among its subjects a feeling for other pursuits than those connected with mere mercantile speculations. Seated in a country rich beyond all others in stores of botanical wealth, it would have been indeed surprising if the study of botany had not been among the first of those objects which the American government felt itself bound to patronise. Accordingly, we find '''botanic gardens''' and professorships attached to the American universities, and expeditions fitted out for the purpose of making scientific discoveries. . . . (''Gard. Mag''., vol. i. p. 52.). . . .

:“859. . . . There were in America, at an early period, men who recommended the necessity of instituting '''botanic gardens''', as [[Cadwallader Colden|Lieutenant-Governor Colden]] and Dr. Middleton of New York, in 1769; and, upon the revival of the medical school in Columbia College, in 1792, a chair of botany was established, and Dr. [[Samuel Latham Mitchell|Mitchel]] was appointed professor. [[David Hosack | Dr. Hosack]] succeeded [[Samuel Latham Mitchell|Dr. Mitchel]]; and the result was, first, the latter professor’s establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] at his own expense, and afterwards government purchasing it of him for the benefit of the medical schools of New York; and it is now known as the New York '''Botanic Garden'''.

:“860. ''The '''Botanic Garden''' of New York'' contains twenty acres: the first catalogue was published in 1806, and the second in 1811, containing nearly 4000 species. (''Statement, &c., as to the Elgin Botanical Garden, by Dr. Hosack''. New York, 1811.). . . . [Fig. 17]

:“862. ''The '''Botanical Garden''' at Cambridge'', in the state of Massachusetts, was commenced, in 1801, by subscription. The object of the establishment is the promotion of knowledge in native and foreign plants useful in agriculture, horticulture, and medicine, as well as the encouragement of the sciences of botany and entomology. There being no competent knowledge in the country as to what were the wants of a '''botanic garden''', the professor, Peck, was sent to Europe, and returned with plans, and a collection of books. This garden suffered for some time from want of funds, and would long since have followed the fate of the Charleston [[public garden]], founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]] (which was purchased by the state at the price of 70,000 dollars), and would, like it, have been converted into a [[wilderness]], had not the visitors applied for and obtained the aid of the legislature. . . . (''New York Farmer'', vol. i., p. 185.). . . .

:“863. ''A '''botanic garden''' at Baltimore'' was commenced in 1830; and an extensive correspondence with the nurserymen and curators of [[botanic garden|botanic gardens]] in Europe will, it is hoped, soon procure for it a respectable collection. (''Gard. Mag''., vol. vii. p. 668.)"

[[File:0023.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, [[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851. Manuscript copy by Nathaniel Michler, 1867.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1851, describing plans for improving the public grounds in Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'', 47 (1967), 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6th: The '''Botanic Garden'''.

:“This is the spot already selected for this purpose and containing three [[green-house]]s. It will probably at some future time, be filled with a collection of hardy plants. I have only shown how the carriage-[[drive]] should pass through it (Crossing the [[canal]] again here) and making the exit by a large [[gate]]way opposite the middle [[gate]] of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] Grounds.” [Fig. 18]

===Citations===

[[File:1270.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, [[Solomon Drowne]], ''Botanic Garden, 1818'', 1818.]]
*[[Solomon Drowne|Drowne, Solomon]], c. 1810, ''Manuscript on Botany'' (Brown University, John Hay Library, Drowne Family Papers, typescript)

:“The advantageous application of botanical knowledge to Agriculture, to Gardening, Medicine, and other arts, is generally acknowledged. . . . Surely the study of Natural History may well occupy Some portion of the time of the rising generation, and it is to be hoped the Trustees of the University will see the prosperity of giving some substantial encouragement for its extension among us. . . . It is however, necessary to the progress of this Science, that the student should be supplied with actual and living specimens. The imperfection of language to give an adequate idea of any vegetable production must be generally admitted and the most beautiful & accurate drawings or engravings fall so far short of that delicacy & minuteness of parts,—those peculiarities incident to its part or habit & growth, on which its scientific distinctions depend; that it is only from living plants we can hope to obtain those distinctions which are necessary to discriminate these numerous productions, or to extend the limits of science itself. How important then must be the advantages of a [[Botanic garden]] properly laid out, and supplied with every beautiful production of vegetable nature which this country abundantly affords. To unbend the mind from studies, and renovate the habituated faults and corporeal powers, by withdrawing at times from the busy scenes of life,—those confining occupations, which, however lucrative, induce obstinate maladies,—is worth the endeavours of the wise. And what place so fit for exercise and innocent recreation as a garden furnished with a pleasing variety of plants. . . . it must be admitted that the plan & disposal of a [[Botanic garden]] do not necessarily preclude elegance of design nor beauty of arrangement. To walk amid so many species of plants, assembled from different Countries, and inhale their rich perfumes; to mark their varied forms, apprized of the healing virtues of some, and of the beneficial purposes for which all were ordained,—must to the contemplative mind afford no common gratification.” [Fig. 19]

[[File:1352.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of botanic flower garden with a circular walk, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 801, fig. 553.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 800, 1030)<ref> J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6126. ''The '''botanic''' flower-'''garden''''' being intended to display something of the extent and variety of the vegetable kingdom, as well as its resemblances and differences, should obviously be arranged according to some system or method of study. In modern times, the choice is almost limited to the artificial system of [[Carl Linnaeus|''Linneaus'']], and the natural method of Jussieu, though Adanson has given above fifty-six different methods by which plants may be arranged. . . . Whatever method is adopted, the plants may either be placed in regular rows, or each order may be grouped apart, and surrounded by turf or gravel. For a private [[botanic garden]], the mode of grouping on turf is much the most elegant. . . .

:“7323. '''''Botanic gardens'''''. The primary object of [[botanic garden|botanic gardens]] is to exhibit a collection of plants for the improvement of botanical science; a secondary object to exhibit living specimens of such plants as are useful in medicine, agriculture, and other arts; and a third is, or ought to be, the acclimating of foreign plants, and their dissemination over the country. In choosing a situation for a [[botanic garden]], the leading object must be proximity to the town, city, or university to which it is to belong; and the next, if attainable, a variety of surface and soil, to aid the necessary formation of composts and aspects for different plants. . ..As the leading object or feature in the [[view]] of a [[botanic garden]] is the range of [[hothouse | hot-house]]s; and as these must always face the south, it is generally desirable that ground on the north side of the principal public street or road by which it is to be approached, should be preferred to ground on the south side.

:“7325. ''The form'' of a [[botanic garden]] is a matter of very little consequence: where the extent is small, a [[square]] or parallelogram may undoubtedly be made to contain most plants; but where it exceeds four or five acres, any form will answer; and, indeed, if there is a sufficient quantity of ground, the more irregular the form, so much the more variety will there be in the circumferential [[walk]]s of the garden.” [Fig. 20]

*[[Noah Webster | Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“BOTAN'IC, BOTAN'ICAL, ''a''. [See ''Botany''.] Pertaining to botany; relating to plants in general; also, containing plants, as a '''''botanic'' garden'''.”

*[[H. A. S. Dearborn|Dearborn, H. A. S.]], September 19, 1829, ''An Address, Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16)<ref>H. A. S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[greenhouse|Green House]]s, the '''Botanical''' and Medical '''Garden''', and Landscape, or [[Picturesque]] Gardening.”

*[[Jane Loudon| Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 133)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.—A garden devoted to the culture of plants with a [[view]] to botanical science; and in which the plants are arranged according to some system, only one of a kind is planted, and a name appended to each. The most convenient mode for study is to place the plants in straight rows of narrow [[beds]], one row in a [[bed]], with a narrow path between; but the best mode for effect is to place them in groups of one order, tribe, or genus in a group. These groups have the best effect when of a circular form, and when placed on a [[lawn]]. The position of the groups relatively to each other should be such as to correspond with the botanical system followed.”

*[[Noah Webster | Webster, Noah]], 1848, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1848: 139)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language . . . Revised and Enlarged by Chauncey A. Goodrich . . .'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBZ5Z7ET view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''BO-TAN'IC, BO-TAN'IC-AL,''' ''a''. [See BOTANY.] Pertaining to botany; relating to plants in general; also, containing plants; as, a '''''botanic garden'''''.

:“'''''Botanic garden''''': a garden devoted to the culture of plants, collected for the purpose of illustrating the science of botany.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, "View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

File:2160.jpg|John Diamond, ''Plat of a Tract of Land Called French Botanic Gardens Containing 120 Acres Located in Goose Creek Parish'', September 1816.

Image:0039.jpg|[[Charles Bulfinch]], ''Plan of Grounds adjacent to the Capitol'', 1822. "Botanic Garden" is in the middle of the plan, in front of the Capitol.

Image:0721.jpg|Abel Bowen, “Boston and Environs,” in Caleb H. Snow, ''A History of Boston'' (1825), opp. p. 388. “Botanic G” inscribed at top left.

image:1352.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of botanic flower garden with a circular walk, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 801, fig. 553.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836. “Botanic Garden” is west of the Capitol.

Image:0425.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the Mall'', Washington, DC, 1841. “[W]ith a view to a Botanic Garden.”

Image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7 (November 1841): 404.

Image:0701.jpg|[[Lewis Miller]], Botanic garden at Princeton College, 1847, in ''Lewis Miller, Sketches and Chronicles'' (1966), p. 134. “. . . went . . . to the Botanic garden.”

Image:1111.jpg|Henry Clay Blinn, ''Plan of Canterbury'', 1848. See detail.

Image:1111_detail.jpg|Henry Clay Blinn, ''Plan of Canterbury'' [detail], 1848.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan showing proposed method of laying out the public grounds at Washington'', 1851. “Botanic Garden” inscribed at left.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851. Manuscript copy by Nathaniel Michler, 1867.
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1269.jpg|[[Solomon Drowne]][, Detailed plan of a botanic garden at Brown University, n.d.

Image:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], ''A Draught of John Bartram’s House and Garden as it appears from the River'', 1758.

Image:0239.jpg|Christian Gottlieb Reuter, ''Der UpLand Gartten'', 1759.

Image:1944.jpg|Christian Gottlieb Reuter, ''Hortus Medicus'', 1761.

Image:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787.

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792.

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:0861.jpg|William Dandridge Peck, Plan of the [[botanic garden]] of Mr. Curtis, Newbury, Mass., February 19, 1805.

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s [[Green house]]s'', [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], June 1806.

Image:1162.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard [[Botanic Garden]], c. 1807.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden]]'', c. 1810.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden|Elgin Garden]] on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:0035.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Plan of the Capitol grounds, 1815.

Image:0168.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Third variant for range and gardens, showing serpentine walls at the [[University of Virginia]], c. 1817–22.

Image:1270.jpg|Solomon Drowne, ''[[Botanic Garden]], 1818'', 1818.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the [[National Institution]], 1841.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0030.jpg|Anonymous, Map of the Columbian Institute’s plot for a botanical garden on the [[National Mall|Mall]], 1820.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden_Types]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T15:30:27Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ fixing punctuation in footnote

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 287: n.p.)<ref>Quoted in part in Victoria Johnson, ''American Eden: David Hosack, Botany, and Medicine in the Garden of the Early Republic'' (New York: Liveright, 2019), 229–30; B, “Botanic Garden: Letter from Mr. B to His Friends in Albany,” ''The Columbian,'' October 3, 1810, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7TQZT8DG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this [[Botanic Garden]], or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a [[Botanic Garden]]. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each [[gate]]. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in [[square]]s; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”

*Mr. D., October 15, 1810, defending the state acquisition of Elgin Botanic Garden from the points raised in the letter of Mr. B, above (''Columbian'' 297: n.p.)<ref>Quoted in part in Johnson 2019, 230; D, “Botanic Garden: Answers of Mr. D. of Albany, to Mr. B.’s Letter, on the Botanic Garden,” ''The Columbian,'' October 15, 1810, n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EWWDTGX6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my visit to New-York I have also prevailed on our mutual friend, Mr. W. to accompany me to the [[Botanic Garden]]; and here again I must differ from you entirely. The reason for this difference arises from our having formed different systems as to what ought to constitute a [[Botanic Garden]]. My idea of an establishment of that kind is, that it ought to comprehend useful trees, shrubs and plants, domestic, naturalized and exotic, arranged in a proper state for use and preservation, and with a view to display their qualities, characters, properties and uses to the best advantage. Jet d’eaus [''sic''], artificial [[cascade]]s, purling streams, mossy caverns, [[portico]]s, knolls, [[grotto]]s, griffons and dolphins vomiting forth water, are foreign from the nature of a Botanic establishment; and however pleasant they may be at a gentleman’s country [[seat]], or in a [[pleasure garden]], yet surely nothing is more ridiculous than to require them in a scientific institution. I perceive, my friend, that your prolific imagination was teeming with the [[arbor]]s, and [[Summerhouse|summer-houses]], and mead and cakes, and ice creams, of our far-famed Columbia Gardens on the Hill of Albany; and that you were dreaming of the fire-works, rockets and vertical suns, and water bells, and other ingenious contrivances, of monsieur Delacroix; and that your fancy was even insensibly tinctured with the mossy [[seat]]s, umbrageous [[arbor]]s, and sunny banks of the celebrated garden of ''Petit Paphos''; or most assuredly you would not have faulted the poor [[Botanic Garden]] for not being an ornamental garden, or for not being laid out into elegant [[walk]]s like the ''Leasowes'' of ''Shenstone'', or the ''Twickenham'' of ''Pope''. I observe that you have drawn freely upon lord ''Orford''’s ideas of gardening, which, however just when properly applied, cease to be so when irrelevant. When I visited the garden, I did not exclaim in the language of reprobation, ‘Here is no reading-room like ''Cook''’s, no cabinet of natural history like ''Trowbridge''’s, no baths like ''M’Donald''’s, no museum like ''Scudder''’s, no water-works like ''Corre''’s, no fireworks like ''Delacroix''’s, no city library, no serpentine rivers, no chateaus, no steeples, no men in the moon.’ But I took a view of the grounds; I found them well laid out for the growth and preservation of the vegetables which occupied them, furnished with a great variety and assortment to the value of 12,000 dollars, and which the state is to receive gratuitously. I also observed [[Greenhouse|green-houses]] and [[Hothouse|hot-houses]] of great extent and expense, and extremely well calculated to protect them against cold and moisture. In short, I discovered the greatest collection of valuable vegetables which I ever witnessed; and whether there were knolls or [[grotto]]s, I did not indeed take the trouble to inquire; for which sin of omission I must most humbly crave your indulgence.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

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==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

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==Map==
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}}

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==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T15:27:35Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ adding footnote citation to second columbian article

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 287: n.p.)<ref>Quoted in part in Victoria Johnson, ''American Eden: David Hosack, Botany, and Medicine in the Garden of the Early Republic'' (New York: Liveright, 2019), 229–30; B, “Botanic Garden: Letter from Mr. B to His Friends in Albany,” ''The Columbian,'' October 3, 1810, n.p. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7TQZT8DG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this [[Botanic Garden]], or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a [[Botanic Garden]]. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each [[gate]]. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in [[square]]s; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”

*Mr. D., October 15, 1810, defending the state acquisition of Elgin Botanic Garden from the points raised in the letter of Mr. B, above (''Columbian'' 297: n.p.)<ref>Quoted in part in Johnson 2019, 230; D, “Botanic Garden: Answers of Mr. D. of Albany, to Mr. B.’s Letter, on the Botanic Garden,” ''The Columbian,'' October 15, 1810.[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EWWDTGX6 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my visit to New-York I have also prevailed on our mutual friend, Mr. W. to accompany me to the [[Botanic Garden]]; and here again I must differ from you entirely. The reason for this difference arises from our having formed different systems as to what ought to constitute a [[Botanic Garden]]. My idea of an establishment of that kind is, that it ought to comprehend useful trees, shrubs and plants, domestic, naturalized and exotic, arranged in a proper state for use and preservation, and with a view to display their qualities, characters, properties and uses to the best advantage. Jet d’eaus [''sic''], artificial [[cascade]]s, purling streams, mossy caverns, [[portico]]s, knolls, [[grotto]]s, griffons and dolphins vomiting forth water, are foreign from the nature of a Botanic establishment; and however pleasant they may be at a gentleman’s country [[seat]], or in a [[pleasure garden]], yet surely nothing is more ridiculous than to require them in a scientific institution. I perceive, my friend, that your prolific imagination was teeming with the [[arbor]]s, and [[Summerhouse|summer-houses]], and mead and cakes, and ice creams, of our far-famed Columbia Gardens on the Hill of Albany; and that you were dreaming of the fire-works, rockets and vertical suns, and water bells, and other ingenious contrivances, of monsieur Delacroix; and that your fancy was even insensibly tinctured with the mossy [[seat]]s, umbrageous [[arbor]]s, and sunny banks of the celebrated garden of ''Petit Paphos''; or most assuredly you would not have faulted the poor [[Botanic Garden]] for not being an ornamental garden, or for not being laid out into elegant [[walk]]s like the ''Leasowes'' of ''Shenstone'', or the ''Twickenham'' of ''Pope''. I observe that you have drawn freely upon lord ''Orford''’s ideas of gardening, which, however just when properly applied, cease to be so when irrelevant. When I visited the garden, I did not exclaim in the language of reprobation, ‘Here is no reading-room like ''Cook''’s, no cabinet of natural history like ''Trowbridge''’s, no baths like ''M’Donald''’s, no museum like ''Scudder''’s, no water-works like ''Corre''’s, no fireworks like ''Delacroix''’s, no city library, no serpentine rivers, no chateaus, no steeples, no men in the moon.’ But I took a view of the grounds; I found them well laid out for the growth and preservation of the vegetables which occupied them, furnished with a great variety and assortment to the value of 12,000 dollars, and which the state is to receive gratuitously. I also observed [[Greenhouse|green-houses]] and [[Hothouse|hot-houses]] of great extent and expense, and extremely well calculated to protect them against cold and moisture. In short, I discovered the greatest collection of valuable vegetables which I ever witnessed; and whether there were knolls or [[grotto]]s, I did not indeed take the trouble to inquire; for which sin of omission I must most humbly crave your indulgence.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

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==Map==
{{#display_map:
40.7586, -73.9788
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| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

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==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T15:23:24Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ adding footnote citation to first columbian article

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 287: n.p.)<ref>Quoted in part in Victoria Johnson, ''American Eden: David Hosack, Botany, and Medicine in the Garden of the Early Republic'' (New York: Liveright, 2019), 229–30; B, “Botanic Garden: Letter from Mr. B to His Friends in Albany,” ''The Columbian,'' October 3, 1810, n.p. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7TQZT8DG/q/botanic%20garden view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this [[Botanic Garden]], or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a [[Botanic Garden]]. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each [[gate]]. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in [[square]]s; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”

*Mr. D., October 15, 1810, defending the state acquisition of Elgin Botanic Garden from the points raised in the letter of Mr. B, above (''Columbian'' 297: n.p.)

:“During my visit to New-York I have also prevailed on our mutual friend, Mr. W. to accompany me to the [[Botanic Garden]]; and here again I must differ from you entirely. The reason for this difference arises from our having formed different systems as to what ought to constitute a [[Botanic Garden]]. My idea of an establishment of that kind is, that it ought to comprehend useful trees, shrubs and plants, domestic, naturalized and exotic, arranged in a proper state for use and preservation, and with a view to display their qualities, characters, properties and uses to the best advantage. Jet d’eaus [''sic''], artificial [[cascade]]s, purling streams, mossy caverns, [[portico]]s, knolls, [[grotto]]s, griffons and dolphins vomiting forth water, are foreign from the nature of a Botanic establishment; and however pleasant they may be at a gentleman’s country [[seat]], or in a [[pleasure garden]], yet surely nothing is more ridiculous than to require them in a scientific institution. I perceive, my friend, that your prolific imagination was teeming with the [[arbor]]s, and [[Summerhouse|summer-houses]], and mead and cakes, and ice creams, of our far-famed Columbia Gardens on the Hill of Albany; and that you were dreaming of the fire-works, rockets and vertical suns, and water bells, and other ingenious contrivances, of monsieur Delacroix; and that your fancy was even insensibly tinctured with the mossy [[seat]]s, umbrageous [[arbor]]s, and sunny banks of the celebrated garden of ''Petit Paphos''; or most assuredly you would not have faulted the poor [[Botanic Garden]] for not being an ornamental garden, or for not being laid out into elegant [[walk]]s like the ''Leasowes'' of ''Shenstone'', or the ''Twickenham'' of ''Pope''. I observe that you have drawn freely upon lord ''Orford''’s ideas of gardening, which, however just when properly applied, cease to be so when irrelevant. When I visited the garden, I did not exclaim in the language of reprobation, ‘Here is no reading-room like ''Cook''’s, no cabinet of natural history like ''Trowbridge''’s, no baths like ''M’Donald''’s, no museum like ''Scudder''’s, no water-works like ''Corre''’s, no fireworks like ''Delacroix''’s, no city library, no serpentine rivers, no chateaus, no steeples, no men in the moon.’ But I took a view of the grounds; I found them well laid out for the growth and preservation of the vegetables which occupied them, furnished with a great variety and assortment to the value of 12,000 dollars, and which the state is to receive gratuitously. I also observed [[Greenhouse|green-houses]] and [[Hothouse|hot-houses]] of great extent and expense, and extremely well calculated to protect them against cold and moisture. In short, I discovered the greatest collection of valuable vegetables which I ever witnessed; and whether there were knolls or [[grotto]]s, I did not indeed take the trouble to inquire; for which sin of omission I must most humbly crave your indulgence.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==
{{#display_map:
40.7586, -73.9788
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T14:53:14Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ added italics to second columbian article

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 1, no. 287: n.p.)

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this [[Botanic Garden]], or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a [[Botanic Garden]]. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each [[gate]]. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in [[square]]s; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”

*Mr. D., October 15, 1810, defending the state acquisition of Elgin Botanic Garden from the points raised in the letter of Mr. B, above (Columbian 1, no. 297: n.p.)

:“During my visit to New-York I have also prevailed on our mutual friend, Mr. W. to accompany me to the [[Botanic Garden]]; and here again I must differ from you entirely. The reason for this difference arises from our having formed different systems as to what ought to constitute a [[Botanic Garden]]. My idea of an establishment of that kind is, that it ought to comprehend useful trees, shrubs and plants, domestic, naturalized and exotic, arranged in a proper state for use and preservation, and with a view to display their qualities, characters, properties and uses to the best advantage. Jet d’eaus [''sic''], artificial [[cascade]]s, purling streams, mossy caverns, [[portico]]s, knolls, [[grotto]]s, griffons and dolphins vomiting forth water, are foreign from the nature of a Botanic establishment; and however pleasant they may be at a gentleman’s country [[seat]], or in a [[pleasure garden]], yet surely nothing is more ridiculous than to require them in a scientific institution. I perceive, my friend, that your prolific imagination was teeming with the [[arbor]]s, and [[Summerhouse|summer-houses]], and mead and cakes, and ice creams, of our far-famed Columbia Gardens on the Hill of Albany; and that you were dreaming of the fire-works, rockets and vertical suns, and water bells, and other ingenious contrivances, of monsieur Delacroix; and that your fancy was even insensibly tinctured with the mossy [[seat]]s, umbrageous [[arbor]]s, and sunny banks of the celebrated garden of ''Petit Paphos''; or most assuredly you would not have faulted the poor [[Botanic Garden]] for not being an ornamental garden, or for not being laid out into elegant [[walk]]s like the ''Leasowes'' of ''Shenstone'', or the ''Twickenham'' of ''Pope''. I observe that you have drawn freely upon lord ''Orford''’s ideas of gardening, which, however just when properly applied, cease to be so when irrelevant. When I visited the garden, I did not exclaim in the language of reprobation, ‘Here is no reading-room like ''Cook''’s, no cabinet of natural history like ''Trowbridge''’s, no baths like ''M’Donald''’s, no museum like ''Scudder''’s, no water-works like ''Corre''’s, no fireworks like ''Delacroix''’s, no city library, no serpentine rivers, no chateaus, no steeples, no men in the moon.’ But I took a view of the grounds; I found them well laid out for the growth and preservation of the vegetables which occupied them, furnished with a great variety and assortment to the value of 12,000 dollars, and which the state is to receive gratuitously. I also observed [[Greenhouse|green-houses]] and [[Hothouse|hot-houses]] of great extent and expense, and extremely well calculated to protect them against cold and moisture. In short, I discovered the greatest collection of valuable vegetables which I ever witnessed; and whether there were knolls or [[grotto]]s, I did not indeed take the trouble to inquire; for which sin of omission I must most humbly crave your indulgence.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==
{{#display_map:
40.7586, -73.9788
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T14:47:52Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ fixing seats link in columbian article

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 1, no. 287: n.p.)

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this [[Botanic Garden]], or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a [[Botanic Garden]]. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each [[gate]]. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in [[square]]s; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”

*Mr. D., October 15, 1810, defending the state acquisition of Elgin Botanic Garden from the points raised in the letter of Mr. B, above (Columbian 1, no. 297: n.p.)

:“During my visit to New-York I have also prevailed on our mutual friend, Mr. W. to accompany me to the [[Botanic Garden]]; and here again I must differ from you entirely. The reason for this difference arises from our having formed different systems as to what ought to constitute a [[Botanic Garden]]. My idea of an establishment of that kind is, that it ought to comprehend useful trees, shrubs and plants, domestic, naturalized and exotic, arranged in a proper state for use and preservation, and with a view to display their qualities, characters, properties and uses to the best advantage. Jet d’eaus [sic], artificial [[cascade]]s, purling streams, mossy caverns, [[portico]]s, knolls, [[grotto]]s, griffons and dolphins vomiting forth water, are foreign from the nature of a Botanic establishment; and however pleasant they may be at a gentleman’s country [[seat]], or in a [[pleasure garden]], yet surely nothing is more ridiculous than to require them in a scientific institution. I perceive, my friend, that your prolific imagination was teeming with the [[arbor]]s, and [[Summerhouse|summer-houses]], and mead and cakes, and ice creams, of our far-famed Columbia Gardens on the Hill of Albany; and that you were dreaming of the fire-works, rockets and vertical suns, and water bells, and other ingenious contrivances, of monsieur Delacroix; and that your fancy was even insensibly tinctured with the mossy [[seat]]s, umbrageous [[arbor]]s, and sunny banks of the celebrated garden of Petit Paphos; or most assuredly you would not have faulted the poor [[Botanic Garden]] for not being an ornamental garden, or for not being laid out into elegant [[walk]]s like the Leasowes of Shenstone, or the Twickenham of Pope. I observe that you have drawn freely upon lord Orford’s ideas of gardening, which, however just when properly applied, cease to be so when irrelevant. When I visited the garden, I did not exclaim in the language of reprobation, ‘Here is no reading-room like Cook’s, no cabinet of natural history like Trowbridge’s, no baths like M’Donald’s, no museum like Scudder’s, no water-works like Corre’s, no fireworks like Delacroix’s, no city library, no serpentine rivers, no chateaus, no steeples, no men in the moon.’ But I took a view of the grounds; I found them well laid out for the growth and preservation of the vegetables which occupied them, furnished with a great variety and assortment to the value of 12,000 dollars, and which the state is to receive gratuitously. I also observed [[Greenhouse|green-houses]] and [[Hothouse|hot-houses]] of great extent and expense, and extremely well calculated to protect them against cold and moisture. In short, I discovered the greatest collection of valuable vegetables which I ever witnessed; and whether there were knolls or [[grotto]]s, I did not indeed take the trouble to inquire; for which sin of omission I must most humbly crave your indulgence.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==
{{#display_map:
40.7586, -73.9788
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T14:46:28Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ added second Columbian letter with links

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 1, no. 287: n.p.)

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this [[Botanic Garden]], or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a [[Botanic Garden]]. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each [[gate]]. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in [[square]]s; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”

*Mr. D., October 15, 1810, defending the state acquisition of Elgin Botanic Garden from the points raised in the letter of Mr. B, above (Columbian 1, no. 297: n.p.)

:“During my visit to New-York I have also prevailed on our mutual friend, Mr. W. to accompany me to the [[Botanic Garden]]; and here again I must differ from you entirely. The reason for this difference arises from our having formed different systems as to what ought to constitute a [[Botanic Garden]]. My idea of an establishment of that kind is, that it ought to comprehend useful trees, shrubs and plants, domestic, naturalized and exotic, arranged in a proper state for use and preservation, and with a view to display their qualities, characters, properties and uses to the best advantage. Jet d’eaus [sic], artificial [[cascade]]s, purling streams, mossy caverns, [[portico]]s, knolls, [[grotto]]s, griffons and dolphins vomiting forth water, are foreign from the nature of a Botanic establishment; and however pleasant they may be at a gentleman’s country [[seat]], or in a [[pleasure garden]], yet surely nothing is more ridiculous than to require them in a scientific institution. I perceive, my friend, that your prolific imagination was teeming with the [[arbor]]s, and [[Summerhouse|summer-houses]], and mead and cakes, and ice creams, of our far-famed Columbia Gardens on the Hill of Albany; and that you were dreaming of the fire-works, rockets and vertical suns, and water bells, and other ingenious contrivances, of monsieur Delacroix; and that your fancy was even insensibly tinctured with the mossy [[seats]], umbrageous [[arbor]]s, and sunny banks of the celebrated garden of Petit Paphos; or most assuredly you would not have faulted the poor [[Botanic Garden]] for not being an ornamental garden, or for not being laid out into elegant [[walk]]s like the Leasowes of Shenstone, or the Twickenham of Pope. I observe that you have drawn freely upon lord Orford’s ideas of gardening, which, however just when properly applied, cease to be so when irrelevant. When I visited the garden, I did not exclaim in the language of reprobation, ‘Here is no reading-room like Cook’s, no cabinet of natural history like Trowbridge’s, no baths like M’Donald’s, no museum like Scudder’s, no water-works like Corre’s, no fireworks like Delacroix’s, no city library, no serpentine rivers, no chateaus, no steeples, no men in the moon.’ But I took a view of the grounds; I found them well laid out for the growth and preservation of the vegetables which occupied them, furnished with a great variety and assortment to the value of 12,000 dollars, and which the state is to receive gratuitously. I also observed [[Greenhouse|green-houses]] and [[Hothouse|hot-houses]] of great extent and expense, and extremely well calculated to protect them against cold and moisture. In short, I discovered the greatest collection of valuable vegetables which I ever witnessed; and whether there were knolls or [[grotto]]s, I did not indeed take the trouble to inquire; for which sin of omission I must most humbly crave your indulgence.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==
{{#display_map:
40.7586, -73.9788
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T14:39:43Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ adding additional links to columbian letter

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 1, no. 287: n.p.)

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this [[Botanic Garden]], or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a [[Botanic Garden]]. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each [[gate]]. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in [[square]]s; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==
{{#display_map:
40.7586, -73.9788
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T14:32:13Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ fixing links in Columbian letter

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 1, no. 287: n.p.)

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountain]]s, and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this Botanic Garden, or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a Botanic Garden. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the [[Greenhouse|Green-house]] just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each gate. There is a small [[Kitchen Garden|culinary garden]] on the western side, laid out in the common way in squares; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[Greenhouse|green-house]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[Botanic Garden|''botanic'' garden]]. . . .”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==
{{#display_map:
40.7586, -73.9788
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T14:27:07Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ Adding links to Columbian text

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 1, no. 287: n.p.)

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive [[gate]]s, crowned with crouching lions; winding [[woods]] whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied [[grotto]]s, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous [[fountains]], and dolphins vomiting forth huge [[cascade]]s, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''[[Botanic Garden]]'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this Botanic Garden, or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘[[Orangerie|Orangery]]’ or [[Greenhouse]], which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a Botanic Garden. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the Green-house just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each gate. There is a small culinary garden on the western side, laid out in the common way in squares; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little [[portico]]s; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the [[green-house|Greenhouse]], which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:“Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the [[''botanic'' garden|Botanic Garden]]. . . .”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

<hr>

==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Map==
{{#display_map:
40.7586, -73.9788
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

Elgin Botanic Garden

2019-06-17T14:19:38Z

A-brey: /* Texts */ Fixing formatting of Columbian letter and reorganizing by date

The '''Elgin Botanic Garden''', established in 1801 in New York City by Dr. [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835), was a systematic arrangement of plants for scientific and pedagogical purposes. It served as a garden for teaching botany and materia medica at both the medical school of Columbia College and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It was located in the area that is now midtown Manhattan.

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Botanic Garden of the State of New York<br/>
'''Site Dates:''' 1801–1811<br/>
'''Site Owner(s):''' [[David Hosack]] (1769–1835); The State of New York; The College of Physicians and Surgeons; Columbia College<br/>
'''Associated People:''' Andrew Gentle (gardener); Frederick Pursh (1774–1820, gardener); Michael Dennison (seedsman)<br/>
'''Location:''': New York, NY<br/>
'''Condition:''' demolished<br/>

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0050.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.]]
While serving as professor of botany at Columbia College, Samuel Latham Mitchill proposed the development of a [[botanic garden]] in New York City to be administered either by the College or by New York’s Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures. As Mitchill explained in a report to the Society in 1794, a garden comprised of indigenous and imported plants <span id="Mitchill_cite"></span>would be “one of the genteelest and most beautiful of public improvements,” while also providing essential aid in the teaching of botany and the conducting of agricultural experiments ([[#Mitchill|view text]]).<ref>Significantly, when David Hosack later quoted Mitchill, he altered his words to emphasize the garden’s practicality, changing Mitchill’s phrase “genteelest and most beautiful” to “most useful and most important”; see David Hosack, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden: And the Subsequent Disposal of the Same to the State of New-York'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), 6, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Mitchill’s proposal reflects his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, where [[botanic garden]]s served as essential adjuncts to courses in botany and materia medica.<ref>Christine Chapman Robbins, ''David Hosack: Citizen of New York'' (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B51 view on Zotero].</ref> Although nothing came of his plan, the idea was revived by his successor, [[David Hosack]], another Edinburgh-educated physician, who was appointed professor of botany at Columbia in May 1795, and professor of materia medica two years later. In November 1797 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] informed the trustees of Columbia College that even his “large and very extensive collection of coloured [botanical] engravings” fell short of the pedagogic utility that a [[botanic garden]] would provide. <span id="1797_cite"></span>He therefore requested that “the professorship of botany and materia medica be endowed with a certain annual salary to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction” ([[#1797|view text]]). Despite agreeing with [[David Hosack|Hosack]] in principle, the trustees provided no funds. He next directed his request to the state legislature, but his letter of February 1800 requesting an annual stipend of £300 met with equally disappointing results.<ref>Hosack 1811, 7–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1136.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.]]
Finally, in 1801, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] resolved to take the matter into his own hands, personally financing the purchase of twenty acres of land in the countryside to the north of the city, between what is now 47th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues (an area that now includes Rockefeller Center) [Fig. 1].<ref>Hosack 1811, 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> Columbia College was then located four miles to the south in lower Manhattan, a distance that limited the garden’s practicality from the outset. In other respects, however, the situation was ideal. <span id="variegated_cite"></span>Hosack noted that “the view from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions” ([[#variegated|view text]]). He named the garden “Elgin” after his father’s birthplace in Scotland. Soon after purchasing the property, he wrote to “friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies [asking] for their plants.”<ref>David Hosack, letter of July 25, 1803, to Dr. Thomas Parke, Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Parke_cite"></span>In July 1803, while his collection was “yet small,” he made a similar request of the Philadelphia physician Thomas Parke, asking for his help in obtaining duplicate specimens of “rare and valuable plants” owned by their mutual friend [[William Hamilton]], as well as medicinal plants and a catalog from the [[Bartram Botanic Garden and Nursery]] ([[#Parke|view text]]). Dr. Parke had already provided [[David Hosack|Hosack]] with plans of the elaborate [[greenhouse]] with flanking [[hothouse]]s that [[William Hamilton|Hamilton]] built ten years earlier at [[The Woodlands]].<ref>Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Elegance_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] adopted roughly the same design and dimensions for the Elgin [[greenhouse]] complex, which he described as “constructed with great architectural taste and elegance” ([[#Elegance|view text]]). After completing the central block in 1803, [[David Hosack|Hosack]] added the [[hothouse]]s in 1806 and 1807. The artist John Trumbull documented the buildings in a drawing made in June 1806 [Fig. 2], probably as a study for the background of his portrait of [[David Hosack|Hosack]], presently known only through a related engraving [Fig. 3].
[[File:2052.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, Charles Heath after Thomas Sully and John Trumbull, ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.]]

<span id="Sketch_cite"></span>[[David Hosack|Hosack]] reportedly had “in cultivation at the commencement of 1805, nearly fifteen hundred American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics” ([[#Sketch|view text]]). <span id="Indies_cite"></span>The following year, when he published the first catalog of the garden, the number of plants had grown to nearly 2,000 species, with the “the greater part of [the twenty acres] . . . now in cultivation” ([[#Indies|view text]]). <span id="Jefferson_cite"></span> While continuing to collect plants with the aid of well-connected friends such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] ([[#Jefferson|view text]]), Hosack turned his attention to laying out the grounds, ensuring that they were not only “arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening,” but also according to scientific taxonomies and the conditions of climate and terrain best suited to each plant.<ref>David Hosack, ''Description of the Elgin Garden, The Property of David Hosack, M.D.'' (New York: The author, 1810), 1–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> By 1810 when he published his ''Description of the Elgin Garden'', [[David Hosack|Hosack]] had carried out the plan outlined in his 1806 ''Catalogue'' of encircling the garden with a “belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.” This “judiciously chequered and mingled” collection was comprised of “the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar.” In front of these trees a “similarly varied collection” of native and foreign shrubs was laid out in the form of an amphitheatre, “which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging.” On the opposite side of the garden, “the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.” [[Walk]]s on either side of the garden led to compartments of plants laid out according to their scientific order, and beyond them lay a nursery of fruit trees, a [[pond]] “devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics,” and native plants, such as rhododendron, magnolias, and willows, which favored the moist ground adjacent to the [[pond]]. At higher elevations, rocky outcroppings were planted with “varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock.” In the vicinity of the [[greenhouse]] and [[hothouse]]s were shrubs arranged in [[clump]]s and [[border]]s containing flowering plants. <span id="Description_cite"></span>Throughout the garden, every tree, shrub, and plant bore a label with its botanic name “for the instruction of the student.” The entire garden was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], seven feet high and two and-a-half feet thick ([[#Description|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero]; cf. David Hosack, ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin: In the Vicinity of New York, Established in 1801'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1806), 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2060.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing p. 212.]]
Following his appointment in 1808 as professor of natural history at New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons, Samuel Latham Mitchill conducted open-air classes at the Elgin Botanic Garden. An unidentified student who made multiple visits to the garden in 1810 reported that Mitchell was assisted by “two promising young botanists”: James Inderwick (c. 1788–1815), a Columbia graduate who had stayed on to take anatomy and chemistry classes at the medical school in 1808–9, and [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] nephew, Caspar Wistar Eddy (1790–1828), who in 1807, while still a medical student at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, had created an herbarium and published a catalogue, ''Plantae Plandomenses'', documenting plants indigenous to Mitchill’s 230-acre Long Island estate.<ref>Caspar Wistar Eddy, “Plantae Plandomenses, or a Catalogue of the Plants Growing Spontaneously in the Neighbourhood of Plandome, the Country Residence of Samuel L. Mitchill,” ''Medical Repository'' 5, no. 2 (August–October 1807): 123–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3QEBP63M view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of the Alumni, Officers and Fellows of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York'' (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1859), 22, 27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FK359GQN view on Zotero]; ''Catalogue of Columbia College, in the City of New-York; Embracing the Names of Its Trustees, Officers, and Graduates'' (New York: Columbia College, 1844), 37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJAWNGN9 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Correspondent_cite"></span>According to the student, Eddy was responsible for “demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species,” while Inderwick “expound[ed] the characters which distinguish the genus” ([[#Correspondent|view text]]). <span id="Eddy_lecture_cite"></span>After receiving his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1811, Eddy himself began conducting lectures on botany at the Elgin Botanic Garden in May 1812 ([[#Eddy_lecture|view text]]).
[[File:2061.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.]]

<span id="American_Botany_cite"></span>Inderwick was involved in [[David Hosack|Hosack's]] plan to scientifically document the plants at Elgin in “AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ‘Flora of the United States,’” a publication [[David Hosack|Hosack]] intended to publish, he announced in 1811, as soon as he had secured the garden’s permanent maintenance ([[#American_Botany|view text]]). Modeled on John Edward Smith’s monumental ''English Botany'' (36 vols., 1790–1814), [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] flora was to include drawings by Inderwick, whom he had already employed to illustrate articles published in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', the journal that he and the New York physician John Wakefield Francis (1789–1861) edited jointly from 1810 to 1814.<ref>Francis noted that his article was illustrated by “the ingenious Mr. Inderwick, a student of medicine of this city,” and Hosack wrote, “To my friend, Mr. Inderwick, I am indebted for the very beautiful drawing from which this engraving has been made.” See John W. Francis, “Case of Enteritis, Accompanied with a Preter-natural Formation of the Ileum,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (July 1810): 39; see also 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M2PEX3DF view on Zotero], and David Hosack, “Observations on Croup: Communicated in a Letter to Alire R. Delile, M.D. Physician in Paris,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (July 1811): 43; see also 40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2P2PHVF view on Zotero]. Other drawings by Inderwick were published in David Hosack, “Case of Aneurism of the Femoral Artery: Communicated in a Letter to John Abernethy,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 3 (July 1812): 48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X558G67M view on Zotero], and John W. Francis, ''Cases of Morbid Anatomy: Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York, on the Eighth of June, 1815'' (New York: Van Winkle and Wiley, 1815), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P8VK9XAT view on Zotero].</ref> Although most of Inderwick’s drawings for the journal represented anatomical subjects, his illustration of the Canada Thistle (''Cnicus Arvensis'') [Fig. 4] for an article [[David Hosack|Hosack]] published in October 1810 indicates the kind of images he might have produced for [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] ''American Botany,'' had that project ever advanced beyond the planning stage.<ref>The drawing accompanied a letter to Samuel Latham Mitchill in which Hosack wrote, “The following description of the plant by Mr. Curtis [in the ''Flora Londinensis''] so perfectly corresponds with that with which our country is infested, that with the aid of the annexed drawing of the plant, made by my friend Mr. J. Inderwick, from the specimen you sent me, it will readily be recognised by the farmer into whose fields it may intrude itself.” See David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis . . . Communicated in a letter to the Hon. S. L. Mitchill, M.D.,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): 211–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero]. Inderwick was house surgeon at the New York Hospital for one year from February 1812 until February 1813. Stephen Decatur appointed him acting surgeon of the ''Argus'' on May 8, 1813. He died when his ship was lost at sea in 1815. See James Inderwick, ''Cruise of the U.S. Brig Argus in 1813: Journal of Surgeon James Inderwick'', ed. Victor H. Palsits (New York: New York Public Library, 1917), 3–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F4K563GR view on Zotero]; William S. Dudley, ''The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History'', 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, 1992), 2: 219–22, 275–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WFEDBVFC view on Zotero].</ref> According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], additional drawings for ''American Botany'' would be provided by another Columbia graduate, John Eatton Le Conte (1784–1860), who was probably then working on the catalogue of plants indigenous to New York City that he would publish (with a dedication to [[David Hosack|Hosack]]) in the ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' in October 1811.<ref>John Eatton Le Conte, “Catalogue Plantarum Quas Sponte Crescentes in Insula Noveboraco, Observavit Johannes Le Conte, Eq.: Sub Forma Epistolae Ad D. Hosack, M.D. Missae,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1811): 134–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6CWDCT9M view on Zotero]. See also John Eatton Le Conte, “Observations on the Febrile Diseases of Savannah; in a Letter to Dr. Hosack, from John Le Conte, Esq., Woodmanston, December 18, 1809,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 4 (1814): 388–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AUZ3BNPD view on Zotero].</ref> Le Conte collected many plants for the garden while visiting his family’s plantation, Woodmanston, in Georgia, and he went on to a distinguished natural history career, producing botanical illustrations that justify [[David Hosack|Hosack’s]] early endorsement [Fig. 5].<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), 1:xiv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero]. For Le Conte’s drawings, see: Viola Brainerd Baird, “The Violet Water-Colors of Major John Eatton LeConte,” ''American Midland Naturalist'', 20 (1938), 245–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HF8KNX8V view on Zotero]; Calhoun, John V., “John Abbot’s ‘Lost’ Drawings for John E. Le Conte in the American Philosophical Society Library,” ''Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society'', 60 (2006): 211–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5AFNFICJ view on Zotero].</ref>

The laboring figures represented in an oil painting of about 1810 hint at the numerous farmers and gardeners [[David Hosack|Hosack]] employed over many years to cultivate, plant, and maintain the Elgin garden.<ref>For an overview of expenses recorded in Hosack’s memorandum book of 1803–1809, see Robbins 1964, 64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> [Fig. 6] The Scottish nursery- and seedsman [[Andrew Gentle]] claimed to have “commenced operations for Dr. Hosack, in New-York, by laying out his grounds” in 1805, and he remained at the garden for the next few years.<ref>Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii–iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups//items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="MMahon_cite"></span>In 1809, on the recommendation of [[Bernard M’Mahon]] ([[#MMahon|view text]]), [[David Hosack|Hosack]] hired as gardener the German botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously visited “the houses of the Botanick garden at New York” on October 3, 1807, while passing through the city on his way to Philadelphia.<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Journal of a Botanical Excursion in the Northeastern Parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York: During the Year 1807'' (Philadelphia: Brinckloe & Marot, 1869), 87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HSKRK5R7 view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Pursh_cite"></span>According to [[David Hosack|Hosack]], Pursh made “very numerous contributions . . . during the period he had charge” of the garden, but by the close of 1810 he had been replaced by Michael Dennison, an English seedsman recommended by Lee and Kennedy, a well-known firm of nurserymen in Hammersmith, London ([[#Pursh|view text]]). Although [[David Hosack|Hosack]] expected Pursh to continue his association with Elgin in the capacity of “a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[Botanic Garden]],” Pursh left America for England toward the end of 1811.
[[File:1986.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 6, Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.]]

The high cost of maintaining the Elgin Botanic Garden soon swamped [[David Hosack|David Hosack's]] financial resources. He had expected public support to be forthcoming once the garden’s utility had been demonstrated, but his efforts to secure loans from the New York state legislature in 1805 and 1806 came to nothing, <span id="Lewis_cite"></span>despite the governor’s support ([[#Lewis|view text]]).<ref>Hosack 1811, 12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> <span id="Stokes_cite"></span> Moreover, the market in fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and hothouse plants—operated at the garden by [[Andrew Gentle]] ([[#Stokes|view text]])—failed to raise sufficient funds to offset the high cost of labor. In 1808 [[David Hosack|Hosack]] concluded that selling the garden was the only means of preserving it. Following considerable delay, the New York state legislature agreed to the purchase on January 3, 1811, with the provision that responsibility for the garden’s management would be delegated to the College of Physicians and Surgeons.<ref>Robbins 1964, 79–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The College lacked funds to maintain the garden, however, and it soon fell into disrepair. On a visit in August 1813 Hosack, who continued to collect seeds and plant materials for the garden, was distressed to find that the [[greenhouse]] plants had not been set outdoors during the summer, that many of them were missing, that the [[shrubbery]] in front of the [[greenhouse]] was choked with sunflowers, and that vegetation had overtaken the [[walk]]s.<ref>Hosack’s report to the Trustees of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, August 30, 1813, quoted in Robbins 1964, 96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero]. For Hosack’s continued involvement in the garden, see, for example, David Hosack, “Report on Botany and Vegetable Physiology,” ''American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review'' 1 (May 1817): 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MWBS8AMP view on Zotero].</ref>

The garden’s condition continued to decline following the transfer of ownership to Columbia College in 1814. Two years later, Hosack complained to one of the College’s trustees that the gardener, Michael Dennison, was “removing everything valuable from the collection.”<ref>David Hosack to Clement C. Moore, October 16, 1816, quoted in Robbins 1964, 98; see also 97 for Dennison’s letter of the previous month, informing the College of Physicians and Surgeons of repairs and horticultural care required at the garden, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> From early 1817 to 1823 [[Andrew Gentle]] returned to Elgin, granted a year-to-year lease free of charge in exchange for maintaining the [[greenhouse]] and grounds. In May 1819 the [[greenhouse]] plants along with “ornamental trees” and shrubs were transferred to the New York Hospital. Despite several attempts by [[David Hosack|Hosack]] to transfer care of the garden to an institution that could provide more attentive oversight, Columbia preferred to retain control, renting the property to a variety of tenants, including the seedsman David Barnett from 1825 to 1835.<ref>Addison Brown, ''The Elgin Botanic Garden, Its Later History and Relation to Columbia College'' (Lancaster, PA: New Era Printing Company, 1908), 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero]; Robbins 1964, 97–98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref> The rapid growth of New York City meant that by the late 1850s the garden was situated well within the urban hub, rather than on its outskirts. The value of the property had risen accordingly, from several thousand dollars to tens of millions. Columbia ultimately divided the land into numerous lots, which it sold or leased at high prices, generating the financial capital that allowed the college to expand into a world-class university.<ref>Brown 1908, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Mitchill"></div>Mitchill, Samuel Latham, 1794, report to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures in the State of New York (1792: xxxix–xlv)<ref>“Introduction,” ''Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, Instituted in the State of New York'' 1 (1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WSF4MDPU view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Mitchill_cite|back up to History]]

:“The establishment of a Garden is nearly connected with the Professorship of Botany under the College, and the Lectures on that branch must be always very lame and defective without one. . . . A [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is not only one of the genteelest and most beautiful [Hosack changed to: most useful and most important] of public improvements; but it also comprises within a small compass the History of the Vegetable Species of our own Country; and by the introduction of Exotics, makes us acquainted with the plants of the most distant parts of the earth. Likewise, by facilitating experiments upon plants at this time, when a true Theory of Nutrition and Manures is such an interesting desideratum, a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] may be considered as one of the means of affording substantial help to the labours of the Agricultural Society, and be conducive to the improvement of modern husbandry. When these things are duly considered, it can scarcely be doubted, that a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], under the direction of the Society, or of the College, with a view to further the agricultural interest, will be set on foot and supported by legislative provision; to the end that young minds be early imbued with proper ideas on this important subject.”

*<div id="1797"></div> [[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], November 1797, memorial presented to the President and Members of the Board of Trustees of Columbia College (1811: 7–8)<ref name="Hosack_Statement">Hosack 1811, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H4VR8FK5 view on Zotero].</ref> [[#1797_cite|back up to History]]

:“It has been to me a source of great regret that the want of a [[botanic garden|''Botanical Garden'']], and an extensive Botanical Library, have prevented that advancement in the interests of the institution which might reasonably have been expected.

:“ . . . To this end, I have purchased for the use of my pupils such of the most esteemed authors as are most essential in teaching the principles of Botany; and at a considerable expense I have been enabled to procure a large and very extensive collection of coloured engravings; but the difficulty of teaching any branch of natural philosophy, and of philosophy, and of rendering it interesting to the pupil, without a view and examination of the objects of which it treats, will readily be perceived: it will also occur to you that books, or engravings, however valuable and necessary, are of themselves insufficient for the purposes of regular instruction in medicine.

:“The obvious and only effectual remedy would be the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]]: this would invite a spirit of inquiry. The indigenous plants of our country would be investigated, and ultimately would promise important benefits, both to agriculture and medicine. . . . I beg leave to suggest . . . that the professorship of botany and material medica be endowed with a certain annual salary, sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of a small garden, in which the professor may cultivate, under his immediate notice, such plants as furnish the most valuable medicines, and are most necessary for medical instruction.”

*Michaux, François André, 1802, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains'' (1802: 14)<ref>François André Michaux, ''Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessea, and back to Charleston, by the Upper Carolines . . . Undertaken, in the Year 1802'', 2nd ed. (London: B. Crosby & Co. and J. F. Hughes, 1805), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/69576KK5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“During my stay at New York I frequently had an opportunity of seeing [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], who was held in the highest reputation as a professor of botany. He was at that time employed in establishing a [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], where he intended giving a regular course of lectures. This garden is a few miles from the town: the spot of ground is well adapted, especially for plants that require a peculiar aspect of situation.”

*<div id="Parke"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], July 25, 1803, letter to Dr. Thomas Parke, regarding the [[greenhouse]]s at Elgin and [[The Woodlands]] (quoted in Long 1991: 144)<ref>MS letter in Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection, Boston Public Library, quoted in Timothy Preston Long, “The Woodlands: A ‘Matchless Place’” (master’s thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JQS7HETZ view on Zotero] and Robbins 1964, 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>[[#Parke_cite|back up to History]]

:“I duly received the plans of [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]] [[greenhouse|green]] and [[hothouse|hot houses]]. My [[greenhouse]] [exclusive of the hothouses] is now finishing—it will not differ very individually from [[William Hamilton|Mr. Hamiltons]]. It is 62 feet long 23 deep—and 20 high in the clear. . . . I shall heat it by flues, they will run under the stays so they will not be seen—my [[walk]]s will be spacious . . . [[hothouse|hot houses]] are for next summer’s operation. My collection of plants is yet small. I have written to my friends in Europe and in the East and West Indies for their plants. I will also collect the native productions of North and South America. What medical plants can [[William Bartram|Mr. Bartram]] supply—request him to send me a catalogue. . . . I hope [[William Hamilton]] will have duplicates of rare and valuable plants—I will supply him anything I possess.”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], autumn 1806, preface to ''A Catalogue of Plants Contained in the Botanic Garden at Elgin'' (1806: 3–7)<ref>Hosack 1806, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZFGHH3VJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of native plants, and as subservient to medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. . . .

:“In the year 1801 I purchased, of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground; the greater part of which is now in cultivation. Since that time, a [[Conservatory]], for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants, has been built; in addition to which, two [[hothouse|Hot-Houses]] are now erecting for the preservation of those plants which require a greater degree of heat.

:“The grounds will be arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of plants, and the whole enclosed by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, native and exotic.

:“A primary object of attention in this establishment will be to collect and cultivate the native plants of this country, especially such as possess medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful. . . .

:“I must acknowledge the obligations I am under to many gentlemen who have already befriended this establishment, especially to my most esteemed instructor and friend Dr. James Edward Smith, the President of the Linnaean Society of London; to Professor [Martin] Vahl, and Mr. [Niels] Hoffman Bang, of Copenhagen; to Professor [René Louiche] Desfontaines and [André] Thouin, of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Paris; to Mr. Alderman [George] Hibbert, and Dr. [John Coakley] Lettsom of London; Mr. [Richard Anthony] Salisbury, proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] of Brompton; Dr. [Giovanni Valentino Mattia] Fabroni, Director of the Royal Museum at Florence; and Mr. ''Andrew Michaux'', author of the ''Flora Boreali Americana'', &c. &c. From these gentlemen I have received many valuable plants, seeds, and botanical works, accompanied with the most polite offers of their further contributions to this institution.”

*<div id="Lewis"></div>Lewis, Morgan, governor of New York, January 28, 1806 (Hosack 1811: 12)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Lewis_cite|back up to History]]

:“Application was made to the legislature at their last session, by a gentleman of the city of New-York, for aid in the support of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], which he had recently established. At the request of some of the members, I, in the course of last summer, paid it two visits, and am so satisfied with the plan and arrangement, that I cannot but believe, if not permitted to languish, it will be productive of great general utility. The objects of the proprietor are, a collection of the indigenous, and the introduction of exotic plants, shrubs &c. and by an intercourse with similar establishments, which are arising in the eastern and southern states, to insure the useful and ornamental products of southern to northern, and of northern to southern climes. In the article of grasses, I was pleased to see a collection of one hundred and fifty different kinds. A portion of ground is allotted to agricultural experiments, which cannot but be beneficial to an agricultural people. When it is considered that this branch of natural history embraces all the individuals of the vegetable which afford subsistence to the animal world, compose a large portion of the medicines used in the practice of physic, and mam of the ingredients essential to the useful arts, its utility and importance is not to be questioned. But in a country young as ours, the experimental sciences cannot be expected to arrive at any degree of excellence without the patronage and bounty of government; for individual fortune is not adequate to the task.”

*<div id="Jefferson"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], September 10, 1806, letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>David Hosack to Thomas Jefferson, Septmber 10, 1806, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-4259 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref> [[#Jefferson_cite|back up to History]]

:“Knowing your attachment to science and the interest you feel on the progress of it in the united states, I take the liberty of enclosing to you a Catalogue of plants [in the Elgin Botanic Garden] which I have been enabled to collect as the beginning of a [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]—

:“you will readily perceive that my intention in this little publication is merely to announce the nature of the Institution and to facilitate my correspondence with Botanists as they will hereby know what plants will be accepteble to me and what they may expect in return—in two or three years when my collection may be more extensive I propose to publish it in a different shape arranging the plants under different heads viz Medicinal—Poisonous—those useful in the arts—in agriculture &c with notes relative to their use and culture accompanied with engravings of such as may be either entirely new or are not well figured in books—

:“I feel much interested in the result of the enquiries instituted by you relative to the Missouri—Black River &c. In Natural History much is also to be expected from exploring the territory in the course of Red River—that latitude is always rich in vegetable productions—if it should be contemplated to explore that or any other part of our country, there is now a gentleman in this state who might be induced to undertake it and whose talents abundantly qualify him for an employment of this sort, the person I refer to is Mr [André] Michaux the editor of the Flora Boreali America—he being at present in New York I take the liberty of mentioning his name to you—under your auspices Sir establishments of this nature may be encouraged:—it has occurred to me that much also might be done in exploring the native productions of the united states if the Government were to appropriate to every [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]] a small sum—for the express purpose of employing a suitable person to investigate the vegetable productions growing in its neighbourhood—an annual appropriation of this sort allotted to the [[botanic garden|Botanic garden]]s of Boston—New York—Virginia and South Carolina would in a short time be productive of great good—

:“Another object which will claim much of my attention will be to naturalize as far as possible to our climates the productions of the southern states and of the tropics—I believe much may be done upon this subject—four years since I planted some cotton seed, late in the spring—it grows to the usual size to which it attains in the southern states and ripened its seed before October—Those seeds were planted and succeeded equally well the second year—John Stevens Esq of Hoboken New Jersey has also succeeded in the same experiment and at this time has a considerable quantity of cotton ripening its seed, the growth from seeds raised by him the last year, it is also to be remarked that this summer has been unusually cool—I conceive it therefore not improbable that Virginia and Maryland if not Pennsylvania and New york—might cultivate this plant to advantage—the short staple doubtless would succeed—

:“If . . . the gentlemen who are at present on their travels to the Missouri, discover any new or useful plants I should be very happy in obtaining a small quantity of the seeds they may procure.”

*<div id="Stokes"></div>[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], June 4, 1807, Notice concerning the Elgin Botanic Garden, published in the ''New York Commercial Advertiser'' (Stokes 1926: 5:1460–61)<ref>Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, ''The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498–1909'', 6 vols. (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1926), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBTRZVAB view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Stokes_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it was the original design in forming this establishment to render it not only useful as a source of instruction to the students of medicine but beneficial to the public by the cultivation of those plants useful in diseases, by the introduction of foreign grasses, and by the cultivation of the best vegetables for the table; our citizens are now informed that they can be supplied with medicinal Herbs and Plants, and a large assortment of [[greenhouse|green]] and [[Hot House]] Plants etc.”

*[[Samuel Bard|Bard, Samuel]], November 14, 1809, address delivered to the Medical Society of Dutchess County (Hosack 1811: 30)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“Convinced as I am of the great and general importance of correct medical instruction, and anxious that our schools should be fostered by necessary patronage, I cannot but regret the failure of the proposal made last year in our legislature, for the purchase of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[botanic garden]]. It would be too tedious at present to point out how much medicine may be benefitted, how greatly the arts may be enriched, and hor many of the comforts, the pleasures, and even the necessaries of life may be improved by such an institution. . . .

:“By the purchase of the [[botanic garden]], a national ornament and most useful establishment, already brought to a great degree of perfection, will be preserved: by which our medicine, our agriculture and our arts, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life will necessarily be improved.”

*<div id="MMachonlecture"></div>[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]] to [[Thomas Jefferson]], December 24, 1809 (Jefferson 2005: 2:89–91)<ref name="Jefferson_2005">Thomas Jefferson, ''The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'', ed. J. Jefferson Looney, Retirement Series, 4 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 2: 89–91, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XWVFP69T view on Zotero].</ref> [[#MMahon_cite|back up to History]]

:“On Governor Lewis’s departure from here, for the seat of his Government, he requested me to employ Mr Frederick Pursh, on his return from a collecting excurtion he was then about to undertake for Doctor Barton, to describe and make drawings of such of his collection as would appear to be new plants, and that himself would return to Philadelphia in the month of May following. About the first of the ensuing Novr Mr Pursh returned, took up his abode with me, began the work, progressed as far as he could without further explanation, in some cases, from Mr Lewis, and was detained by me, in expectation of Mr Lewis’s arriv[al] at my expence, without the least expectation of any future remuneration, from that time till April last; when n[ot] having received any reply to several letters I had wri[tten] from time to time, to Govr Lewis on the subject, nor being able to obtain any in[dication?] when he probably might be expected here; I thought it a folly to keep Pursh longer idle, and recommended him as Gardener to [[David Hosack|Doctor Hosack]] of New York, with whom he has since lived.

:“The original specimens are all in my hands, but Mr Pursh, had taken his drawings and descriptions with him, and will, no doubt, on the delivery of them expect a reasonable compensation for his trouble.”

*Newton, Joseph, Arthur Smith, John F. West, Timothy B. Crane, January 16, 1810, Estimate of the Buildings at the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 45)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, builders, and residents of the city of New-York, at the request of doctor [[David Hosack]], have valued the improvements on his land, near the four mile stone, called the [[botanic garden]], to wit: the hot [[bed]] frames, the [[conservatory]] or [[greenhouse|green house]], and its appendages, the dwelling house, the [[hot house]]s and their back buildings, the lodges, the gates and the [[fence]]s around the land, including the wells, at the sum of twenty-nine thousand three hundred dollars.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], January 22, 1810, on the valuation of plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53–54)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“The sum of ''fourteen thousand three hundred and eighty dollars and fifty-nine cents'', is, I believe, to the best of my judgment, the value of your indigenous and exotic plants, tools, & c. at Elgin.”

*Hastings, John, Frederick Pursh, and John Brown, January 24, 1810, on the valuation of the plants in the Elgin Botanic Garden (Hosack 1811: 53)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref>

:“We, the subscribers, in committee assembled, for the valuation of the plants, trees, and shrubs, including garden tools and utensils, necessary for the cultivation of the same, as appertaining to the [[greenhouse|green house]], [[hothouse|hot houses]], and grounds of the [[botanic garden]], at Elgin, after a very particular inventory and examination of the improvements, are unanimously agreed, that, to the best of our knowledge and ability, we consider them to be worth the sum of ''twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-five dollars and seventy-four and half cents''.
:::“John Hastings, Nursery-man, Brooklyn, L.I.
:::“Frederick Pursh, Botanist.
:::“John Brown, Nursery-man.”

[[File:2051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', ca. 1810.]]
*<div id="Description"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], 1810, ''Description of the Elgin Garden'' (1810: 1–4)<ref>Hosack 1810, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8HF2852Z view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Description_cite|back up to History]]

:“ . . . The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin-ground, is variegated and extensive. The East and North Rivers, with their vast amount of navigation, are plain in sight. Beyond these great thoroughfares of business, the fruitful fields of Long-Island, and the [[picturesque]] shores of New-Jersey, give beauty and interest to the [[prospect]]. . . .

: <div id="Elegance"></div>"The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of one hundred and eighty feet. They are not only constructed with great architectural taste and elegance, but experience has also shown, they are well calculated for the preservation of the most tender exotics that require protection from the severity of our climate. The grounds are also arranged and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. The whole is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs judiciously chequered and mingled; and enclosed by a well constructed stone-[[wall]]. [Fig. 7] [[#Elegance_cite|back up to History]]

:“The interior is divided into various compartments, not only calculated for the instruction of the student in Botany, but subservient to agriculture, the arts, and to manufactures. A [[nursery]] is also begun, for the purpose of introducing into this country the choicest fruits of the table. Nor is the [[kitchen garden]] neglected in this establishment. An apartment is also devoted to experiments in the culture of those plants which may be advantageously introduced and naturalized to our soil and climate, that are at present annually imported from abroad. . . .

:“The forest trees and shrubs which surround the establishment, first claim [the visitor’s] attention. Here are beautifully distributed and combined the oak, the plane, the elm, the sugar maple, the locust, the horse chesnut, the mountain ash, the basket willow, and various species of poplar. In front of these, a similarly varied collection of shrubs, natives and foreign, compose an amphitheatre, which, winding with the [[walk]]s, presents at every step something new and engaging. On the other side the eye reposes on the green [[lawn]] which is occasionally intercepted with groups of trees and shrubs happily adapted to its varied surface.

:“In extending his [[walk]]s to the garden, on each side, he [the visitor] is equally gratified and instructed by the numerous plants which are here associated in scientific order, for the information of the student in Botany or Medicine. Here the Turkey rhubarb, Carolina pink-root, the poppy and the foxglove, with many other plants of the Materia Medica, are seen in cultivation. . . .

:“As he proceeds he arrives at a [[nursery]] of the finest fruits, which the proprietor has been enabled to procure from various parts of the world, and from which the establishment will hereafter derive one of the principal means of its support.

:“The visitor next comes in view of a [[pond]] of water devoted to the varieties of nymphoea, pontederia and other aquatics which adorn its surface, while the adjacent grounds which are moist afford the proper and natural soil for a great variety of our most valuable native plants. The rhododendrons, magnolias, the kalmias, the willows, the stuartia; the candleberry myrtle; the cupressus disticha, and the sweet-smelling clethra alnifolia, here grow in rich luxuriance, and compose a beautiful picture in whatever direction they fall under his eye. . . .

:“Here a rocky and elevated spot attracts his attention, by the varied species of pine, juniper, yew, and hemlock, with which it is covered. There a solitary oak breaks the surface of the [[lawn]]; here a group of poplars; there the more splendid foliage of the different species of magnolia, intermixed with the fringe tree, the thorny aralia, and the snow drop halesia, call his willing notice.

:“Entering the [[greenhouse|green-house]], his eye is saluted with a rich and varied collection: the silver protea, the lemon, the orange, the oleander, the citron, the shaddock, the myrtle, the jasmine and the numerous and infinitely varied family of geranium, press upon his view, while the perfumes emitted from the fragrant daphne, heliotropium, and the coronilla no less attract his notice than do the splendid petals of the camellia japonica, the amaryllis, the cistus, erica and purple magnolia.

:“In the [[hothouse|hot-house]] he finds himself translated to the heat of the tropics. Here he observes the golden pine, the sugar cane, the cinnamon, the ginger, the splendid strelitzia, and ixora coccinea intermixed with the bread fruit, the coffee tree, the plantain, the arrow root, the sago, the avigato pear, the mimosa yielding the gum arabic, and the fragrant farnesiana. . . .

:“In front of the buildings are several beautiful [[clump]]s composed of the more delicate and valuable shrubs intermingled with a great variety of roses, kalmias and azaleas. Their [[border]]s are also successively enamelled with the crocus, the snow drop, the asphodel, the hyacinth, and the more splendid species of the iris.

:“Here also is ''viola tricolor'' . . . saluting the senses with its beautiful assemblage of colours but yielding in fragrance to its rival ''viola odorata'' which . . . also adds zest to this delicious banquet.”

*Anonymous, July 1810, description of the Elgin Botanic Garden (1811: 116–17)<ref>Anonymous, “Elgin Botanic Garden, New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQ7HQ2WG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Among the number of those distinguished friends of science in Europe, who have manifested an ardent desire for the extension of useful knowledge in these states, may be justly esteemed Monsieur [André] THOUIN, the celebrated professor of Botany and Agriculture, at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' of Paris. . . . [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], the proprietor of the Elgin Botanic Garden, has repeatedly been favoured by him with a great variety of seeds, from the rarest and most valuable plants of the continent; and he is happy to add, that they have always been received in such a state of preservation, as scarcely in a single instance to have frustrated the liberal intentions of the donor. Indeed, many of the most valuable plants in his collection are the products of the seeds presented him by Monsieur THOUIN.

:“To the Hon. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL [''sic''], M.D. Professor of Natural History . . . in the College of Physicians, the proprietor of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] is also indebted for many valuable additions made to his collection of living plants, as well as for many specimens added to his Herbarium, collected by the same gentleman, during his residence at Washington, (as Senator of the United States,) and in the Western parts of the state of New-York, when on his late tour to the falls of Niagara. . . .”

*[[Hosack, David|David Hosack]], August 9, 1810, letter to Daniel Hale, the New York Secretary of State (quoted in Robbins 1964: 83)<ref>Robbins 1964, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CQCQ247B view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A work is preparing in which the native plants are to be painted and engraved for publication taken from those now growing in Elgin Botanic Garden. Artists are engaged and at this moment are at work under my direction. They are employed with the understanding they could complete the work they are now preparing.”

*Mr. B, October 3, 1810, describing his objections to the state purchase of Elgin Botanic Garden (''Columbian'' 1, no. 287: n.p.)

:“As this spot has engrossed much of the public attention; and as its vast utility and splendor, and the immense fortune said to have been consumed in the embellishment of it have long been blazoned through the country, you may readily imagine that I expected to find something, if not rivalling, at least not inferior to, what you and I have witnessed in Europe. I was prepared to see a garden possessing all the various exotics of the celebrated ''Jardin national des plantes,'' and outstripping in the splendor of its disposition the ''Thulleries'', the ''Champs Elisees,'' the ''Bois-de-Boulogne,'' of France, and ''Hyde Park'' and ''Kensington,'' of England. My fancy pictured to me something very magnificent. I imagined an entrance of massive gates, crowned with crouching lions; winding woods whose recesses were adorned with winged Mercuries, Cupids, Naiads and timid Fauns. I fancied grottos, and knolls, and mossy caverns, and irriguous fountains, and dolphins vomiting forth huge cascades, and griffons, and chateaus. All that we find in Shenstone’s Leasows [''sic''], or the idyls of Virgil or Gesner, were marshalled before my mental speculation. Nor is it at all astonishing that my imagination should have been thus creative, when you reflect on the enormous value which has been set up on this garden by the appraisers appointed by law. ''One hundred and three thousand'' dollars, you know, is about four times as much as either ‘''Mousseux,''’ the splendid retreat of the duke of Orleans, or ‘''Le Petit Trianon''’, the once luxurious abode of Marie Antoinette, were sold for.

:“Thus I was musing, as we passed along what is called the middle or New Boston road, when Mr. W. suddenly roused me with ‘Here’s Elgin.’ I looked around me, but saw no Elgin, when my friend, pointing to the spot, reiterated with emphasis, ‘Here, this is Elgin.’ It is impossible for me, my dear friend, to describe to you my sensations, when assured that what I saw, was the ''Botanic Garden'', so much talked of last winter, and whose importance and splendor were the constant theme of encomium. My sensations were indescribable, tumbled as I was in a moment from the very acme of ardent expectation, into the Trophonian abyss of disappointment. I did not know whether to vent my execrations, or my laughter. There never was in the world, such a piece of downright imposture as this Botanic Garden, or as it is dignifiedly called Elgin. Unless it were pointed out to a traveller, it would utterly escape his notice. Take away from it, the ‘Orangerie’ or Greenhouse, which stands at the remote end of it, and it looks more like one of those large pasture-grounds near Albany, in which the western drovers refresh their cattle, after a sweaty march, than a Botanic Garden. It is a lot of twenty acres, with no other buildings on it but the Green-house just mentioned, which has two small wings, and two other buildings of about twelve feet square, fancifully called porter’s lodges (because there are no porters in them) one of which is placed at each gate. There is a small culinary garden on the western side, laid out in the common way in squares; and the rest of the grounds are in grass. No fruit whatever is to be found here; no large trees to furnish a retreat from the meridian sun; no little porticos; no knolls; nor in fine is there any thing which tends to embellish or diversify the grounds. Barring the green-house, which is like those generally found in private gardens, the ''tout-ensemble'' of this ''celebrated Elgin'', has, as already observed, the air of a common pasture-ground. It has none of those rural beauties which one would expect, and which Virgil so charmingly describes,

:“‘Hic latis otia fundis, Speluncae, vivique lacus, hic frigida Tempe Mugitusque bovum, molesque sub arbore somni.’

:"Thinking, however, that this spot, although totally devoid of every species of beauty and ornament, might still be well stocked with all the varieties of exotic and indigenous plants, ‘from the cedar of Lebanon down to the hyssop of the wall,’ we visited the interior of the green-house. There we found orange and lemon trees, geraniums, two or three coffee and pine-apple plants, and all those little ''quelques choses'' which are usually to be seen in the gardens of private gentlemen, but nothing whatever of national importance.

:“Such, my friend, is what is absurdly called the ''botanic'' garden. . . .”

*[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, preface and addendum to ''Hortus Elginensis'' (''Hortus'' 1811: v–x, 66)<ref>David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis, or, A Catalogue of Plants, Indigenous and Exotic, Cultivated in the Elgin Botanic Garden, in the Vicinity of the City of New-York : Established in 1801''(New York : Printed by T. & J. Swords, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FIEM4NZF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] in the United States, as a repository of the native plants of this country, and as subservient to the purposes of medicine, agriculture, and the arts, is doubtless an object of great importance. Impressed with the advantages to be derived from an institution of this nature, I have anxiously endeavoured ever since my appointment to the professorship of Botany and Materia Medica in Columbia College, to accomplish its establishment. Disappointed, however, in my first applications to the legislature of this State, soliciting their assistance in so expensive and arduous an undertaking, I resolved to devote my own private funds to the prosecution of this object; trusting, that when the nature of the institution should be better, and more generally known, and its utility fully ascertained, it would receive the patronage and support of the public.

:<div id="variegated"></div>"Accordingly, in the year 1801, I purchased of the Corporation of the city of New-York, twenty acres of ground . . . distant from the city about three miles and an half. The [[view]] from the most elevated part, is variegated and extensive, and the soil itself of that diversified nature, as to be particularly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of vegetable productions. The greater part of the ground is at present in a state of promising cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved style of ornamental gardening. Since that time, an extensive conservatory, for the more hardy [[greenhouse|green house]] plants, and two spacious [[hothouse|hot houses]], for the preservation of those which require a greater degree of heat, the whole exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet, have been erected, and which, experience has shown, are well calculated for the purpose for which they were designed. The whole establishment is surrounded by a belt of forest trees and shrubs, both native and exotic, and these again are enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in thickness, and seven feet in height. [[#variegated_cite|back up to History]]

:“As it has always been a primary object of attention to collect and cultivate in this establishment, the native plants of this country, especially such as are possessed of medicinal properties, or are otherwise useful, such gardeners as were practically acquainted with our indigenous productions, have been employed to procure them: how far this end has been attained, will be best seen by an examination of the Catalogue.

:“Although much has been done by the governments of Great-Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investigation of the vegetable productions of America: although much has been accomplished by the labours of [[Mark Catesby|[Mark] ''Catesby'']], [Pehr] ''Kalm'', [Friedrich Adam Julius von] ''Wangenheim'', [Johann David] ''Schoepf'', [Thomas] ''Walter'', and the ''Michaux'' [André and François André]; and by our countrymen [John] ''Clayton'', the ''Bartrams'' [[John Bartram|[John]] and [[William Bartram|William]]], [[Cadwallader Colden|[Cadwallader] ''Colden'']], [Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst] ''Muhlenberg'', [[Humphry Marshall|[Humphry] ''Marshall'']], [[Manasseh Cutler|[Manasseh] ''Cutler'']], and the learned Professor [Benjamin Smith] ''Barton'' of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western part of the globe. The numerous articles of medicine which this country has already furnished; the variety of soils and climates which it comprehends, encourage the belief, that many more remain to be discovered, and that the Materia Medica may still be enriched by the addition of many indigenous plants, whose virtues yet remain undiscovered.

:“Another object of importance is, to afford to students of medicine, the means of acquiring a knowledge of the natural history of plants, and the principles of botanic arrangement; a science intimately connected with their profession, as it not only enables them to distinguish one plant from another, but frequently leads to an acquaintance with their medicinal virtues. For this purpose the grounds are divided into different compartments, calculated to exhibit the various plants according to their several properties: and these again are so arranged as to afford a practical illustration of the systems of botany at present most esteemed, viz. the sexual system of Linnaeus, and the natural orders of [Antoine Laurent de] ''Jussieu''.

:“Hitherto the [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]] of ''Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Paris, Copenhagen, Leyden, Upsal, Goettengen'', &c. have instructed the American youth in this department of medical education; and it is in some degree owing to those establishments that the universities and colleges of those places have become so celebrated, and have been resorted to by students of medicine from all parts of the world. . . .

: <div id="American_Botany"></div>"I avail myself of this occasion to observe, that as soon as measures may be taken by the Regents of the University for the permanent preservation of the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]], it is my intention immediately to commence the publication of AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States''. In this work it is my design to give a description of the plant, noticing its essential characters, synonyms, and place of growth, with observations on the uses to which it is applied in medicine, agriculture, or the arts; to be illustrated by a coloured engraving, in the same manner in which the plants of Great-Britain have been published by Dr. ''J''[ohn]. ''E''[dward]. ''Smith'', in his English Botany. Considerable progress has already been made in obtaining materials for this publication: many of the drawings will be executed by Mr. ''James Inderwick'', a young gentleman of great genius and taste, and others by ''John Le Conte'', Esq. whose acquaintance with botany and natural history in general will enable him to execute this part of the work with great fidelity. In Mr. [Frederick] ''Pursh'', whose name has already been mentioned, I shall have a very industrious and skilful botanist to collect from different parts of the union such plants as have not yet been assembled at the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]].” [[#American_Botany _cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Indies"></div>[[David Hosack|Hosack, David]], March 12, 1811, ''A Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (1811: 7, 14–15)<ref name="Hosack_Statement"></ref> [[#Indies_cite|back up to History]]

:“Persuaded of the advantages to be derived from the institution of a [[botanic garden]], which could be made the repository of the native vegetable production of the country, and be calculated to naturalize such foreign plants are distinguished by their utility either in medicine, agriculture, or the arts, as well as for the purpose of affording the medical student an opportunity of practical instruction in this science, I, immediately after my appointment as professor [of botany and materia medica] in the college, endeavoured to accomplish its establishment. . . .

:“I still, however, did not abandon the hope of ultimately obtaining legislative aid, and therefore continued, as before, my exertions to increase the collection of plants which I had begun, and to extend the improvements for their preservation. Accordingly, in 1806, I obtained from various parts of Europe, as well as from the East and West-Indies, very important additions to my collection of plants, especially of those which are most valuable as articles of medicine. I also erected a second building for their preservation, and laid the foundation of a third, which was completed the following year. In the autumn of the same year, 1806, I published a ''Catalogue'' of the plants, both native and exotics, which had been already collected, amounting to nearly 2000 species. . . .

:“I had now erected, on the most improved plan, for the preservation of such plants as require protection from the severity of our climate three large and well constructed houses, exhibiting a front of one hundred and eighty feet. . . .The greater part of the ground was brought to a state of the highest cultivation, and divided into various compartments. . . .

:“The whole establishment was enclosed by a stone [[wall]], two and an half feet in breadth, and seven and an half feet high. . . . Add to all this . . . the additional costs for the continual increase in the number of plants, particularly of those imported from abroad, though in this respect I was liberally aided by the contributions of my friends, both in Europe and in the East and West-Indies.”

*<div id="Sketch"></div>Anonymous [[David Hosack|[David Hosack?]]], July 1811, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” (1812: 1–4)<ref>Anonymous, “Sketch of the Elgin Botanic Garden in the Vicinity of New York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5EBVS4DZ view on Zotero]. Much of the article paraphrases Hosack’s ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), quoted above.</ref> [[#Sketch_cite|back up to History]]

:“This institution, the first of the kind established in the United States, is situated about three and a half miles from this city, on the middle road between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. . . .

:“Immediately after the purchase, the proprietor, at a very considerable expense, had the grounds cleared and put in a state of cultivation, arranged in a manner the best adapted to the different kinds of vegetables, and planted agreeably to the most approved stile of ornamental gardening. . . .

:“By the distinguished liberality of several scientific gentlemen in this country, there were in cultivation at the commencement of 1805 nearly fifteen hundred species of American plants, besides a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. . . .

:“Recently the institution has been committed to the superintendence of the trustees of the college of physicians and surgeons of this city, to be by them kept in a state of preservation, and in a condition fit for all medical students as may resort thereto for the purpose of acquiring botanical science. It is confidently hoped, that as the improvements of this establishment for nearly ten years, while in the hands of a private individual, have far exceeded the expectations of the most sanguine, that its future progress will be proportionably great under its present governance.”

*<div id="Correspondent"></div>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], c. October 1811, description of botany classes held at the Elgin Botanic Garden (1812: 154, 158–159)<ref>Anonymous [“A Correspondent”], “Cultivation of Natural History in the University College of New-York,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZT2AMZDS view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Correspondent_cite|back up to History]]

:“After he had finished the geological and mineralogical parts of his course, which he elucidated from his own select and ample cabinet of fossils, Professor Mitchill entered upon the vegetable kingdom. He discoursed day after day upon the anatomy and physiology of seeds, plants, and flowers; and when he had proceeded far enough at the college in town, he adjourned to meet his audience at the [[botanic garden|botanical garden]] of Elgin, about three miles in the country.

:“There, in the presence of his numerous auditors, he demonstrated the component parts of the flower, and developed the principles of the Linnaean system. . . .

:“During the discussion which took place on the history of the vegetable kingdom, Professor Mitchill made repeated visits, with his disciples, to the garden of Elgin, founded by [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but now the property of the state. And, while he was occupied in the classification, description and discrimination of plants, it was observed, that the two promising young botanists, Dr. Caspar W. Eddy and Mr. James Inderwick, acted as his assistants; the former, in demonstrating the marks peculiar to the species, and the latter, in expounding the characters which distinguish the genus, in the presence of the numerous attendants whom the occasion had led to embark in this delightful study. The purchase of this valuable establishment is not less useful to natural science than honourable to public spirit. The college of physicians, who are curators in behalf of the regents, take every care that repairs are made to the [[conservatory]], [[hot house]] and [[fence]]s, and that the plants are well nursed and attended.”

*Anonymous, 1811, commenting on Hosack’s recent publications on the Elgin Botanic Garden (''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26: 162–66)<ref>Anonymous, “Review of ''Hortus Elginensis'' and ''A Statement of Facts relative to the . . . Elgin Botanic Garden'',” ''The Medical and Physical Journal'' 26 (July 1811): 162–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8BUV9NIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Though the collection in the Elgin Garden is not so large as in some older establishments in Europe, it is respectable both for number and quality. Of the indigenous plants of America we notice 1215 species: among these upwards of 200 are employed in medicine. Of plants possessing medicinal properties this seems a great number, but many of them possibly derive their title from popular opinion only; but even this title, as founded on a species of experience, is not to be slighted. Some of them have an established reputation: cinchona, ipecacuanha, jalapium, & c. are instances. It is curious fact in the history of Medical Botany, that when Europe remained in utter darkness on this subject, the Mexicans had appropriated a considerable space of ground, near the capital, to the sole purpose of rearing the indigenous medicinal plants. . . .

:“No region of the earth seems more appropriate to the improvement of Botany, by the collecting and cultivating of plants, than that where the Elgin Garden is seated. Nearly midway between the northern and southern extremities of the vast American continent, and not more than 40 degrees to the north of the equator, it commands resources of incalculable extent; and the European Botanist will look to it for additions to his catalogue of the highest interest. The indigenous Botany of America possesses most important qualities, and to that, we trust, [[David Hosack|Prof. Hosack]], the projector, and indeed, the creator of this Garden, will particularly turn his attention. It can hardly be considered as an act of the imagination, so far does what has already been discovered countenance the most sanguine expectations, to conjecture, that in the unexplored wilderness of mountain, forest, and marsh, which composes so much of the western world, lie hidden plants of extraordinary forms and potent qualities.

:“From the scientific spirit and persevering industry of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], every thing may be augured. Already has he projected an AMERICAN BOTANY, or a ''Flora of the United States'', to be illustrated with coloured Plates, similar to those in the ''English Botany'' of our ingenious countryman, Dr. [James Edward] Smith. Considerable progress, we are informed, has already been made in obtaining materials for this work; but we regret that its completion depends on a contingency—the permanent preservation of the Elgin Botanic Garden. In the madness of political contention, in the apathy with which governments contemplate the advance of science, in the illiberal finesse and the low juggling of party, we may look for the occasional destruction or suspension of every rational project; but we hope these accidents will not frustrate the enlarged and enlightened intention of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], but rather induce him to extend his ''Flora'', and make the whole of the American continent his GARDEN.”

*<div id="Eddy_lecture"></div>Anonymous, April 1812, “Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany” (''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2: 466–67)<ref>"Dr. Eddy’s Lectures on Botany,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 2 (1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HVJCGAJP view on Zotero].</ref> [[#Eddy_lecture_cite|back up to History]]

:“Dr. C[aspar] W[istar] Eddy, of this city, has announced his intention of delivering a course of Lectures on Botany, to commence on the first Wednesday in May next. . . . During the whole course, the lecturer will avail himself of all the advantages calculated to render the instruction that may be given, a system of practical botany; and for this purpose, repeated visits will be made to the state [[botanic garden]]. . . . We shall only add, that a science in itself highly useful and agreeable, will possess additional claims to attetion, when unfolded in the able manner now proposed.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1813, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1813: 45–46)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''A Gazetteer of the State of New-York: Carefully Written from Original and Authentic Materials, Arranged on a New Plan, in Three Parts'' (Albany: H. C. Southwick, 1813), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UDZZ2SS2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|'''BOTANIC GARDEN'''.]] The Elgin Botanic Garden, in the city of New-York, the first institution of the kind in the United States, is now the property of the state. . . . Among the distinguished friends and patrons of science in this state, a common sentiment had long prevailed, friendly to the establishment of a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]. Several unsuccessful attempts had been made to engage public aid for this purpose; and their having failed, while it detracts nothing from the reputation of the state, has ensured a better success to the institution, growing up under the zealous efforts of individual enterprize, which will ensure lasting fame to its principal founder. . . . In 1801, having failed in all attempts for public aid, the zeal and enterprize of [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack]], determined him to attempt the establishment on his own account. Accordingly he purchased 20 acres of ground of the corporation of New-York. . . . The soil is diversified, and peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of a great variety of plants. The whole was immediately enclosed by a stone [[wall]], and put in the best state for ornamental gardening; and a [[conservatory]] was erected for the preservation of the more hardy [[greenhouse|green-house]] plants. A primary object was to cultivate the native plants, possessing any valuable properties, found in this country; and in 1805, this establishment contained about 1500 valuable native plants, beside a considerable number of rare and valuable exotics. In 1806, it contained in successful cultivation, 150 different kinds of grasses, and important article to an agricultural people. . . . A portion of ground was set apart for agricultural experiments; and all the friends to experimental science and a diffusion of knowledge saw that the institution promised all that had been expected from it; and that the professor’s knowledge and genius were occupied on a congenial field. . . .

:“The [[view]] from the most elevated part of Elgin ground, is extensive and variegated. The aspect of the ground, is a gentle slope to the E. and S. The whole is enclosed by a well constructed stone [[wall]], lined all round by a belt of forest trees and shrubs. The [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse|hot-houses]] present a front of 180 feet. The various allotments of ground, are chosen with as much taste as good judgment for the varied culture;—and the rocky summit, the subsiding plain, and the little pool, have each their appropriate products. The herbarium, the [[kitchen garden]], the [[nursery]] of choice fruits from all quarters and climes, and the immense collection of botanical subjects elegantly arranged and labelled, display the industry, taste and skill of a master. A very extensive Botanical library belongs to the late proprietor, who is now a professor in the University, and delivers a summer course of lectures on Botany. . . . The garden is now committed to the superintendence of the college of Physicians and Surgeons, without any charge to the state.”

*Pursh, Frederick, 1814, describing Elgin Botanic Garden (1814: 2:xiv)<ref>Frederick Pursh, ''Flora Americae Septentrionalis; Or, a Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of North America'', 2 vols. (London: White, Cochrane, & Co., 1814), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KVNMM4KM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“While I was engaged in arranging my materials for this publication, I was called upon to take the management of the [Elgin] Botanic Garden at New York, which had been originally established by the arduous zeal and exertions of Dr. [[David Hosack]], Professor of Botany, &c. as his private property, but has lately been bought by the Government of the State of New York for the public service. As this employment opened a further prospect to me of increasing my knowledge of the plants of that country, I willingly dropped the idea of my intended publication for that time, and in 1807 [''sic''; 1809] took charge of that establishment.

:“Here I again endeavoured to pay the utmost attention to the collection of American plants, as the establishment was principally intended for that purpose. In this I was supported by my numerous botanical connections and friends, among whom I must particularly mention John Le Conte, Esq. of Georgia, whose unremitting exertions added considerably to the collection, particularly of plants from the Southern States.

:“The additions to my former stock of materials for a Flora were now considerable, and in conjunction with Dr. [[David Hosack|D. Hosack]] I had engaged to publish a periodical work, with coloured plates, all taken from living plants, and if possible from native specimens, on a plan similar to that of Curtis’s Botanical Magazine; for which a great number of drawings were actually prepared. But . . . in 1810, took a voyage to the West Indies, . . . from which I returned in the autumn of 1811.

:“On my return to New York, I found things in a situation very unfavourable to the publication of scientific works, the public mind being then in agitation about a war in Great Britain. I therefore determined to take all my materials to England, where I conceived I should not only have the advantage of consulting the most celebrated collections and libraries, but also meet with that encouragement and support so necessary to works of science, and so generally bestowed upon them there.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], February 18, 1818, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1944: 578)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I received some time ago from M. Thouin, Director of the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] or King’s garden at Paris, a box containing an assortment of seeds, Non-American. . . . I have therefore this day sent the box to Richmond . . . to be forwarded to you for the use of the [[botanic garden|Botanical Garden]] of N. York. . . . I am happy in this disposition of it to fulfill the good intentions of the donor, and to make it useful to your institution.”

*Esqrier Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to [[Thomas Jefferson]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Esqrier Brothers & Co. to Thomas Jefferson, April 2, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-1955 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“We have the honor of informing you that we have put on The American ship Cad[mus] . . . Capn. Wethlet [''sic''; Whitlock], a small Box of seeds, which is sent to you by the Managing Directors of the King’s Garden in Paris. . . .

:“We have sent this letter as well as some other ones for several people in the United States, to the address of [[David Hosack|Mister Hosack]], Director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New york.

:“Corresponding in this day for the Administrators of the King’s Museum and Garden, we are taking the liberty of offering you our Services, for your relationship with this administration, or for anything else that could be of interest to you in France.”

*Eyrien Frères & Cie., April 2, 1821, letter from Havre to James Madison concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (Madison 2013: 2:292–93)<ref>James Madison, ''The Papers of James Madison'', ed. David B. Mattern et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 2:292–93, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ADSTGUB view on Zotero]</ref>

:“The administrators of the King’s Garden at Paris have forwarded to us a package of seeds for you. We added it with some other packages for the same shipment and sent it all on board the American ship Cadmus, Capt. Whitlock, addressed to Mr. [[David Hosack|Hosack]], director of the Botanical Garden of the State of New York, from whom you will please request it.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], June 25, 1821, letter to Jonathan Thompson concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to Jonathan Thompson, June 25, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2138 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I am thankful to you for your notice of the 14th respecting a box of seeds—this comes from the king’s garden at Paris. they send me a box annually, depending on my applying it for the public benefit. I have generally had them delivered for a public garden at Philadelphia or to [[David Hosack|Dr Hosack]] for the Botanical garden of N. York. I am inclined to believe that he now recieves such an one from the same place. if he does not, be so good as to deliver it to him. but if of no use to him let it come to Richmond to the care of Capt Bernard Peyton, my correspondent there, and your note of any expence attending it will be immediately replaced either by him or myself.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 12, 1821, letter to [[David Hosack]] concerning seeds from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris<ref>Thomas Jefferson to David Hosack, July 12, 1821, [http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-2173 Founders Online, National Archives].</ref>

:“I recieved a letter lately from mr Thompson, Collector of New York, informing me of a box of seeds from the king’s gardens at Paris addressed to me. I rather suppose you recieve one annually from the same place for your botanical garden, but was not certain. I desired him therefore to present it to you if acceptable for your garden.”

*Spafford, Horatio Gates, 1824, describing the Elgin Botanic Garden (1824: 605)<ref>Horatio Gates Spafford, ''Gazetteer of the State of New York'' (Albany: B. D. Packard, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/WW7MHEFG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[botanic garden|''Botanic Garden'']].—This is a very respectable establishment, situated on New-York Island, in the 9th Ward of the City, 4 miles N. of the City Hall. It was purchased by the State, in 1810, and is an appendage of the Colleges in New-York. It comprises 20 acres of ground, and embraces a great variety of indigenous, naturalized, and exotic vegetables. The situation is commanding, on the rising ground, which embraces a good variety of soil, aspect, and position, and Elgin [[Grove]] has as many visitants as the [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]]s, chasing pleasure, or catching knowledge.”

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==Images==
<span id="roundabout_img"></span>
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1136.jpg|John Trumbull, ''Dr. Hosack’s Green houses'', Elgin Botanic Garden, June 1806.

Image:2051.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Louis Simond, ''View of the botanic garden at Elgin in the vicinity of the City of New York'', c. 1810.

Image:2060.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after James Inderwick, “The Canada Thistle,” in David Hosack, “Botanical description of the Canada Thistle or Cnicus Arvensis,” ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'' 1 (October 1810): facing 212.

Image:1986.jpg|Anonymous, ''Elgin Botanic Garden'', c. 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the Botanic Garden of the State of New York,” in David Hosack, ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''Elgin Garden on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:2052.jpg|Charles Heath after Thomas Sully (head copied from portrait of 1815) and John Trumbull (body and background after portrait painted ca. 1806–15 for Dr. John C. Lettsom, England), ''David Hosack, M.D., F.R.S.'', c. 1816.

Image:2061.jpg|John Eatton Le Conte, “Viola,” in ''Observations on the genera Viola. Utricularia and Gratiola'', c. 1824.
</gallery>

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==Map==
{{#display_map:
40.7586, -73.9788
| service=google
| enablefullscreen=yes
}}

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==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n2009180531.html Library of Congress Authority File]

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==Notes==
<references/>

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[[Category: Places]]