History of Early American Landscape Design - User contributions [en]

Andrew Jackson Downing

2021-04-08T19:08:45Z

A-Whitlock:

'''Andrew Jackson Downing''' (October 31, 1815—July 28, 1852), a nurseryman, landscape designer, and author, helped steer American popular taste in landscape and garden design toward more [[natural style|natural]], [[picturesque]] modes in the middle of the 19th century [Fig. 1]. In addition to “rural design,” he promoted the professionalization of landscape design and reached a growing middle-class audience through his influential books and periodicals. Concerned about the effects of overcrowded, industrialized cities, Downing advocated for the development of suburbs as well as the creation of public [[park]]s. At the time of his death at age thirty-six, he was at work on ambitious plans for Public Grounds in Washington, DC, on the present site of the [[National Mall]].

==History==
[[File:2244.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Downing, A. J. (Andrew Jackson), in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
[[File:2154.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Anonymous, ''Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s Botanic Gardens and Nurseries'', in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.]]
[[File:2155.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 3, A. J. Downing, “Advertisement. Professional Landscape Gardening,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8.]]
Andrew Jackson Downing, a leading nurseryman, landscape designer, and author in the mid-19th-century United States, was born in 1815 in Newburgh, New York—where he spent his entire life and career—to nurseryman Samuel Downing (d. 1822) and his wife, Eunice Bridge Downing (d. 1838). A. J. Downing showed an early interest in horticulture, joining the family [[nursery]] business in 1831 while still a teenager.<ref>Robert Twombly, “Introduction: Architect and Gardener to the Republic,” in ''Andrew Jackson Downing: Essential Texts'' (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012), 15—16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]</ref> He took over his brother Charles’s share of the business soon after their mother’s death in 1838 and named the establishment Botanic Garden and Nurseries (also known as Highland Gardens or Highland Nurseries) [Fig. 2]. Downing soon began to market himself primarily as a landscape designer, advertising “Professional [[Landscape Gardening]]” services in the 1842 volume of C. M. Hovey's ''Magazine of Horticulture'' [Fig. 3].<ref>See also Twombly 2012, 15, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; David Schuyler, ''Apostle of Taste: Andrew Jackson Downing 1815—1852'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 74—76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> Throughout this period, he also published extensively on horticulture, landscape design, and architecture. Downing sold Botanic Garden and Nurseries in 1846, as landscape design and writing activities started to occupy more of his attention.<ref>Twombly 2012, 18—19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; Schuyler 1996, 214, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

Between 1841 and 1850, Downing published four books that had a significant and enduring impact on the fields of landscape design, horticulture, and architecture in the United States. ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America''—Downing’s first book and the first treatise on [[landscape gardening]] published in the United States—lays out “leading principles” and “practicable methods” by which land owners could embellish their rural residences. For Downing, such embellishments were of great civil and social import; he claimed that home improvements could “increase local attachments . . . strengthening [the proprietor’s] patriotism and making him a better citizen.” In the preface, Downing also acknowledged that he drew heavily on European—especially British—authors when developing his principles of landscape design, adapting their recommendations to suit “this country [the United States] and the peculiar wants of its inhabitants” ([[#Downing_1841 preface|view text]]).

Although he did not view English landscapes in person until the end of his life, when he traveled abroad for the first and only time in 1850, British landscape theories of the [[picturesque]] played a significant role in the formulation of Downing’s landscape design principles. These writings include especially those of Edmund Burke (1729—1797), Sir Uvedale Price (1747—1829), Humphry Repton (1752—1818), John Claudius Loudon (1783—1843), and John Ruskin (1819—1900).<ref>Adam W. Sweeting notes that, while Downing did not quote Burke and departed from Burke’s theories, in some respects, Downing's characterization of the Beautiful "followed the wording of his English predecessor almost exactly.” Adam W. Sweeting, ''Reading Houses and Building Books: Andrew Jackson Downing and the Architecture of Popular Antebellum Literature'', 1835—1855 (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1996), 19—20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SDCTTVIV view on Zotero]. Caren Yglesias argues that for Downing “the most important theoretical work was Sir Uvedale Price’s ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (1794).” Caren Yglesias, ''The Complete House and Grounds: Learning from Andrew Jackson Downing’s Domestic Architecture'' (Chicago: Center for American Places at Columbia College Chicago, 2011), 21, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5H9UNB35 view on Zotero]. In 1850 Downing spent three months traveling in England, Paris, and Belgium. He published his impressions in a series of letters in the ''Horticulturist'' in 1850—51. Twombly 2012, 21, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]. Eight of “Mr. Downing’s Letters from England” were published monthly in the ''Horticulturist'' between September 1850 (vol. 5, no. 3) and March 1851 (vol. 6, no. 3), and in June 1851 (vol. 6, no. 6).</ref> By the time Downing published the second edition of his ''Treatise'' in 1844, he was arguing more forcefully for the “great advantage” of the [[picturesque]], writing in a passage not included in the first edition, “The raw materials of [[wood]], water, and surface, by the margin of many of our rivers and brooks, are at once appropriated with so much effect, and so little art, in the [[picturesque]] mode; the annual tax on the purse too, is so comparatively little, and the charm so great!” ([[#Downing_1844|view text]]). Downing thus became a champion of landscapes in the [[natural style]] during the middle of the 19th century, helping to steer American popular taste away from the more [[geometric style|geometric]] modes that dominated throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. According to David Schuyler, “Downing interpreted this progression from classic to romantic not simply as a change in stylistic preference but as a reflection of the nation’s evolution from a pioneer condition to a more advanced state of civilization.”<ref>Schuyler 1996, 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File: 0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Alexander Jackson Davis, “View in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
Between the publication of the first two editions of the ''Treatise'', Downing altered his recommendations on the use of native versus exotic plants. In 1841, while he still made his living primarily as a nurseryman, Downing warned estate owners not to replicate the woodlands of the surrounding Hudson Valley countryside and instead advocated the use of non-local North American and Eurasian species ([[#Downing_1841_excerpt|view text]]). Philip J. Pauly has argued that financial decisions may have informed Downing’s advice, noting that gardeners who used exclusively local plants “would generate little business for nurserymen like Downing.” By 1844, when Downing was better known as an author and designer than as a nurseryman, he embraced the use of local landscape features—especially “the raw materials of [[wood]], water, and surface”—in [[picturesque]] landscape design. According to Pauly, this shift may have been rooted in nativist attitudes as well as design considerations. Likely concerned about increased professional competition with the rise of immigration during this period, Downing added a “Note on Professional Quackery” to the appendix of the 1844 edition of his ''Treatise'', in which he singled out “a foreign ''soi-disant'' landscape gardener” who, in Downing’s view, had “completely spoiled the simply grand beauty of a fine river residence” by “only follow[ing] a mode sufficiently common and appropriate in a level inland country, like that of Germany. . . but entirely out of keeping” with the character of local landscape ([[#Downing_1844_excerpt|view text]]).<ref>According to Pauly, Downing was particularly upset that William Backhouse Astor, proprietor of Rokeby, an estate located about ten miles north of Hyde Park, hired Hans Jacob Ehlers (1804—1858), who had been trained in Germany and Denmark, as his landscape gardener in 1841. Philip J. Pauly, ''Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 169—70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RM4928T6 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File: 1868.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 5, Anonymous, “Residence of Bishop Doane, Burlington, New Jersey,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. 387, bottom image.]]
[[Image:0365.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 6, Anonymous, “Mr. Dunn’s Cottage, Mount Holly, N. J.,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. 54, fig. 11.]]
[[File:0386a.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Anonymous, Grecian [[vase]]s, in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 425, figs. 70—72.]]
[[File:1172b.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Example in grouping,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 135, fig. 34.]]
While preparing the manuscript for the first edition of his ''Treatise'' in 1838, Downing enlisted the help of the New York City architect [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] (1803—1892) to illustrate the text—a collaboration that would continue throughout the remainder of Downing’s career [Fig. 4]. Downing, who, Robert Twombly argues, was “not a polished draftsman,” provided [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] with sketches that [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] “put into proper form for engraving and publication.”<ref>Twombly 2012, 20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]. Downing and Davis met through their friend Robert Donaldson (1800—1872) in late 1838 or early 1839. Davis had designed Donaldson’s estate, Blithewood, on the Hudson River. Schuyler 1996, 50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> Because of advances in printing technologies, Downing was able to integrate images into his texts easily and inexpensively, making his well-illustrated publications affordable to a growing middle-class audience. He illustrated diverse examples of architectural and landscape designs in the ''Treatise'', ranging from residences of various sizes to small garden embellishments and ideal arrangements of plants and trees [Figs. 5—8]. Caren Yglesias has argued that “The images satisfied his audience’s visual appetite and allowed readers to imagine their own tasteful homes and gardens,” using the accompanying texts as a guide.<ref>Yglesias 2011, 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5H9UNB35 view on Zotero].</ref> Downing’s ''Treatise'' was immediately popular after its publication; he published at least two additional editions of the text during his lifetime (in 1844 and 1849), and the ''Treatise'' remained in print until the publication of its tenth edition in 1921.<ref>The 1849 publication is the fourth edition. The second edition, published in 1844, “included an announcement for a third” edition, which was likely never published. Therese O’Malley, Introduction to ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', ed. A. J. Downing, 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1991), x, xn20, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero]. In the first twelve years, Downing’s ''Treatise'' sold approximately 9,000 copies. Schuyler 1996, 28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero]. For an analysis of the various editions of the ''Treatise'' edited by Downing, see Judith K. Major, ''To Live in the New World: A. J. Downing and American Landscape Gardening'' (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997), 7—98, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IJRZTPR2 view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1842 Downing and [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] collaborated on a second book, ''Cottage Residences'', which proposed integrated designs for modest dwellings and gardens that targeted cost-conscious, middle-class consumers ([[#Downing_1842_preface|view text]]). Downing’s third book, ''The Fruit and Fruit Trees of America'', published in 1845, drew on his experience as a nurseryman and offered practical advice on planting [[orchard]]s.<ref>Twombly notes that while ''The Fruit and Fruit Trees of America'' was the third book that Downing published, it was actually the second one written. By 1841 Downing was already working on the manuscript. Twombly 2012, 19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero].</ref> Downing’s fourth and final book, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'', published in 1850, again provided practical advice for homeowners and proposed designs for freestanding houses. In the preface, Downing argued for the “moral influence” and social benefits of having “good houses.” He wrote, “when smiling [[lawn]]s and tasteful cottages begin to embellish the country, we know that order and culture are established. . . . the interest manifested in the Rural Architecture of a country like this, has much to do with the progress of its civilization” ([[#Downing_1850_preface|view text]]). Unlike Downing’s previous architectural tome, ''The Architecture of County Houses'' provided no specific advice on landscape gardening.<ref>Schuyler 1996, 152, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

Downing also published numerous articles in horticultural periodicals throughout his career. In 1832, at age sixteen, he contributed his first essay to a regional horticultural magazine ([[#Downing_1832|view text]]).<ref>Downing published the essay as a letter to the editor, signed “X. Y. Z. Newburgh,” in ''New-York Farmer and Horticultural Repository'' 5 (September 1832); A. J. Downing, ''Andrew Jackson Downing: Essential Texts'', ed. Robert Twombly (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012), 143—48, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/58ISW6RH view on Zotero].</ref> In July 1846, following the successful release of his first three books, he became the founding editor of a new monthly journal started by Luther Tucker (1802—1873) in Albany, New York, ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'', a position that he held for six years.<ref>Yglesias 2011, 33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5H9UNB35 view on Zotero].</ref> Downing published seventy-four monthly editorials covering a wide range of topics in the ''Horticulturist'' and, as with his books, worked with [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] to illustrate his articles. Downing devoted much of his writing to the topics of rural improvement and land management. His advocacy for such issues extended beyond his role as editor, however. As a champion for public agricultural education, Downing helped develop a plan for a state agricultural college in New York between 1849 and 1852 that, much to his disappointment, was never realized. He had long argued for the importance of institutions of public learning, claiming that they were essential for the development of American society and republican virtues. To this end, throughout the late 1830s and early 1840s, Downing helped establish the Newburgh Library Association (1835), the Newburgh Lyceum (1837), and the Horticultural Association of the Valley of the Hudson (1838).<ref>Twombly 2012, 15, 17, 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; Schuyler 1996, 18—20, 120, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

In addition to advocating for rural improvements, Downing also addressed the importance of urban and suburban public [[park]]s and gardens, arguing that such spaces would aid in the cultivation of moral and civic virtues in the American public. Such notions gained currency throughout the 1840s and 1850s, a period in which public gardens were increasingly conceived to serve both recreational and edifying functions.<ref>Therese O’Malley, “‘A Public Museum of Trees’: Mid-Nineteenth Century Plans for the Mall,” in ''The Mall in Washington, 1791—1991'', ed. by Richard Longstreth, Studies in the History of Art, Center for Advanced Studies in the Visual Arts, Symposium Papers, XIV, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 2002), xxx, 63, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TU8V4C7E view on Zotero].</ref> Downing was a significant proponent of this view. In his October 1848 ''Horticulturist'' editorial entitled “A Talk about Public Parks and Gardens,” for example, Downing wrote that public [[park]]s would play an important role “in elevating the national character.” He urged his readers: “Let our people see for themselves the influence for good which [the founding of a public [[park]]] would effect, no less than the healthful enjoyment it will afford, and I feel confident that the taste for public [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]], in the United States, will spread as rapidly as that for [[cemetery|cemeteries]] has done” ([[#Downing_1848|view text]]).<ref>Twombly 2012, 32, 34—35, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]. See also A. J. Downing, “Our Country Villages,” '' Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 12 (June 1850): 540—41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/2DJ27X4W view on Zotero].</ref> As editor, Downing also published the writing of other important advocates for public parks, including an early essay by Frederick Law Olmsted (1822—1903) entitled “The People’s Park at Birkenhead, Near Liverpool.”<ref>W. [Frederick Law Olmsted], “The People’s Park at Birkenhead, Near Liver[p]ool,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6 (1851): 224–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/U59KJXQV view on Zotero.]</ref>

Downing gained a wide audience through his books and editorials in the ''Horticulturist'', but his influence exceeded the readership of such publications as agricultural journals and later generations of pattern-book authors modified, adapted, and widely disseminated Downing’s ideas. Much as Downing had imitated and altered English architectural and landscape practices to suit an American audience, according to Schuyler, “[t]he publication of his designs was followed by a process of imitation and modification, an American analogue to the adaptation of English forms he had practiced.”<ref>Schuyler 1996, 229, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> Gardens and buildings that were not designed by Downing but nonetheless owed their forms to Downing’s ideas proliferated throughout the United States during the middle of the 19th century.<ref>Twombly 2012, 18, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2156.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, Unknown, “Residence of the Late A. J. Downing, Newburgh on the Hudson” and “General Plan of House & Grounds,” in P. Barry, ed. ''Horticulturist'' 3, new series (1853), frontispiece.]]
[[File:1264.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 10, Henry Gritten, ''Springside: Center Circle'', 1852.]]
Few of Downing’s design projects are extant. His first major architectural and landscape design project was Highland Garden (also known as Highland Place), Downing’s own Tudor-style house in Newburgh that he designed in 1838, around the time of his marriage to Caroline Elizabeth De Windt (1815—1905).<ref>Caroline Elizabeth De Windt was the granddaughter of John Adams (1735—1826), the second president of the United States, and grand-niece of John Quincy Adams (1767—1848), the sixth president of the United States. When Eunice Bridge Downing died in 1838, Downing and his brother Charles (1802—1885) inherited more than eleven acres. They divided the property evenly, each taking four-and-a-half acres with the remaining two-plus acres held jointly. The house was completed in 1839 on the property that Downing inherited. Twombly 2012, 17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero].</ref> Although “the Newburgh villa was. . . an accomplished work,” Adam W. Sweeting argues that Downing, only twenty-four years old and with no formal architectural training, most likely “relied on an English pattern book when designing his house.” Initially, Downing’s [[nursery]] business took up much of the property near the residence, limiting the scope of his landscape design. However, after selling the [[nursery]] in 1846, he developed the landscape surrounding his home to resemble a [[picturesque]] English estate [Fig. 9].<ref>Sweeting 1996, 128, 131, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SDCTTVIV view on Zotero].</ref> Although he was not a trained architect, as his national reputation grew, Downing received requests to design private and public buildings. According to Schuyler, between 1846 and 1850, Downing usually passed these commissions on to [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]]. However, there are at least three projects from this period on which Downing and [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] worked together on the architectural design: Angier Cottage in Medford, Massachusetts; the design for the proposed New York State Agricultural College; and the plans for the entrance gate and chapel for the [[Cemetery]] of the Evergreens in Brooklyn, New York.<ref>Schuyler 1996, 155, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> While traveling in London in 1850, Downing met the young English architect Calvert Vaux (1825—1895) and convinced Vaux to move to Newburgh so that he could pursue additional architectural projects with Vaux’s assistance. From September 1850 until July 1852, Vaux worked with Downing—initially in Downing’s employ before the two formed a professional partnership, “Downing & Vaux, Architects.” Of their many collaborations, Springside, Matthew Vassar’s (1792—1868) one-hundred-acre estate in Poughkeepsie, New York, is one of the few that survives largely intact [Fig. 10].<ref>For more information on Downing and Vaux’s commission for Springside, see Schuyler 1996, 164—70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero]. Other projects include a block of commercial shops and offices in Boston’s waterfront district; the Dudley Observatory in Albany, New York; houses for David Moore and Dr. William A. M. Culbert in Newburgh, New York; Italianate villas for the brothers Robert P. and Francis Dodge in Georgetown, Washington, DC; and Daniel Parish’s villa on Bellevue Avenue in Newport, Rhode Island. See Twombly 2012, 22—23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; Schuyler 1996, 170—74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref>

Downing and Vaux’s most significant project was the 1850—52 plans for a Public Grounds in Washington, DC, located in the area that now constitutes the [[National Mall]]. At the behest of Smithsonian Secretary Joseph Henry (1797—1878), financier William Wilson Corcoran (1798—1888), Mayor Walter Lenox (1817—1874), and Commissioner of Public Buildings Ignatius Mudd (d. 1851), President Millard Fillmore (1800—1874) invited Downing to create a public [[park]] of approximately 150-acres, extending east-west between the foot of the United States Capitol Grounds and the Potomac River (then near the [[Washington Monument (Washington, DC)|Washington Monument]]) and north-south between the river and the White House.<ref>Schuyler 1996, 192, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero].</ref> Therese O’Malley has argued that improvements to Washington’s public spaces during these years should be understood as an effort “to counteract the reputation of an unimproved capital and a center of slavery.” Following the abolition of the slave trade (although not slavery itself) in the city in 1850 and the removal of slave pens across from the Smithsonian Institution’s new building, Downing’s plans to redevelop the site bolstered the federal government’s attempts to present “the appearance of democracy” and “strengthen physical symbols of the national image” through the development of the city’s public spaces.<ref> O’Malley 2002, 61—62. See also pages 70—71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TU8V4C7E view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1967.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, A. J. Downing, ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851.]]
[[File:0352.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 12, A. J. Downing, ''Suspension [[bridge]] across the [[Canal]]'' [proposed], 1851.]]
[[File:0351.jpg|thumb|right|Fig. 13, A. J. Downing, “Presidents Arch at the end of Penna Avenue,” 1851.]]
[[File:0042.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 14, Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.]]
Downing’s plan divided the Public Grounds into six sections [Fig. 11]. The U.S. Capitol Grounds would connect to the national [[Botanic Garden]], located on the site of the former [[Columbian Institute]], and then, continuing westward, to “Fountain Park,” the “Smithsonian Pleasure Grounds,” “Evergreen Garden,” and “Monument Park” (the area surrounding the [[Washington Monument (Washington, DC)|Washington Monument]]). A suspension [[bridge]] [Fig. 12] would cross the Tiber Canal, connecting the “Monument Park” to the circular [[lawn]] of the “Parade or President’s Park” and then the “President’s Grounds” located adjacent to the White House. Downing proposed a marble triumphal “President’s Arch” [Fig. 13], located at the end of Pennsylvania Avenue near the “President’s Grounds,” to mark the main entrance to the Public Grounds from the city. With the exception of the “Evergreen Garden” and the “Parade or President’s Park,” Downing intended for the Public Grounds to be landscaped in what he called the [[natural style]], with curving [[walk]]s and [[picturesque]] arrangement of trees and artificial [[lake]]s [Fig. 14].<ref>Twombly 2012, 29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; see also Schuyler 1996, 196—198, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero]; and O’Malley 2002, 64—70, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TU8V4C7E view on Zotero].</ref> In accordance with his views on the functions of public parks noted above, Downing’s goals for the redevelopment of the [[National Mall]] were, in part, pedagogical. He wrote that he hoped the Public Grounds would “become a Public School of Instruction in every thing [sic] that relates to the growth and culture of trees” ([[#Downing_1851|view text]]).

President Fillmore approved the western portion of Downing’s plan in April 1851, and the clearing, draining, and grading of the area around the Smithsonian began almost immediately. However, Downing’s life and career were tragically cut short when, on July 28, 1852, the steamship ''Henry Clay'', on which Downing was traveling between Newburgh and New York City, caught fire and he drowned. In his memory, the so-called Downing Urn was sponsored by the American Pomological Society, designed by Vaux, and sculpted in marble by Robert E. Launitz (1806—1870). Erected in 1856, it was the first monument to be completed on the [[National Mall]].<ref>President Fillmore met with Downing in November 1850, and Downing completed a plan in February 1851. Fillmore approved the plans west of 7th Street in April 1851 and the plans east of 7th Street in February 1853, after Downing’s death. Twombly 2012, 23—24, 29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view on Zotero]; Schuyler 1996, 199, 201, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T7SV2M48 view on Zotero]. In response to the burning of the ''Henry Clay'', the architect Robert Mills wrote to Fillmore in August 1852 to propose a solution to protect steamers and prevent similar tragedies. Mills did not refer to Downing by name in his letter but did note the “hecatomb of victims.” Letter from Robert Mills to President Millard Fillmore, August 6, 1852, quoted in H. M. Pierce Gallagher, ''Robert Mills, Architect of the Washington Monument, 1781—1855'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1935), 208—9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GC3NPRZJ view on Zotero]. See also O’Malley 2002, 76n61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TU8V4C7E view on Zotero]. Since 1989, the urn has been located in the Enid A. Haupt Garden behind the Smithsonian Castle. Smithsonian Gardens website, http://www.gardens.si.edu/our-gardens/downing-urn.html.</ref>

Through his writing and landscape projects, Downing left a legacy that continued to shape landscape design—and especially the urban [[park]] movement—in the United States long after his death. As designers of New York City’s Central Park, Vaux and Olmsted acknowledged that Downing’s design principles inspired their 1857—58 plan for the urban [[park]].<ref>Twombly 2012, 15, 25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ANE8W8EP view in Zotero].</ref> In 1889 Vaux and Olmsted joined forces again to plan the Andrew Jackson Downing Memorial Park, which was dedicated in Newburgh, New York, to the memory of their friend and collaborator.<ref>Yglesias 2011, 22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5H9UNB35 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Lacey Baradel''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Downing_1832"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, September 1832, “Rural Embellishments” (2012: 144)<ref name="Downing_2012">A. J. Downing, ''Andrew Jackson Downing: Essential Texts'', ed. Robert Twombly (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/58ISW6RH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In this age of improvement, perhaps nothing is advancing more rapidly, though to many imperceptibly, than the science of Horticulture. Our native forests are fast disappearing, the luscious apple and the melting peach now occupy the places once tenanted by worthless crabs and thorns, and the floral and pomonal treasures of the four continents bloom and flourish in many a spot which had long been overshadowed by ancient oak and elm.
:“The eye of an observing person is constantly reminding him of the rapid increase of costly and beautiful mansions, the abode of the wealthy farmer or the retreat of the retired citizen; and a few remarks on the rural embellishment of these are my principle reason for troubling you with this communication. That branch of horticulture called [[landscape gardening]] is, as yet, completely in its infancy among us; in fact, many—far too many—of our landed proprietors who are actively engaged in giving a character as to the appearance of their estates have but a feeble knowledge of the existence, much less the practice, of such an art.” [[#Downing_1832_cite|back up to History]]

*Downing, Andrew Jackson, January 1837, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 8)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 3, no. 1 (January 1837): 1–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The branch of the art least understood and least practised in the United States is ''[[landscape gardening]]''. The [[modern style|modern]] or [[picturesque]] style of laying out grounds is most generally attempted of late, and, we regret to see, in some cases where the [[geometric style|geometric]] would be more in character with the country and the situations. The finest single example of [[landscape gardening]], in the [[modern style]], is at [[David Hosack|Dr. Hosack’s]] [[seat]], [[Hyde Park]], and the best specimens of the [[ancient style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]] may probably be met with in the neighborhood of Philadelphia.”

*<div id="Downing_1841 preface"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1841, Preface to ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1841: ii—iii)<ref name="Downing_1841">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. . . with Remarks on Rural Architecture'' (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGUEKHNG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“While we have treatises in abundance on the various departments of the arts and sciences, there has not appeared even a single essay on the elegant art of [[Landscape Gardening]]. Hundreds of individuals who wish to ornament their grounds and embellish their places, are at a loss how to proceed, from the want of some ''leading principles'', with the knowledge of which they would find it comparatively easy to produce delightful and satisfactory results.
:“In the following pages I have attempted to trace out such principles, and to suggest practicable methods of embellishing our Rural Residences, on a scale commensurate to the views and means of our proprietors. While I have availed myself of the works of European authors, and especially those of Britain, where [[Landscape Gardening]] was first raised to the rank of a fine art, I have also endeavoured to adapt my suggestions especially to this country and to the peculiar wants of its inhabitants. . .
:“The love of country is inseparably connected with the ''love of home''. Whatever, therefore, leads man to assemble the comforts and elegancies of life around his habitation, tends to increase local attachments, and render domestic life more delightful; thus not only augmenting his own enjoyment, but strengthening his patriotism and making him a better citizen. And there is no employment or recreation which affords the mind greater or more permanent satisfaction, than that of cultivating the earth and adorning our property.” [[#Downing_1841 preface_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1841_excerpt"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1841, Excerpt from ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1841: 34—35)<ref name="Downing_1841"/>
:“A fac-simile imitation of nature in gardening, that is, a scene like wild nature, in which only wild trees, shrubs, and plants, are employed, and which is precisely like wild nature, produces pleasure only as it deceives us, and appears to be nature itself. An artistical imitation, affords pleasure to the mind, not only by the expressions of natural beauty which we discover in it, but by the more novel and choicer forms in which they are displayed, and by the tasteful art apparent in the arrangement. The relative merit of the two may be illustrated, by comparing the first, to the counterfeit of the human figure in wax, which at a short distance may be thought to be real, and the last, to the painted landscape or the marble [[statue]]. The two latter are no less imitations of nature, than the former, but they are expressive and elegant imitations only, which are never to be mistaken for the originals, as in the case of the wax figure.
:“One of the chief elements of artistical imitation in [[Landscape Gardening]], being a difference in the materials employed in the imitation of nature from those in nature herself, nothing can be more apparent, than the necessity of introducing largely, exotic ornamental trees, shrubs and plants, instead of those of indigenous growth. Thus, to take the simplest example, if we suppose a [[lawn]] of an acre, arranged with groups of trees, the groups composed of lindens, horse-chestnuts and magnolias, where the native forests are only filled with oak and ash trees, the variety of the foliage and blossoms alone, will at once suggest the recognition of art. [[Border]]s of rare flowers, and climbing plants,—gravel [[walk]]s, in the place of common paths or roads,—smooth turf, instead of wild [[meadow]],—elegant [[vase]]s and architectural ornaments, with many other accessories, bespeaking the presence of tasteful and enlightened mind; all these are the essential characteristics of [[Landscape Gardening]], considered as an art of imitation.” [[#Downing_1841_excerpt_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1842_preface"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1842, Preface to ''Cottage Residences'' (1842: ii—iv)<ref name="Downing_1842">A. J. Downing, ''Cottage Residences; or A Series of Designs for Rural Cottages and Cottage-Villas and their Gardens and Grounds. Adapted to North America'', (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VVDP37KI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . I wish to inspire all persons with a love of beautiful forms and a desire to assemble them around their daily walks of life. I wish them to appreciate how superior is the charm of that home where we discover the tasteful cottage or villa, and the well designed and neatly kept garden or grounds, full of beauty and harmony, not the less beautiful and harmonious because simple and limited, and to become aware that these superior forms, and the higher and more refined enjoyment derived from them, may be had at the same cost and with the same labor as a clumsy dwelling, and its uncouth and ill designed accessories. . .
:“The relation between a country house and its ‘surroundings,’ have led me to consider, under the term Residences, both the architectural and the gardening designs. To constitute an agreeable whole, these should indeed have a harmonious correspondence one with the other; and although most of the following designs have not actually be carried into execution, yet it is believed that they will, either entirely or in part, be found adapted to many cases of every day occurrence, or at least, furnish hints for variations suitable for peculiar circumstances and situations.” [[#Downing_1842_preface_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1844"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1844, Excerpt from ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1844: 59—60)<ref name="Downing_1844">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. . . with Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGJXRU9V view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Within the last five years, we think the [[picturesque]] is beginning to be preferred. It has, when a suitable locality offers, great advantage for us. The raw materials of [[wood]], water, and surface, by the margin of many of our rivers and brooks, are at once appropriated with so much effect, and so little art, in the [[picturesque]] mode; the annual tax on the purse too, is so comparatively little, and the charm so great!
:“On the other hand, the residences of a country of level plains, usually allow only, the beauty of simple, and graceful forms; and the larger desmesne, with its swelling hills and noble masses of [[wood]], (may we not, prospectively, say the prairie too,) should always, in the hands of the man of wealth, be made to display all the freeness and beauty of the Graceful school.
:“But there are many persons with small, cottage places, of little decided character, who have neither room, time, nor income, to attempt the improvement of their grounds fully, after either of those two schools. How shall they render their places tasteful and agreeable, in the easiest manner? We answer, ''by attempting only the simple and the natural''; and the unfailing way to secure this, is by employing only trees and grass. A soft verdant [[lawn]], and a few forest or ornamental trees, well grouped, give universal pleasure—they contain in themselves, in fact, the basis of all our agreeable sensations in a landscape garden—(natural beauty, and the recognition of art,) and they are the most enduring sources of enjoyment in any place.” [[#Downing_1844_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1844_excerpt"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1844, Excerpt from “Note on Professional Quackery,” Appendix IV in ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1844: 493)<ref name="Downing_1844"/>
:“[[Landscape Gardening]], like all other arts, is not ignorant pretenders of knowledge, who, without a spark of appreciation for the beautiful in nature, boldly undertake to remodel, in what they consider a tasteful and fashionable style, every piece of natural landscape, whether of a simple or highly [[picturesque]] character. . . We have seen one or two examples lately where a froeign ''soi-disant'' landscape gardener has completely spoiled the simply grand beauty of a fine river residence, by cutting up the breadth of a fine [[lawn]] with a ridiculous effort at what he considered a very charming arrangement of [[walk]]s and groups of tree. In this case he only followed a mode sufficiently common and appropriate in a level inland country, like that of Germany, from whence he introduced it, but entirely out of keeping with the bold and [[lake]]-like features of the landscape which he thus made discordant.” [[#Downing_1844_excerpt_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Downing_1848"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, October 1848, “A Talk about Public Parks and Gardens” (1853: 146)<ref name="Downing_1853"/>
:“. . . what an important influence these public resorts, of a rational and refined character, must exert in elevating the national character, and softening the many little jealousies of social life by a community of enjoyments. A people will have its pleasures, as certainly as its religion or laws; and whether these pleasures are poisonous and hurtful, or innocent and salutary, must greatly depend on the interest taken in them by the directing minds of the age. Get some country town of the first class to set the example by making a public [[park]] or garden of this kind. Let our people once see for themselves the influence for good which it would effect, no less than the healthful enjoyment it will afford, and I feel confident that the taste for public [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]], in the United States, will spread as rapidly as that for [[cemetery|cemeteries]] has done. If my own observation of the effect of these places in Germany is worth any thing, you may take my word for it that they will be better preachers of temperance than temperance societies, better refiners of national manners than dancing-schools, and better promoters of general good feeling than any lectures on the philosophy of happiness ever delivered in the lecture-room. In short, I am in earnest about the matter, and must therefore talk, write, preach, do all I can about it, and beg the assistance of all those who have public influence, till some good experiment of the kind is fairly tried in this country.” [[#Downing_1848_cite|back up to History]]

*Downing, Andrew Jackson, August 1849, “The Philosophy of Rural Taste” (1853: 105)<ref name="Downing_1853">A. J. Downing, ''Rural Essays'' (New York: George P. Putnam and Company, 1853), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USXH6MA2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The corollary to be drawn from this learned and curious investigation of the history of national sensibility and taste, is a very clear and satisfactory one, viz., that as success, in 'the art of composing a landscape' (as Humboldt significantly calls [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]), depends on appreciation of nature, the taste of the individual as well as that of a nation, will be in direct proportion to the profound sensibility with which he perceives the Beautiful in natural scenery.”

*<div id="Downing_1850_preface"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1850, Preface to ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850: v—vi)<ref name="Downing_1850")>A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm Houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DBKSQR9M View on Zotero]</ref>
:“There are three excellent reasons why my countrymen should have good houses.
:“The first, is because a good house (and by this I mean a fitting, tasteful, and significant dwelling) is a powerful means of civilization. A nation, whose rural population is content to live in mean huts and miserable hovels, is certain to be behind its neighbors in education, the arts, and all that makes up the external signs of progress. With the perception of proportion, symmetry, order and beauty, awakens the desire for possession, and with them comes that refinement of manners which distinguishes a civilized from a coarse and brutal people. So long as men are forced to dwell in log huts and follow a hunter’s life, we must not be surprised at lynch law and the use of the bowie knife. But, when smiling [[lawn]]s and tasteful cottages begin to embellish the country, we know that order and culture are established. And, as the first incentive towards this change is awakened in the minds of most men by the perception of beauty and superiority in external objects, it must follow that the interest manifested in the Rural Architecture of a country like this, has much to do with the progress of its civilization.
:“The second reason is, because the ''individual home'' has a great social value for a people. Whatever new systems may be needed for the regeneration of an old and enfeebled nation, we are persuaded that, in America, not only is the distinct family the best social form, but those elementary forces which give rise to the highest genius and the finest character may, for the most part, be traced back to the farm-house and the rural cottage. It is the solitude and freedom of the family home in the country which constantly preserves the purity of the nation, and invigorates its intellectual powers. The battle of life, carried on in cities, gives a sharper edge to the weapon of character, but its temper is, for the most part, fixed amid those communings with nature and the family, where individuality takes its most natural and strongest development.
:“The third reason is, because there is a moral influence in a country house—when, among an educated, truthful, and refined people, it is an echo of their character—which is more powerful than any mere oral teachings of virtue and morality. . .
:“After the volumes I have previously written on this subject, it is needless for me to add more on the purpose of this work. But it is, perhaps, proper that I should say, that it is rather intended to develop the growing taste of the people, than as a scientific work on art. Rural Architecture is, indeed, so much more a sentiment, and so much less a science, than Civil Architecture, that the majority of persons will always build for themselves, and, unconsciously, throw something of their own character into their dwellings. To do this well and gracefully, and not awkwardly and clumsily, is always found more difficult than is supposed. I have, therefore, written this volume, in the hope that it may be of some little assistance to the popular taste. For the same reason, I have endeavored to explain the whole subject in so familiar a manner, as to interest all classes of readers who can find anything interesting in beauty, convenience or fitness of a house in the country.” [[#Downing_1850_preface_cite|back up to History]]

*Downing, Andrew Jackson, June 1850, “Our Country Villages” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 540)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Our Country Villages,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 12 (June 1850): 537–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2DJ27X4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The indispensable desiderata in rural villages of this kind [newly planned in the suburbs of a great city], are the following: 1st, a large open space, [[common]], or [[park]], situated in the middle of the village—not less than 20 acres; and better, if 50 or more in extent. This should be well planted with groups of trees, and kept as a [[lawn]]. The expense of mowing it would be paid by the grass in some cases; and in others a considerable part of the space might be enclosed with a wire [[fence]], and fed by sheep or cows, like many of the public [[park]]s in England.
:“This [[park]] would be the nucleus or ''heart of the village'', and would give it an essentially rural character. Around it should be grouped all the best cottages and residences of the place; and this would be secured by selling no lots fronting upon it of less than one-fourth of an acre in extent.”

*<div id="Downing_1851"></div>Downing, Andrew Jackson, March 3, 1851, “Explanatory Notes,” describing plans for improving the Public Grounds in Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 54, 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (March 1967): 52—59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“My object in this Plan has been three-fold:
:“1st: To form a national [[Park]], which should be an ornament to the Capital of the United States; 2nd: To give an example of the [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening|Landscape Gardening]] which may have an influence on the general taste of the Country; 3rd: To form a collection of all the trees that will grown in the climate of Washington, and, by having these trees plainly labelled with their popular and scientific names, to form a public museum of living trees and shrubs where every person visiting Washington could become familiar with the habits and growth of all the hardy trees. . .
:“A national [[Park]] like this, laid out and planted in a thorough manner, would exercise as much influence on the public taste as [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] near Boston, has done. Though only twenty years have elapsed since that spot was laid out, the lesson there taught has been so largely influential that at the present moment the United States, while they have no public [[park]]s, are acknowledged to possess the finest rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] in the world. The Public Grounds at Washington treated in the manner I have here suggested, would undoubtedly become a Public School of Instruction in every thing that relates to the tasteful arrangement of [[park]]s and grounds, and the growth and culture of trees, while they would serve, more than anything else that could be devised, to embellish and give interest to the Capital. The straight lines and broad [[Avenue]]s of the streets of Washington would be pleasantly relieved and contrasted by the beauty of curved lines and natural groups of trees in the various [[park]]s. By its numerous public buildings and broad [[Avenue]]s, Washington will one day command the attention of every stranger, and if its un-improved [[public ground|public grounds]] are tastefully improved they will form the most perfect background or setting to the City, concealing many of its defects and heightening all its beauties.” [[#Downing_1851_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, September 1852 (''Horticulturist'' 7: 394—95)<ref>Anonymous, “Mr. Downing and the Horticulturist,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 9 (September 1852): 393–97, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F3WPTQZW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the editorship of the HORTICULTURIST, he has shown, perhaps, better than in his other writings, the peculiar fitness of his talents to educate the popular taste for the beautiful in nature and art. The success which has attended this periodical, and the increased attention which is being paid to [[Landscape Gardening]], Horticulture and Rural Decoration, are proof of the beneficial influence of his labors. . . Mr. Downing was not by eminance a theorist. It was not his aim to build castles too grand and lofty for human realization, or to show the power of his intellect by forming conceptions, which imagination only could give being to. The great question with him, was, how much of the really beautiful can be made subservient to the public good? how far can elegance and utility be combined? how much of the spirit of the amateur can be infused into the mass of the rural population? He has answered these questions by his deeds.”

*Anonymous, September 1852, obituaries for A. J. Downing (''Horticulturist'' 7: 430)<ref>“Tributes to the Memory of Mr. Downing,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 9 (September 1852): 427–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FD8APCU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[''From the New York Evening Post'']
:“These publications of Mr. Downing, more than any other agency, had worked a change in our style of building, and created a general improvement in taste. He was commissioned, by a large number of gentlemen about to construct private residences, to prepare the designs and lay out the grounds. The evidence of his fine professional accomplishments now meet us in all parts of the country, and his loss is one that will be felt far beyond the bereaved circle of which he was the ornament and pride.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:2244.jpg|Downing, A. J. (Andrew Jackson), 1815-1852, in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece

File:2154.jpg|Anonymous, ''Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic Garden]]s and Nurseries'', in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

File:2155.jpg|A. J. Downing, “Advertisement. Professional Landscape Gardening,” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8.

File: 0350.jpg| A. J. Davis, “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece

File:1874.jpg|Anonymous, “Residence of the Author, near Newburgh, N.Y.,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. 398, bottom image.

File:1967.jpg|A. J. Downing, ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851.

File:0023.jpg|A. J. Downing, ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the Public Grounds at Washington'', 1851. Manuscript copy by Nathaniel Michler, 1867.

File:0351.jpg|A. J. Downing, “Presidents Arch at the end of Penna Avenue,” 1851.

File:1172b.jpg| Anonymous, “Example in grouping,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 135, fig. 34.

File:0352.jpg|A. J. Downing, ''Suspension [[bridge]] across the [[Canal]]'' [proposed], 1851.

File:1264.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: Center Circle'', 1852.

File:1265.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: [[View]] of Barn Complex and Gardens'', 1852.

File:1266.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: [[View]] of Gardener's Cottage and Barns'', 1852.

File:2297.jpg|Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851.

File:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

File:2156.jpg|Unknown, “Residence of the Late A. J. Downing, Newburgh on the Hudson” and “General Plan of House & Grounds,” in P. Barry, ed. ''Horticulturist'' 3, new series (1853), frontispiece.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n80050049.html Library of Congress Authority File]

[http://tclf.org/pioneer/andrew-jackson-downing The Cultural Landscape Foundation]

[http://www.anb.org/articles/17/17-00235.html American National Biography]

[https://gardens.si.edu/gardens/haupt-garden/downing-urn/ Smithsonian Gardens - The Downing Urn]

[https://exhibitions.cul.columbia.edu/exhibits/show/downing Columbia University Libraries Online - A. J. Downing & His Legacy]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Do]]

File:2297.jpg

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A-Whitlock:

Matthew Vassar, ''Plan of Springside'', 1851. Vassar 13.312, Archives and Special Collections, Vassar College Library.

File:2297.jpg

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A-Whitlock:

Matthew Vassar, Springside Landscape Plan, 1851. Vassar 13.312, Archives and Special Collections, Vassar College Library.

File:2297.jpg

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A-Whitlock:

Square

2021-04-08T17:36:06Z

A-Whitlock:

See also: [[Bed]], [[Common]], [[Green]], [[Park]], [[Quarter]]

==History==
[[File:0245.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 1, Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A View of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.]]
In landscape design vocabulary, the term square had three distinct usages derived from its definition as a geometric shape with four right angles and four equal sides. First, “square” referred to square- or rectangular-shaped [[bed]]s and cultivated areas and was often used to describe the divisions within [[nursery|nurseries]], [[kitchen garden]]s, and [[flower garden]]s. This usage was apparent in 1799 when John Latta described the [[flower garden]] at [[Mount Vernon]], and also in 1800 when the ''Federal Gazette'' noted Adrian Valeck’s garden in Baltimore. Used in this sense, the term generally came to be subsumed under the wider terms “[[bed]]” and “[[plot]]” during the early 19th century. Second, the square represented a division of property within a city or town in a grid or orthogonal pattern, as reflected in descriptions of New Haven, Connecticut, by [[Manasseh Cutler]] (1787) and Jedidiah Morse (1789), and a report on Washington, DC, by [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] (1791). J.-P. Brissot de Warville in 1788 used both senses of the term in his description of the [[bed]]s in the [[State House Yard]] and the grid plan of the entire city of Philadelphia.

[[File:0462.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Samuel Vaughan]], “Warm or [[Berkeley Springs]], in Virginia,” 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June–September 1787.]]
Third, and most significantly, square was used to denote a public space. An early and important example is William Penn’s 1683 plan for the city of Philadelphia, which broke from a strict grid to preserve public spaces, called squares, which would remain open for communal use. In 1734, Savannah, Georgia, was laid out with reserved open squares around which building lots were arranged [Fig. 1]. Imported from European urban planning traditions, the open square was a feature in the settlements throughout the New World. Although Spanish, French, Dutch, and German colonies designated the spaces as ''plaza'', ''place d’arms'', ''platz'', and so forth, English-speaking visitors generally described these spaces as squares. They even extended application of the term to Native American settlements, as attested by [[William Bartram|William Bartram’s]] 1791 description of a town in Cuscowilla, Georgia ([[#Bartram|view text]]). Furthermore, in the English colonies, writers often used the term “square” to refer to an area that elsewhere was described as a [[green]], [[yard]], or [[common]]. New Haven Green, University of Virginia, and [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia are all examples of this broader application of the term.

[[File:0974.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Joseph Jacques Ramée, “Monument to the memory of general George Washington, to be erected at Baltimore,” 1813.]]
[[File:0412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Military academy. Principal story, floor plan, 1800.]]
Squares marked the termination of major streets and [[avenue]]s and provided visual focal points at intersections [Fig. 2].<ref>For an in-depth treatment of early American squares, see John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG view on Zotero], and Carl Feiss, “Early American Public Squares,” in ''Town and Square, from the Agora to the Village: Instruments of Social Reform'', ed. Paul Zucker (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 237–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RMTCSZD4 view on Zotero].</ref> Urban squares were often the setting for monuments, as in Joseph Jacques Ramée’s design for the [[Washington Monument (Baltimore)| Washington Monument]] in Baltimore [Fig. 3], and for public buildings, such as court houses, meeting houses, market houses, and magazines. As [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant]] noted, the [[statue]]s, [[column]]s, and [[obelisk]]s that ornamented many squares not only commemorated celebrated heroes of the past, but also served as instructive examples to the present generation of proper patriotic behavior. Squares often became centers of neighborhood or civic identity, as was the case with Union Square in New York and Rittenhouse Square in Philadelphia. A 1704 resolution of the House of Burgesses of Virginia in Williamsburg suggested that the scale and
openness of squares were ideally suited to position institutions of authority. As a result, squares were used as sites for civic displays, such as a parade of the Salem, Massachusetts, regiment held in 1808. [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] in 1800 indicated a square in his plan for a military school, a space that could be used for drilling and exercises, and that could be kept easily under surveillance [Fig. 4].

[[File:0880.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 5, James Stoddert, A ground [[Plot|plat]] of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].]]
In addition to public squares, American towns occasionally included smaller residential versions of the same feature. Surrounded by private houses and intended for the recreation and enjoyment of immediate residents, these often-gated residential squares were included in the early plan of Bloomsbury Square in Annapolis, Maryland, as seen in James Stoddert’s plan of 1718 [Fig. 5]. Similar residential squares, such as Gramercy Square in New York and Louisburg Square in Boston, continued to be constructed throughout the period under study, although they never reached the popularity of their London counterparts developed after the Great Fire of 1666.<ref> Feiss, “Early American Public Squares,” 245, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RMTCSZD4 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0521.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public Square, Philadelphia'', 1824.]]
Both residential and public squares provided a venue for garden or landscape design within the city. Many squares were initially grass lots, divided by [[walk]]s or paths, and planted with trees in fairly simple configurations, as at New Haven Green. In the 19th century more elaborate designs became common. [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Benjamin Henry Latrobe’s]] 1819 design for Place d’Armes (renamed Jackson Square) in New Orleans [[[#Fig_13|See Fig. 13]]], and William Rush’s 1824 plan for Franklin Public Square in Philadelphia [Fig. 6], exemplify the inclusion of intricate [[walk]]s and planting [[bed]]s, statuary, and ironwork [[fence]]s and [[gate]]s that marked these squares as ornamental—clearly intended for leisure and recreation and not as pastures for cows or drilling militia. Of particular note is the installation of [[fountain]]s made possible by the introduction of pressurized water systems. These [[fountain]]s set in public squares and [[park]]s became prominent symbols of civic achievement and pride.

An account of the improvements planned for Richmond’s Capitol Square in 1851 conveys the appeal of a “delightful resort” in a growing urban center, typical of mid-19th-century public landscape design projects. The attraction of these urban cases, however, went beyond aesthetics. Writers such as William A. Alcott (1838) and Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline) Tuthill (1848) argued that the healthful and moral benefits of these public spaces should be available to all classes. The opportunity that squares afforded for recreation, light, fresh air, and a mixing of the citizenry propelled these landscapes into instruments of social reform.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
[[File:0144.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Thomas Holme, “A Portraiture of the City of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania in America,” 1681.]]
*Penn, William, August 16, 1683, describing Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Blome 1687: 110)<ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are also in each [[Quarter]] of the City, a '''Square''' of eight Acres to be for the like uses, as the ''Moor-fields'' in ''London''.” [Fig. 7]

[[File:0882.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), after 1800.]]
*House of Burgesses of Virginia, May 8, 1704, describing resolutions pertaining to construction in Williamsburg, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“The House took into consideration the report of the Committee appointed to view the '''Square''' markt out belonging to the Capitol and after some time spent therein came to these resolutions following. Resolved. That the Public Prison be included within the Bounds appropriated to the Capitol and that the said bounds already ascertained for the said Capitol be continued from the main road just before the door of One of the Capitol houses to the extent of forty one poles to the Post on the West side of the spring, thence fourteen poles to the corner of the ditch, thence along the said Ditch thirty poles and a half to a post by the said Ditch and from thence to the beginning place.” [Fig. 8]

*Ross, George, March 1, 1727, describing Newcastle, DE (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“In the middle of the Town lies a spacious [[green]] in form of a '''square''', in a corner whereof stood formerly a Fort &c.”

*Prentis, Joseph, 1784, describing his garden in Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 344)<ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zorero].</ref>
:“. . . sowed Pease in the '''Square''' next Chimney. . . Glory of England, sowed same Day in '''Square''' next Street.”

*Washington, George, February 12, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig 1978: 4:89)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976-79), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKQVPUC3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Planted Eight young Pair Trees sent me by Doctr. Craik in the following places—viz.
:“2 Orange Burgamots in the No. Garden, under the back [[wall]]—3d. tree from the Green House at each end of it.
:“1 Burgamot at the Corner of the [[border]] in the South Garden just below the necessary.
:“2 St. Germians, one in each [[border]] (middle thereof) of the upper '''Square''’s by the Asparagas [[Bed]] & Artichoake Ditto upper bordr.
:“3 Brown Beuries in the west '''square''' in the Second flat—viz. 1 on the [[border]] (middle thereof) next the [[Fall/Falling_garden|Fall]] or [[Terrace|slope]]—the other two an the [[border]] above the [[walk]] next the old Stone [[Wall]].”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 3, 1787, describing New Haven, CT, and his plans for the Ohio Company (1987: 1:218, 330–31)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The city of New Haven covers a large piece of ground, a little descending toward the sea, with a southern aspect. It is laid out in regular '''square''’s, with a public '''square''' near the center. Its streets are tolerably wide, and some of them ornamented with rows of trees. There is a row of trees set round the public '''square''', which were small while I was at college, but are now large, and add much to its beauty; a row across the center has been very lately set out, in a line with the State House, two large Meeting Houses and the Grammar School. Within the '''square''', and on the [[border]]s of others adjoining, are six steeples and cupolas on public buildings, within a very small compass of ground.
:“You will see, by the inclosed, that our ideas of streets, and the width of front lots, nearly correspond with yours. I am not, however, pleased with the size nor form of our '''squares'''. It is proposed that there should be nine lots on a side, and four at the end, which I think will have too much of the oblong. Were the ends increased, though, I should prefer an oblong to a '''square'''; the effect would be more pleasing to the eye, and not less convenient. The rear, which I think is now too scanty, might be increased, and the whole of the lots more uniform. The plan we have formed was, unavoidably, done in a hasty manner, without drawing it on paper, and will, I think, be somewhat altered. It is our intention to set rows of mulberry trees, immediately, on each side of the streets, at the distance of ten or fifteen feet from the line on which the houses are to be built. They will make an agreeable shade, increase the salubrity of the air, add to the beauty of the streets, and, what we have principally in view, afford food for an immense number of silk-worms.”

*Brissot de Warville, J.-P., 1788, describing Philadelphia, PA (1792: 316–17)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States of America, Performed in 1788'', ed. Durand Echeverria, trans. Maro S. Vamos and Durand Echeverria (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RB4EKFVG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Behind the State-house is a [[public garden]]; it is the only one that exists in Philadelphia. It is not large; but it is agreeable, and one may breathe in it. It is composed of a number of verdant '''squares''', intersected by [[alley]]s.
:“All the space from Front-street on the Delaware to Front-street on the [[Schuylkill_River|Skuylkill]], is already distributed into '''squares''' for streets and houses.”

[[File:1010.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 9, James Wadsworth, “Plan of the City of New Haven,” 1748.]]
*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing New Haven, CT (quoted in Morse 1970: 221)
:“The town was originally laid out in '''squares''' of sixty rods. Many of these '''squares''' have been divided by cross streets. . . Near the centre of the city is the public '''square'''; on and around which are the public buildings. . .The public '''square''' is encircled with rows of trees, which render it both convenient and delightful. Its beauty, however, is greatly diminished by the [[burial ground]], and several of the public buildings, which occupy a considerable part of it.” [Fig. 9]

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing an Indian town in Cuscowilla, GA (1928: 167–68)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Upon our arrival we repaired to the public '''square''' or council-house, where the chiefs and senators were already convened. . .
:“The banquet succeeded; the ribs and choicest fat pieces of the bullocks, excellently well barbecued, were brought into the apartment of the public '''square''', constructed and appointed for feasting.”

*Bentley, William, June 12, 1791, describing Pleasant Hill, seat of Joseph Barrell, Charlestown, MA (1962: 1:264)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[June] 12. Was politely received at dinner by Mr Barrell, & family, who shewed me his large & elegant arrangements for amusement, & philosophic experiments. . . His Garden is beyond any example I have seen. . . The '''Squares''' are decorated with Marble figures as large as life. No expense is spared to render the whole amusing, instructive, & friendly.”

[[File:1134.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 10, [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States. . . ,” August 1791. The square is labelled "L".]]
*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], August 19, 1791 and January 4, 1792, describing his plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 157, 165)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The grand [[avenue]] connecting the palace and the Federal House will be magnificent. . . as also the several '''squares''' which are intended for the Judiciary Courts, the National Bank, the grand Church, the play house, markets and exchange, offering a variety of situations unparallelled for beauty, suitable for every purpose, and in every point convenient, calculated to command the highest price at a sale.
:“The '''Squares''' colored yellow, being fifteen in number, are proposed to be divided among the several States of the Union, for each of them to improve, or subscribe a sum additional to the value of the land; that purpose and the improvements around the '''Square''' to be completed in a limited time.
:“The center of each '''Square''' will admit of [[Statue]]s, [[Column]]s, [[Obelisk]]s, or any other ornament such as the different States may choose to erect: to perpetuate not only the memory of such individuals whose counsels or Military achievements were conspicuous in giving liberty and independence to this Country; but also those whose usefulness hath rendered them worthy of general imitation, to invite the youth of succeeding generations to tread in the paths of those sages, or heroes whom their country has thought proper to celebrate.
:“The situation of these '''Squares''' is such that they are the most advantageously and reciprocally seen from each other and as equally distributed over the whole City district, and connected by spacious [[avenue]]s round the grand Federal Improvements and as contiguous to them, and at the same time as equally distant from each other, as circumstances would admit. The Settlements round those '''Squares''' must soon become connected.” [Fig. 10]

*Tucker, St. George, May 28, 1795, describing Williamsburg, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“Near the center of the town there is a pleasant '''square''' of about ten acres, which is generally covered with a delightful verdure.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Newburyport, NH, and Boston, MA (1821: 1:439, 489–91)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels; in New-England and New-York'', 4 vols. (New Haven: The Author, 1821–22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHBP7TH2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ground, on which the former church, belonging to the same congregation [Presbyterian], stood, was purchased for $8,000; and devoted for ever to the purpose of enlarging a small public '''square'''. . .
:“A handsome lot has been purchased by Moses Brown, Esq. in front of one of the churches, for $13,000; and appropriated for ever, as an open '''square''', to the use of the public; an act of liberality, which needs no comment.
:“Boston contains one hundred and thirty-five streets, twenty-one lanes, eighteen courts, and, it is said, a few '''squares''': although, I confess, I have never seen any thing in it, to which I should give that name. . .
:“It is remarkable, that the scheme of forming public '''squares''', so beautiful, and in great towns so conducive to health, should have been almost universally forgotten. Nothing is so cheerful, so delightful, or so susceptible of the combined elegancies of nature and art. On these open grounds the inhabitants might always find sweet air, charming [[walk]]s, [[fountain]]s refreshing the atmosphere, trees excluding the sun, and, together with fine flowering shrubs, presenting to the eye the most ornamental objects, found in the country. Here, also, youth and little children might enjoy those sports, those voluntary indulgences, which in fresh air, are, peculiarly to them, the sources of health and the prolongation of life. Yet many large cities are utterly destitute of these appendages; and in no city are they so numerous, as the taste for beauty, and a regard for health, compel us to wish.”

*Latta, John, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Martin 1991: 143)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The garden is very handsomely laid out in '''squares''' and flower knots and contains a great variety of trees, flowers and plants of foreign growth collected from almost every part of the world.”

*Beebe, Lewis, 1800, describing a Mr. Pratt’s garden (exact location undetermined) (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Journal of Beebe Lewis, 1799–1801)<ref>Lewis Beebe, ''Lewis Beebe Journal, 1776–1801,'' [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/V2B6NEAQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Likewise the [[border]] of every '''square''' is impossible for me to describe. The remaining parts of each '''square''' within the [[border]], is planted with beans, pease, cabbage, onions, Betes, carrots, Parsnips, Lettuse, Radished, Strawberries, cucumbers, Potatoes, and many other articles.”

*Anonymous, June 14, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' the estate of Adrian Valeck, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 136)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A large garden in the highest state of cultivation, laid out in numerous and convenient [[walk]]s and '''squares''' bordered with [[espalier]]s, on which. . . the greatest variety of fruit trees, the choicest fruits from the best nurseries in this country and Europe have been attentively and successfully cultivated. . . Behind the garden in a [[grove]] and [[shrubbery]] or bosquet planted with a great variety of the finest forest trees, oderiferous & other flowering shrubs etc.”

[[File:0669.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 11, Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the Water Works at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.]]
*Scott, Joseph, 1806, describing Centre Square, Philadelphia, PA (1806: 25–26)<ref>Joseph A. Scott, ''Geographical Description of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Printed by R. Cochran, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/55XKIWPN view on Zotero..]</ref>
:“The water-works of Philadelphia are the most extensive of their kind of any in America. . . The water is discharged into a circular aqueduct, extending along Chestnut and Broad streets, into the middle of Market-street, in the centre '''square'''. . . In the centre '''square''', upon Market-street, is a marble edifice, which receives the water from Schuylkill. It also contains a steam engine, which raises the water to a reservoir, whence it descends into wooden pipes, which convey it through the city. The building in the centre '''square''', is a '''square''' of sixty feet, with a Doric [[portico]] on the east and west fronts.” [Fig. 11]

[[File:0001.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 12, George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.]]
*Anonymous, October 15, 1808, describing Salem, MA (''Essex Register'')
:“On Wednesday last the Salem Regiment, the Cadets, the Artillery and the Cavalry, formed a line on Washington '''Square''', and were inspectedand reviewed by the proper officers. The appearance of the whole line was highly gratifying to the spectators. In the afternoon the imitation of battle was performed with spirit and precision; and very much to the satisfaction of the military men.” [Fig. 12]

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, SC (1858: 128)<ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, SC: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“About the year 1755 Henry Laurens purchased a lot of four acres in Ansonborough, which is now called Laurens’s '''square''', and enriched it with everything useful and ornamental that Carolina produced or his extensive mercantile connections enabled him to procure from remote parts of the world. Among a variety of other curious productions, he introduced olives, capers, limes, ginger, guinea grass, the alpine strawberry, bearing nine months in the year, red raspberrys, blue grapes; and also directly from the south of France, apples, pears, and plums of fine kinds, and vines which bore abundantly of the choice white eating grape called Chasselates blancs. The whole was superintended with maternal care by Mrs. Elinor Laurens with the assistance of John Watson, a complete English gardener.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 21, 1809, describing Princeton, NJ (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“In front of it [the College] is a very handsome green '''square''' of about four Acres, enclosed in a railing, & produces very fine herbage. It is attached to the College as a place of recreation & amusement for the students.”

*Proceedings of the Corporation, December 10, 1810, describing the [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (quoted in Hosack 1811: 51)<ref>David A. Hosack, ''Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SE9V2UDD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“that so long as the said grounds are continued as a [[botanic garden]], or as an open '''square''' for any other public use, the streets intersecting the same will not be required to be opened.”

*Anonymous, 1815, describing in the ''Georgia Journal'' the improvements of the state capitol in Milledgeville, GA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 292)<ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>
:“[Improvements included] the enclosure of the State-House '''square''' and [[avenue]]s of trees planted in it, which in a few years will form an agreeable and beautiful [[Promenade|prominade]] [''sic''].”

*Anonymous, 1817, describing Savannah, GA (quoted in Schwaab and Bull 1973: 144)<ref name="Schwaab">Eugene L. Schwaab and Jacqueline Bull, ''Travels in the Old South'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBE4QNV7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Squares''' to the amount of 14 or 16 are judiciously interspersed through the town, relieving the monotony resulting from streets crossing each other at right angles, as those of this city do. Circular enclosures surround the centres of those '''squares''', which together with the side [[walk]]s, are planted with a number of similar ornamental trees.”

*Anonymous, October 10, 1817, describing Richmond, VA (''Richmond Enquirer'')
:“It was but in February, 1816, that the Act passed 'Establishing a Museum on part of the Public '''Square''', in the city of Richmond.' . . . And lo! the building is completed—an ornament to the Public '''Square''', and an ornament to the State which contains it.”

<div id="Fig_13"></div>[[File:0063.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 13, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819. [[#Fig_13_cite|back up to History]]]]
*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], January 13, 1819, describing New Orleans, LA (1951: 23)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The public '''square''', which is open to the river, has an admirable general effect, & is infinitely superior to anything in our Atlantic cities as a water [[view]] of the city. This '''square''' extends along the river about—feet, and is—feet deep. The whole of the side parallel to the river is occupied by the Cathedral in the center & by two symmetrical buildings on each side. That to the West is called the Principal, & contains the public offices & council chamber of the city. That on the East is called the Presbytery, being the property of the Church.” [Fig. 13]

*New Orleans City Council, January 16, 1819 (Howard-Tilton Memorial Library, Tulane University)
:“the Mayor is authorized to have as many young willow trees planted along the length of the City Levee as he deems necessary, and to have a protection placed around them as to insure their growth; That the Mayor is furthermore authorized to have other trees planted in the Public '''Square''' to take the place of those that are missing.”

*Anonymous, 1820, describing Memphis, TN (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 179)<ref name="Schwaab"></ref>
:“The streets run to the cardinal points. They are wide and spacious, and, together with a number of [[alley]]s, afford a free and abundant circulation of air. There are, besides, four public '''squares''', in different parts of the town, and between the front lots and the river, is an ample vacant space, reserved as a [[promenade]]; all of which must contribute very much to the health and comfort of the place, as well as to its security and ornament.”

*Anonymous, May 26, 1824, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 132)<ref>Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, D.C., 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJ3JTTJB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“1st. The water of Tiber Creek being thus conducted into the Capitol '''square''', will afford ample security against the progress of fire.”

*Forman, Martha Ogle, August 20, 1824, describing Newark, NJ (1976: 185)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large '''squares''' of Grass, with its neat white houses and little [[yard]]s in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

[[File:1141_top.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 14, Anonymous, Map of Washington Square [detail], c. 1835–40.]]
*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Washington Square, Philadelphia, PA (1832: 2:48–49)<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero..]</ref>
:“Near this enclosure [at the State House] is another of much the same description, called Washington '''Square'''. Here there was an excellent crop of clover; but as the trees are numerous, and highly beautiful, and several commodious [[seat]]s are placed beneath their shade, it is, spite of the long grass, a very agreeable retreat from heat and dust. It was rarely, however, that I saw any of these [[seat]]s occupied; the Americans have either no leisure, or no inclination for those moments of ''delassement'' that all other people, I believe, indulge in. . . it is nevertheless the nearest approach to a London '''square''' that is to be found in Philadelphia.” [Fig. 14]

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Jacksonville, IL (1975: 357)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen Bryant II and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The village of Jacksonville is a remarkably moral place—more so than most villages in New England, and the people seem intelligent. It is a collection of mean little houses about a dirty '''square''', and is one of the ugliest and most unpleasant places I ever saw. It stands in the midst of a prairie and is without a tree, except some very little ones just planted—but these are not on the principal '''square'''.”

[[File:1239.jpg|thumb|600 px|Fig. 15, George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from [[Canal]] Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.]]
*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a plantation near New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:81–82)<ref name="Ingraham">Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the left and diagonally from the dwelling house we noticed a very neat, pretty village, containing about forty small snow-white cottages, all precisely alike, built around a pleasant '''square''', in the centre of which, was a [[grove]] or cluster of magnificent sycamores. Near by, suspended from a belfry, was the bell which called the slaves to and from their work and meals. This village was their residence, and under the shade of the trees in the centre of the '''square''', we could discern troops of little ebony urchins from the age of eight years downward, all too young to work in the field, at their play. . .” [Fig. 15]

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:91)<ref name="Ingraham"></ref>
:“Though the water, or shore-line, is very nearly semi-circular, the Levée-street, above mentioned, does not closely follow the shore, but is broken into two angles, from which the streets diverge as before mentioned. These streets are again intersected by others running parallel with the Levée-street, dividing the city into '''squares''', except where the perpendicular streets meet the angles, where necessarily the ‘'''squares'''’ are lessened in breadth at the extremity nearest the river, and occasionally form pentagons and parallelograms, with ''oblique'' sides, if I may so express it.
:“After crossing Levée-street, we entered Rue St. Pierre, which issues from it south of the grand '''square'''. This '''square''' is an open [[green]], surrounded by a lofty iron railing, within which troops of boys, whose sports carried my thoughts away to ‘home sweet home,’ were playing, shouting and merry making.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elias Hasket Derby House, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 410–11)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9/q/notices%20of%20gardens%20and%20horticulture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The extent of the garden and [[pleasure ground]] is several acres. The garden lies to the south of the mansion, and is, we should judge, nearly a '''square'''. It is laid out with straight [[walk]]s, running at right angles, with flower [[border]]s on each side of the [[alley]]s, and the '''squares''' occupied by fruit trees; the [[greenhouse|green-house]] and grapery stand in the centre of the garden, and are screened on the back by a [[hedge]].”

[[File:1809.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 16, Otto Boetticher, ''Seventh Regiment on Review, Washington Square, New York'', 1851.]]
*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, NY (1841: 1:38–39)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the [[Park]], which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson '''Square''', the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington '''Square''', about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-[[walk]]s or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a [[park]], or [[public garden]], or public [[walk]], where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed.” [Fig. 16]

[[File:0034.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 17, [[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, DC (Scott 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A range of trees is proposed to surround three sides of the '''square''' which is intended to be laid open by an iron or other railing, the north side to be enclosed with a high brick [[wall]] to serve as a shelter and to secure the various [[hothouse|hot houses]] and other buildings of an inferior character.” [Fig. 17]

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Philadelphia, PA (1843: 318–19)<ref>Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Public'' '''''Squares'''''.—It is to the wise and liberal foresight of the great founder of Pennsylvania that we owe most of the public '''squares''' which now ornament our city. In the original plan, as laid out by Thomas Holmes, Penn’s surveyor general in 1682, there was to be a public '''square''' in the centre containing ten acres, and one in each [[quarter]] of the city containing eight acres. . .
:“Washington '''square''', on Sixth street between Walnut and Locust, was for many years used as a public [[burial ground]] for the poor and for strangers, under the name of the Potters’ field. . . Its improvement as a public '''square''' commenced in 1815, when a variety of trees were planted, gravel [[walk]]s laid out, and other steps taken which have led to its present attractive appearance. It is intended to erect, in the centre of this '''square''',a monument to the memory of Washington; the cornerstone having been laid with due ceremony at the celebration of his birth day, on the 22nd of February, 1833.
:“Franklin '''square''' is on Sixth street between Race and Vine, being also laid out with gravel [[walk]]s and planted with trees, affording a public [[promenade]] equally agreeable with Washington '''square'''. A magnificent [[fountain]], surrounded by a marble [[basin]], has been constructed in the centre, supplied with water from the works at Fairmount.
:“Logan '''square'''. . . and Rittenhouse '''square'''. . . are both enclosed and planted with trees, and promise in a few years to present an appearance similar to Washington and Franklin '''squares''', affording to the inhabitants of the western part of the city, cool and shady [[walk]]s of equal attraction to those now enjoyed in the eastern '''squares'''.
:“Penn '''square''', at the intersection of Market and Broad streets, was, within the recollection of many now living, not a '''''square''''' but a ''circle'', having the street passing round it and enclosing the distributing reservoir of the city water works.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, April 7, 1843, describing Savannah, GA (Clarke 1993: 2:154)<ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Savannah is beautifully laid out; its broad streets are thickly planted with the Pride of India, and its frequent open '''squares''' shaded with trees of various kinds.”

[[File:1429.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 18, John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), “Central Part of Pittsfield, Mass.,” in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp 87.]]
*Barber, John Warner, 1844, describing Pittsfield, MA (1844: 87–88)<ref>John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections, Being a General Collection of Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to the History and Antiquities of Every Town in Massachusetts, with Geographical Descriptions'' (Worcester, MA: Warren Lazell, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F53ITP6J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is a public '''square''' in the center, containing about four acres: in the center of this '''square''' is a large elm, which was left standing when the original forest was cleared away.” [Fig. 18]

*Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline), 1848, describing the public '''squares''' in New York, NY, and Philadelphia, PA (1848: 317, 319)<ref name="Tuthill">Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The citizens of New York have at length become aware of the beauty and salubrity of public '''squares'''. St. John’s Park, Washington '''Square''', Union '''Square''', and several others in recently-built parts of the city, are tastefully ornamented with trees and [[shrubbery]], affording sweet green spots for the eye to rest upon, as a relief from the glare of brick [[wall]]s and dirty pavements.
:“The public '''squares''' of Philadelphia, are incalculably important to the health of the city. Beneath the dense foliage of Washington '''Square''', crowds of merry children enjoy, unmolested, their healthful sports. Within the enclosure of Independence '''Square''', was first promulgated the Declaration of Independence. Franklin '''Square''' has in the centre a [[fountain]], falling into a handsome, white marble [[basin]]. Penn, Logan, and Rittenhouse '''Squares''' are also ornamental to the city.”

*Town Council of the Borough of West Chester, March 13, 1848, describing West Chester, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 492–93)<ref>William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Whereas it has been deemed expedient and proper to improve the public '''Square''', on which the upper reservoir connected with the Waterworks of the borough is situated, by laying out the same in suitable [[walk]]s, and introducing various ornamental trees and [[shrubbery]]: And whereas it will be convenient and necessary to designate the said '''Square''' by some appropriate name: . . . That the public '''Square''', aforesaid, shall for ever hereafter be designated and known by the name of ‘THE MARSHALL '''SQUARE'''.’”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the '''Square''' itself on the western side thereof. . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument. . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and [[picturesque]] [[lawn]]s. . .
:“The eastern portion of the '''square''' will likewise undergo considerable change—the rugged features will be materially softened down, a [[fountain]] and [[jet d’eau]] to correspond with those on the western side will be placed in the valley near the state courthouse. . .
:“The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the '''Square''', however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], [[parterre]]s, and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the '''Square''' a place of delightful resort.”

===Citations===

*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., Norwood, NJ: W.J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To forme it [the garden] therfore with [[walk]]s, crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with [[hedge]]s, with '''squares''', knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure '''square''' parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge.”

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[piazza|PIAZZA]], in building, popularly called piache, an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[portico|PORTICO]].
:“The word literally signifies a broad open place or '''square'''; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico|portico’s]] around them.”

*Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 34) <ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref>
:''[[Walk]]s, Paths, [[Plot/Plat|Plats]], [[Border]]s, and a Hot-[[Bed]] Ground.''
:“58. To render my directions more clear as well as more brief, I have given a plan of my proposed garden, PLATE I . . .
:59. . . . Before, however, I proceed further, let me give my reasons for choosing an ''Oblong '''Square''''', instead of a '''''Square''' of equal sides''. It will be seen, that the length of my garden is from East to West. By leaving a greater length in this direction than from North to South three important advantages are secured. ''First'', we get a ''long'' and ''warm'' [[border]] under the ''North [[fence]]'' for the rearing of things early in the spring. ''Second'', we get a ''long'' and ''cool'' [[border]] under the ''South'' [[fence]] for ''shading'', during the great heats. . .

[[File:1817.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 19, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a large public square, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1030, fig. 733.]]
*[[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1029–30)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“7319. ''Public'' '''''squares''''', of such magnitude as to admit of being laid out in ample [[walk]]s, open and shady, are almost peculiar to Britain. The grand object is to get as extended a line of uninterrupted [[promenade]] as is possible within the given limits. A [[walk]] parallel to the boundary [[fence]], and at a short distance within it, evidently includes the maximum of extent; but if the enclosure is small, the rapid succession of angles and turns becomes extremely disagreeable, and continually breaks in upon the ''pas des promeneurs'', the conversation of a party, or individual contemplation. The angles, therefore, must be avoided, by ''rounding them off'' in a large '''square'''; in a small one, by forming the [[walk]] into a circle; and in a small parallelogram, by adopting an oval form. In laying out a large '''square'''. . . four objects ought to be kept in view. 1. Sufficient open space (''a''), both of lawn and [[walk]], so as the parents, looking from the windows of the houses which surround the '''square''', may not long at a time lose sight of their children: 2. An open [[walk]], exposed to the sun, for winter and spring (''b''): 3. A [[walk]] shaded by trees, but airy for summer (''c''): 4. Resting-places (''d''); and a centrical covered [[seat]] and retreat (''e''), which, being nearly equidistant from every point may be readily gained in case of a sudden shower, &c. The [[statue]]s of eminent public men are obvious and appropriate decorations for '''squares'''.” [Fig. 19]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''SQUARE''', ''n''. . .
:“2. An area of four sides, with houses on each side.
:“The [[statue]] of Alexander VII. stands in the large '''''square''''' of the town. ''Addison''.”

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 1)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“the centre part of the garden may be divided into '''squares''', on the sides of which a [[border]] may be laid out three or four feet wide, in which the various flowering plants may be raised, unless a separate [[flower garden]] is intended. The centre [[bed]]s, may be planted with all the various kinds of vegetables as well as Gooseberries, Currants, Raspberries, Strawberries, &c.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Fountain]]s are going out of use, though we think without sufficient reason. In more frequented grounds, such as public '''squares''' in towns, we think them particularly appropriate. We would not, however, propose even for these, such expensive [[fountain]]s as are frequently seen in Europe, where water is poured forth in immense volumes in marble [[basin]]s, amid tritons and sea horses, and cars. A single streak of water would be a more pleasing object.”

*Alcott, William A., 1838, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages” (''American Annals of Education'' 8: 337–42)<ref>William A. Alcott, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages,” ''American Annals of Education'' 8, no. 8 (August 1838): 337–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5K3WRQ2I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Of our larger cities, even Philadelphia and Boston, we do not hesitate to say that almost every thing, in their structure and condition, is at war with the highest physical and moral well being of their inhabitants. We do not indeed forget their beautiful [[common]]s and '''squares''' and public [[walk]]s; but it is impossible for us to believe that a few of these will ever atone for that neglect whose effects stare us in the face, not merely in passing through dirty and filthy [[avenue]]s, but in traversing almost every street, and in turning almost every corner. A single [[common]], beautiful though it may be, as any spot on the earth’s surface, and refreshed though it were by the balmy breezes which 'blow soft o’er Ceylon’s isle;' or a few public '''squares''', remembrancers though they be of him whose praises will never cease to be celebrated while the 'city of brotherly love' shall remain, will yet never purify the crowded, unventilated cellars and shops—and dwellings, too—of a hundred or a thousand thickly congregated streets. . .
:“We wish to see not only spacious '''squares''' or [[common]]s interspersed with shade, if not with fruit trees, in every village and town and city, but we wish to see [[public garden]]s on an extensive scale. We wish to see these not only for health’s sake, and for the sake of their moral tone and tendency, but as a means of rational amusement—as a means of promoting the public cheerfulness, the public taste, and of consequence, the public happiness.”

*Sayers, Edward, June 1, 1838, “The Kitchen Garden” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 235)<ref>Edward Sayers, “The Kitchen Garden,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 4 (June 1, 1838): 235–37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FCEF7BSZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In laying a [[Kitchen Garden]] out, it should be done in the most simple manner, both for convenience, and a correspondence of its utility. The most approved method is to have the garden so situated as to be in a '''square''' with the four points of the compass, viz: N. S. E. W., surrounded with either a boarded [[fence]] or brick [[wall]]. The ground will require to be divided into four or six '''squares''', according to its size, if no more than an acre or two, four will be sufficient; if larger, six will be requisite.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline), 1848, ''History of Architecture'' (1848: 317–20)<ref name="Tuthill"></ref>
:“Every city should make ample provision for spacious public '''squares'''. Trees of every variety, shrubs, flowers, and evergreens, should decorate these grounds, and [[fountain]]s throw up their sparkling waters, contrasting their pure, white marble with the deep green foliage. Here, beneath the shaded [[walk]]s, the inhabitants might enjoy the sweet air, the children sport upon the fresh grass, and all be refreshed and cheered by the sight of beautiful natural objects. Here the young and the old might meet to ‘drive dull care away,’ and lose for a few brief moments the calculating, moneymaking plans that almost constantly usurp American thought and feeling. . .
:“Gardens and '''squares''' are so necessary to the health, as well as the enjoyment of those who are shut up in the close streets of a city, that it should be considered an imperative duty to provide them for all classes of the inhabitants. It may be urged, that if left open and free, the decorations would soon be destroyed by the populace; some few rude hands might occasionally make sad havoc among them, but when the people had once learnt how much such places of resort contributed to their health and pleasure, they would carefully protect them from injury.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 154, 161, 231)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It [the White American Elm] is one of the most generally esteemed of our native trees for ornamental purposes, and is as great a favorite here as in Europe for planting in public '''squares''' and along the highways. Beautiful specimens may be seen in Cambridge, MA, and very fine [[avenue]]s of this tree are growing with great luxuriance in and about New Haven. . .
:“In [[avenue]]s it [the plane tree] is often happily employed, and produces a grand effect. It also grows with great vigor in close cities, as some superb specimens in the '''square''' of the Statehouse, Pennsylvania Hospital, and other places in Philadelphia fully attest. . .
:“In New York and Philadelphia, the Ailantus is more generally known by the name of the ''Celestial tree'', and is much planted in the streets and public '''squares'''.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2282.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Esperanza, NY [detail], n.d.

Image:0600.jpg|Edward Penington, “A Description of two Lotts in the City of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn, . . .” Dec. 12th, 1698. Facsimile, Nov. 4th, 1882, by William Boogher.

Image:0880.jpg|James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].

Image:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), “A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne,” 1731. "Hanover '''Square'''" is indicated bordering the East Ward, left of center bottom quadrant.

Image:0796.jpg|Nicholas Scull, ''To the mayor recorder aldermen common council and freemen of Philadelphia this plan of the improved part of the city. . . '', 1762.

Image:0798.jpg|John Montrésor, New York and its Environs to Greenwich, 1766. '''Square''' is inscribed in the triangular area just left of the center of the map.

Image:0799.jpg|Bernard Ratzer, ''PLAN of the CITY of NEW YORK'', c. 1767. A "Great '''Square'''" is indicated near the center of the map in the right top quadrant.

Image:0884.jpg|Thomas Rodney, Plan of Dover, copy of Thomas Noxon’s original from 1740/41, 1768. "'''Square'''” is inscribed within rectangles with painted corners.

Image:0645.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Charles Town, Maryland, 1770. ''“N, O two '''squares''' for meeting houses or other publick creations”''.

Image:0462.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], “Warm or Berkeley Springs, in Virginia,” 1787, from the diary of [[Samuel Vaughan]], June–September 1787.

Image:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Arrangement of the Chunky-[[Yard]], Public '''Square''', and Rotunda of the ''modern'' Creek towns,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'' 3, part 1 (1853): 54, fig. 3.

Image:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the [[Ancient_style|Ancient]] Chunky-[[Yard]],” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'' 3, part 1 (1853): 52, fig. 2. “''C'', a '''square''' [[terrace]] or [[eminence]]. . . Upon this stands the ''Public '''Square'''''.”

Image:1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent [[Seat]] of the Government of the United States. . . ,” August 1791. The square is labelled "L".

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. "Grand '''Square'''" inscribed at lower center.

Image:2296.jpg|A. P. Folie, “Plan of the town of Baltimore and it’s environs,” 1792. "'''Public Square'''" inscribed in top left quadrant.

Image:0973.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], “Plan of Tivoli Laid Out into Town Lots” [detail], 1795. "Zephyre (sp.) '''Square'''" inscribed in lower quadrant at center.

Image:2253.jpg|Benjamin Taylor, John Roberts (engraver), “A New & Accurate Plan of the City of New York in the State of New York in North America,” 1797.

Image:0236.jpg|Lewis Miller, “The Light Horseman,” 1799. “The hole '''Square''' Belong to Smith. . .” Square is the open public space in front of the house.

Image:1998.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), c. 1800. "Market '''Square'''" is along the central axis just about midpoint.

Image:0882.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), after 1800. "Market '''Square'''" is along the central axis just about midpoint.

Image:0412.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "Principal Story of a Military School," 1800.

Image:2062.jpg|George E. Blake, ''Blake’s Collection of Duetts for two Flutes, Clarinets, or Violins'', c. 1807. "''The Waterworks, Center '''Square''', Philadelphia''."

Image:0551.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, ''Fourth of July in Centre '''Square''''', 1812

Image:0902.jpg|George Bridport, Design for Washington Monument, Washington '''Square''', Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:1268.jpg|Amos Doolittle, “Plan of New Haven,” 1817.

Image:1240.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Project for the Principal Gates of the Public '''Square''' at New Orleans,” c. March 1819.

Image:0521.jpg|William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public '''Square''', Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:1817.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a large public '''square''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1030, fig. 733.

Image:1267.jpg|Joseph Pilié, “Plan of the Front Part of the City of New Orleans Shewing the additions, alterations and improvements. . . ,” November 15, 1827. The "public '''square'''" is located in the central part of the plan.

Image:0598.jpg|Alexander Wadsworth, “Plan of [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” November 1831. "Central '''Square'''" is inscribed on the left of the plan, above Pine Hill.

Image:1026.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.

Image:1141_top.jpg|Anonymous, Map of Washington '''Square''' [detail], c. 1835—40.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, “City of Washington,” c. 1836. Capitol '''Square''' is east of the [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Garden]].

Image:1856.jpg|Jeromes, Gilbert, Grant and Company, Shelf Clock, 1839—40.

Image:0903.jpg|M. Schmitz (artist), Thomas S. Sinclair (lithographer), John B. Colahan (surveyor), “Map of Washington '''Square''', Philadelphia,” 1843.

Image:0568.jpg|William Keenan, ''Plan of the City and Neck of Charleston, S.C.'', September 1844. The "public '''square'''" is located in the upper part of the plan.

Image:0622.jpg|John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), “Court '''Square''' in Springfield, Mass.,” in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp. 290.

Image:0523.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]] (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), “Union Place Hotel, Union '''Square''' New-York,” c. 1845.

Image:1070.jpg|James Smillie (artist), J.A. Rolph (engraver), “[[View]] of the Central '''Square''', [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 61.

Image:1809.jpg|Otto Boetticher, ''Seventh Regiment on Review, Washington '''Square''', New York'', 1851.

Image:0987.jpg|George Hayward, “Chatham '''Square''', N.Y. 1812,” 1864.

Image:1997.jpg|Robert A. Lively, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia, after Benjamin Bucktrout’s plan, 1867. "Market '''Square'''" is along the central axis just about midpoint.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1996.jpg|Thomas Holme, “A Mapp of Ye Improved Part of Pensilvania in America, Divided into Countyes Townships and Lotts,” c. 1687.

Image:0245.jpg|Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A [[View]] of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.

Image:0867.jpg|Matthaeus Seutter, “Plan von neu Ebenezer,” 1747.

Image:1010.jpg|James Wadsworth, “Plan of the City of New Haven,” 1748.

Image:2271.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Esperanza, 1794, Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux, HM 2028.

Image:2274.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Courthouse '''Square''' in Esperanza, Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux, 1795, HM 2028.

Image:0543.jpg|James Peale, ''Frederick Graff'', 1804.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''[[View]] of the Water Works at Centre '''Square''' Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819), 33, pl. 1.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington '''Square''''', 1833.

Image:1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''[[View]] of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.

Image:1117.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “The Gothic Church. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840, vol. 2, pl. 6.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Eastern [[View]] of the Public '''Square''' or Green in New Haven,” 1840.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:1429.jpg|John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), “Central Part of Pittsfield, Mass.,” in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp. 87.

Image:0491.jpg|Edward Sachse, “Baltimore,” 1850.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0144.jpg|Thomas Holme, “A Portraiture of the City of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania in America,” 1683.

Image:0603.jpg|Anonymous, Plan de la Nouvelle Orleans, 1720.

Image:0498.jpg|Henry Dawkins (possibly engraver), ''Certificate of the Hand-In-Hand Fire Company, New York'', c. 1753.

Image:0286.jpg|Franz Xaver Habermann, “La destruction de la [[statue]] royale a Nouvelle Yorck,” 1776.

Image:1424.jpg|James Thackara, “A [[View]] of the New Market from the Corner of Shippen & Second-streets Philada.,” 1787, in ''The Columbian Magazine, or, Monthly Miscellany'' 2, no. 2 (February 1788): opp. 53.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0324.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Back of the State House, Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:2115.jpg|Pavel Petrovich Svinin, ''Centre '''Square''' and the Marble Works, Philadelphia'', 1811– c.13.

Image:0551.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, ''Fourth of July in Centre '''Square''''', 1812.

Image:0974.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Monument to the memory of general George Washington, to be erected at Baltimore'', 1813.

Image:0172.jpg|Susanna Heebner, ''House with Six-[[Bed]] Garden'', 1818.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public '''Square''' in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:0709.jpg|William Britton, ''Market '''Square''', Germantown, Pennsylvania'', c. 1820.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall [[Park]], From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0616.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Western [[view]] of Washington '''Square''', Salem,” in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), 225.

Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, “[[View]] of Hartford, CT. from the Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” 1849.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

File:0057.jpg|James Eights, ''Church and Market Sts., Albany, 1805'', 1857–58.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

Park

2021-04-08T17:35:26Z

A-Whitlock:

(Parke) {{break}}
See also: [[Deer park]], [[Public garden]]

==History==
The term park denotes both private and public expanses of ground. 18th-century writers used park to refer exclusively to private grounds often enclosed by [[fence]]s, [[wall]]s, or [[ha-ha]]s; if devoted to keeping deer, it was sometimes called a [[deer park]]. Early 19th-century lexicographers continued to stress the definition of park as an expanse of private property, although [[Noah Webster]] in 1828 noted that parks also designated army encampments, perhaps anticipating the term’s increasing association with [[public ground]]s. Writers also focused upon the material advantages of parks, which included the production of timber in addition to grazing land. It is clear from treatises that parks also fulfilled aesthetic and symbolic functions.

[[File:0994.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “Williamsburgh & the slip of land between York & James rivers from thence to Hampton,” c. 1781. According to Hugh Jones, a “large pasture enclosed like a park” surrounded the governor’s residence and was encircled and marked on the plan as "Governor’s Park.”]]
[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. Loudon]], for example, stated in 1826 that a park added “grandeur and dignity to the mansion.” The notion of park as part of a large estate was closely connected to 18th-century British land practices, and, in particular, to the idea that land ownership provided both prestige and economic security.<ref>Joseph S. Wood, ''The New England Village'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PNBEMHX6 view on Zotero].</ref> The concept translated to America despite differences in landholding practices and in the legal system. As landscape gardener [[A. J. Downing]] noted in 1851, Americans generally would have much smaller parks than their British counterparts because inheritable land and money typically were divided among descendants instead of passing only to the first son, as was the case in Great Britain.

One of the earliest documented private parks in North America, dating from the period of British colonization, was the park that surrounded the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, Virginia, begun in 1699 [Fig. 1]. Hugh Jones, when describing the grounds of the College of William and Mary (1722), distinguished between the gardens immediately surrounding the building and those located in the larger 150-acre park. 19th-century treatise writers maintained this distinction between gardens that were situated near the house and parks that encompassed the outlying area.

[[File:1731.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Horsdumonde, the House of Colonel Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Virginia'', June 14, 1796.]]
[[File:0947.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Anonymous, ''Study of trees in Park Scenery'', in [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], “Study of Park Trees,” ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 9 (September 1851): pl. opp. 394.]]
Writers of garden treatises, including [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], specified how to arrange the key components of a park—grassy areas, [[wood]]s, rolling hills, and water and how to establish desirable [[view]]s. As styles in gardening changed, so did the arrangement of parks. [[J. C. Loudon|Loudon]] in 1826 contrasted parks executed in the [[Ancient_style|ancient]] or [[geometric style]], which were “subdivided into fields. . . enclosed in [[wall]]s or [[hedge]]s,” with parks done in the [[Modern_style|modern]] or [[natural style]] “to resemble” the landscape of a “scattered forest.” One key aspect of parks executed in the latter style was the introduction of [[plantation]]s or belts of trees to unify the landscape visually with patterns of lines of light and shadow formed by groupings of trees. Practitioners of the [[modern style]], such as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]], were concerned with creating discrete boundaries for parks: they often relied upon plantings either to define or to occlude [[view]]s.

Landowners, such as [[William Hamilton]], took the existing topography of their estates and manipulated it to fit the prevailing aesthetic. [[View]]s of late 18th-century estates often featured smooth lawns punctuated with [[clump]]s of trees and [[wood]]s [Fig. 2]. In country house portraits, trees were often important elements—framing the house or drawing the viewer’s attention to the background. This emphasis paralleled treatise writers’ concern with trees as key components in park designs [Fig. 3]. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] argued that artfully sited large trees added nobility, dignity, and a sense of age to a park, and he believed that such trees allowed American landscapes to rival those of the English.

Public parks, open landscaped spaces under government control, accommodated a wide variety of functions. Generally located in urban settings, many 18th- and 19th-century parks evolved from land originally set aside for [[common]]s, city [[square]]s, [[bowling green]]s, or other forms of [[pleasure ground]]s. [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] described his plan for the [[national Mall]] in Washington, DC, as a “place of general resort.”<ref>For a history of the development of American parks and civic ideology, see David Schuyler, ''The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CFGQ8QT3 view on Zotero]. Also see George F. Chadwick, ''The Park and the Town: Public Landscape in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'' (New York: F. A. Praeger, 1966), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RT78E8W5 view on Zotero], and Galen Cranz, ''The Politics of Park Design: A History of Urban Parks in America'' (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AFIR853J view on Zotero].</ref> With the growth of towns and cities in the first half of the 19th century and attendant fears of crowding and disease, civic improvement campaigners repeatedly expressed a desire to designate green spaces or parks that could act as “lungs” to bring in fresh air and mitigate toxic urban ills. Moreover, with the marked popularity of rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] in the 1840s, it became evident that urban populations were interested in open spaces. Public spaces were called parks early in America, but were also described as [[public ground|public grounds]], [[public garden|public gardens]], [[pleasure ground|pleasure grounds]], or [[Pleasure_garden|pleasure gardens]], to underscore either their accessibility to citizens or their leisure function.

A desire for sites of public commemoration also stimulated the development of public parks. The designation of the [[national Mall]] in Washington, DC, as a park was linked intimately with the mission of public education envisioned by its founders. For example, in 1851 [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described the [[national Mall|Mall]] as a “sylvan museum”—an institution that would shape public taste in landscaping and in the selection of trees and plants.<ref>For more about the history of the Mall, see Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC, 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero], and Richard Longstreth, ed., ''The Mall in Washington, 1791–1991'' (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ACAMFXP view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0484.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, John Bachmann, ''New York City Hall, Park and Environs'', c. 1849.]]
[[File:1808.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Sarah Fairchild, ''Union Park, New York'', c. 1845.]]
As was the case with many city parks, the land for present-day City Hall Park in New York originally was set aside as a [[common]] early in the city’s history. In 1803, when City Hall was erected on a site next to it, this land was designated as a park. Ornamented with [[gate]]s, [[fountain]]s, and plantings, it provided an elegant setting for the public building, according to the descriptions of William Dickinson Martin (1809) and John Lambert (1816), and a printed view of the park area (c. 1849) [Fig. 4]. Similarly, the oval Union Park in New York, often illustrated, had a large central [[fountain]] [Fig. 5]. Both parks featured broad [[walk]]s and trees and [[shrub]]s. In these parks and others, significant goals of civic improvement—clean water, fresh air, green spaces—were united.<ref>Likewise, in Philadelphia, the construction of the Fairmount Waterworks was accompanied by the construction of a designed landscape, which rarely was referred to as a park in this period. For a history of Fairmount Park, see Jane Mork Gibson, “The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin'' 84 (Summer 1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero], and Theo B. White, ''Fairmount, Philadelphia’s Park'' (Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8U8AZ5RJ view on Zotero]. H. M. Pierce Gallagher, in his monograph of Robert Mills, noted that the architect never referred to the site as Fairmount Park, but rather as the Philadelphia Water Works. H. M. Pierce Gallagher, ''Robert Mills, Architect of the Washington Monument, 1781–1855'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1935), 128, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GC3NPRZJ view on Zotero]. Michael J. Lewis, “The First Design for Fairmount Park,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 130, no. 3 (July 2006): 283–97, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R3V3TEUA view on Zotero].</ref> Bowling Green [Fig. 6] and Battery Park [Fig. 7] are two more New York public parks that date from the early 18th century.
[[File:0052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the Bowling Green'', c.1826.]]
[[File:0477.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, John Scoles, ''Government House'', 1795.]]

Although New York City’s most important park, Central Park, was not designed until 1856, the idea for large-scale open space for the city dates much earlier. In 1811, the Streets Commission of New York produced a survey of the city, plotted by John Randel Jr., to serve as a template for future development, and it put into place the grid that today still distinguishes the city. This grid also included open spaces, most significantly a “Grand Parade,” 240 acres bounded by Third and Seventh Avenues, and 23rd and 34th Streets, and this area was intended for military exercise, assembly, and, if necessary, “the force destined to defend the City.”<ref>Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, ''Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 421, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z8Q56GGX view on Zotero].</ref> The concept of open space in the city was taken up again in the late 1840s and early 1850s, perhaps most notably by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] in ''The Horticulturist''. Claiming that the city’s existing parks were inadequate for the task of providing “exercise and refreshment of her jaded citizens,” [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] pushed for the creation of a large park, more than 500 acres, to be located between 39th Street and the Harlem River. He proposed that it contain, among other attractions, carriage rides, monumental sculpture, water works, and [[walk|walks]] set within green fields. Although [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] did not live to see this vision realized, his proposal anticipated Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux’s Central Park, and, more generally, the American park movement.<ref>For an overview of the history of the park, see Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, ''The Park and the People: A History of Central Park'' (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GFRVMGF9/ view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Penn, William, April 9, 1687, describing Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 47)<ref>Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden" (MS thesis, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . tis pitty a pale did not cross ye neck half way towards ye south point, for the beginning of a '''Park'''.”

*Jones, Hugh, 1722, describing the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA (1956: 67)<ref>Hugh Jones, ''The Present State of Virginia, From Whence Is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina'', ed. Richard L. Morton (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KE293JVS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is approached by a good [[walk]], and a grand entrance by steps, with good courts and gardens about it, with a good house and apartments for the Indian Master and his scholars, and outhouses; and a large pasture enclosed like a '''park''' with about 150 acres of land adjoining, for occasional uses.”

*Hamilton, Alexander, June 26, 1744, describing a garden near Albany, NY (1948: 63)<ref>Alexander Hamilton, ''Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton, 1744'', ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EWWJNEUN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mr. M——s [Milne] and I dined att his house and were handsomly entertained with good viands and wine. After dinner he showed us his garden and '''parks''', and M——s [Milne] got into one of his long harangues of farming and improvement of ground.”

*Fisher, Daniel, May 25, 1755, describing the Proprietor’s Garden, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Pecquet du Bellet 1907: 2:802)<ref>Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ed., ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', 4 vols. (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1907), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GMXR2ZUU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . descending from the House is a neat little '''Park''' tho’ I am told there are no Deer in it.”

*Burnaby, Rev. Andrew, 1760, describing a park and garden near the Passaic River, NJ (1775: 57)<ref>Andrew Burnaby, ''Travels through the Middle Settlements in North-America, in the Years 1759 and 1760'', 2nd ed. (London: Printed for T. Payne, 1775), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R59XPKD2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I went down two miles farther to the '''park''' and gardens of. . . colonel Peter Schuyler. In the gardens is a very large collection of citrons, oranges, limes, lemons, balsams of Peru, aloes, pomegranates, and other tropical plants; and in the '''park''' I saw several American and English deer, and three or four elks or moose-deer.”

*Fithian, Philip Vickers, December 31, 1773, describing Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 59)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion,'' ed. Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Mrs. Carter told the Colonel that he must not think her setled (for they have been for a long time from this place in the City ''Williamsburg'', and only left it about a year and a half ago) till he made her a '''park''' and stock’d it.”

[[File:0051.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, William Strickland, “The Woodlands,” 1809, in ''Casket'' 5, no. 10 (October 1830): pl. opp. 432.]]
*[[William Hamilton|Hamilton, William]], April 1779, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1988: A2)<ref>Karen Madsen, Karen Madsen, “William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” (paper presented for seminar in American Landscape, 1790–1900, instructed by E. McPeck, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XN8NN9QN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have just been making some considerable Improvements at [[The Woodlands]]. . . You may recollect the Ground is Hill ’n Dale [[wood|Woodland]] and plain and therefore well enough calculated to make a small '''parke''', and I am endeavoring to give it as much as possible a '''park'''ish Look.” [Fig. 8]

*Chastellux, François Jean, Marquis de, 1780–82, describing a garden on the Pamunkey River, VA (1787: 2:12)<ref>François Jean Marquis de Chastellux, ''Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781, and 1782'', 2 vols. (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1787), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITD6E8FB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . embellished with a garden, laid out in the [[English style]]. It is even pretended, that this kind of '''park''', through which the river flows, yields not in beauty to those, the model of which the French have received from England, and are now imitating with such success.”

*Washington, George, August 18, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:184)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Began with James and Tom to work on my '''Park''' fencing.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1789: 381)<ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A small '''park''' on the margin of the river, where the English fallow-deer, and the American wild-deer are seen through the thickets, alternately with the vessels as they are sailing along, add a romantic and [[picturesque]] appearance to the whole scenery.”

*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Reps 1967: 17)<ref>John W. Reps, ''Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DQCIQTFZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I placed the three grand Department of States contiguous to the principle Palace and on the way leading to the Congressional House the gardens of the one together with the '''park''' and other improvement on the dependency are connected with the publique [[walk]] and [[avenue]] to the Congress house in a manner as most [must] form a whole as grand as it will be agreeable and convenient to the whole city which form [from] The distribution of the local [locale] will have an early access to this place of general resort and all along side of which may be placed play houses, room of assembly, academies and all such sort of places as may be attractive to the learned and afford diversion to the idle.”

*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], January 4, 1792, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 164)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“H. Grand [[Avenue]], 400 feet in breadth, and about a mile in length, bordered with gardens, ending in a [[slope]] from the houses on each side. This [[Avenue]] leads to Monument A and connects the Congress Garden with the
:“I. President’s '''park''' and the
:“K. well-improved field.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection)
:“The north side of [[Monticello]] below the Thoroughfare roundabout quite down to the river, and all Montalto above the thoroughfare to be converted into '''park''' & riding grounds, connected at the Thoroughfare by a [[bridge]], open, under which the public road may be made to pass so as not to cut off the communication between the lower & upper '''park''' grounds.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], [[seat]] of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54—58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Approach, its road, [[wood]]s, [[lawn]] & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables; with a [[Yard]] between the house, stables, [[lawn]] of approach or '''park''', & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]].
: "The [[Fence|Fences]] separating the '''Park'''-[[lawn]] from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . The '''park''' [[lawn]] is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. Its [[fence]]s where it is not visible from the house, is of common posts & rails.
: ". . . One is led into the garden from the [[portico]], to the east or lefthand. or from the '''park''', by a small [[gate]] contiguous to the house, traversing this [[walk]], one sees many beauties of the landscape—also a fine [[statue]], symbol of Winter, & age,—& a spacious [[conservatory|Conservatory]] about 200 yards to the West of the Mansion. . .
: "The Stable [[yard|Yard]], tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the [[Lawn]], & the Garden. . . From the Cellar one enters under the bow window & into this Screen, which is about 6 or 7 feet square. Through these, we enter a narrow area, & ascend some few Steps [close to this side of the house,] into the garden—& thro the other opening we ascend a paved winding [[slope]], which spreads as it ascends, into the [[yard]]. This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer walls concealed by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage out of sight from the house—but certainly from the garden & '''park''' [[lawn]].”

*Foster, Sir Augustus John, c. 1807, describing Montpelier, plantation of James Madison, Montpelier Station, VA (1954: 142)<ref>Sir Augustus John Foster, ''Jeffersonian America: Notes on the United States of America Collected in the Years 1805–1806–1807 and 1811–1812'', ed. Richard Beale Davis (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1954), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7FU8NDF4/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are some very fine [[wood]]s about Montpellier, but no [[pleasure ground]]s, though Mr. Madison talks of some day laying out space for an English '''park''', which he might render very beautiful from the easy graceful descent of his hills into the plains below.”

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], March 17, 1807, describing the White House, Washington, DC (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“My idea is to carry the road below the hill under a [[Wall]] about 8 feet high opposite to the center of the president’s house. At this point, I should propose, at a future day to thrown an [[Arch]], or [[Arch]]es over the road in order to procure a private communication between the [[pleasure ground]] of the president’s house and the '''park''' which reaches to the river, and which will probably be also planted, and perhaps be open to the public.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 21, 1809, describing City Hall Park, New York, NY (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“St. Paul’s is on the same street, a little North of Trinity on the West side also, with an elegant steeple, tho’ too large for the rest of the building. It stands on a large triangular area, called the '''Park''', rail’d in, & ornamented with trees & [[walk]]s. Bridewell, the Alms House & County Jail, stand on the North Side of the '''Park''', on the East is the New Theatre.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing City Hall Park, New York, NY (1816: 2:58)<ref name="Lambert">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A Court-house on a larger scale, and more worthy of the improved state of the city, is now building at the end of the '''Park''', between the Broadway and Chatham-street, in a style of magnificence unequalled in many of the larger cities of Europe. . . The '''Park''', though not remarkable for its size, is, however, of service, by displaying the surrounding buildings to greater advantage; and is also a relief to the confined appearance of the streets in general. It consists of about four acres planted with elms, planes, willows, and catalpas; and the surrounding foot-[[walk]] is encompassed by rows of poplars: the whole is enclosed by a wooden paling. Neither the '''Park''' nor the Battery is very much resorted to by the fashionable citizens of New York, as they have become too common.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing the State House, Boston, MA (1816: 2:330)<ref name="Lambert"></ref>
:“The new state-house is, perhaps, more indebted to its situation for the handsome appearance which it exhibits, than to any merit of the building itself. It is built upon part of the rising ground upon which Beacon Hill is situated, and fronts the '''park''', an extensive common planted with a double row of trees along the [[border]]s. . .
:“The '''Park''' was formerly a large [[common]], but has recently been enclosed, and the [[border]]s planted with trees. On the east side there has been for many years a [[mall]], or [[walk]], planted with a double row of large trees, somewhat resembling that in St. James’s '''Park''', but scarcely half its length. It affords the inhabitants an excellent [[promenade]] in fine weather. At the bottom of the '''park''' is a branch of the harbour; and along the shore, to the westward, are several extensive rope-[[walk]]s built upon piers.”

*Hodgeson, Adam, 1819, describing Natchez, MS (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Their houses are spacious and handsome and their grounds laid out like a forest '''park'''.”

[[File:0716.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.]]
*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108–9)<ref name="Bryant">William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He took me to the [[seat]] of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . North of the house was a '''park''', with a few American deer in it and a large herd of spotted deer—a beautiful animal imported from Bengal.” [Fig. 9]

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing [[Wye House]], estate of Col. Edward Lloyd, Talbot County, MD (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:147)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'', vol. 5, ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983–2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Coll. is possessed of immence property, he had 400 Ars. of land in a '''park''' to keep Deer, round which was a [[fence]] of 20 rails high, Maise were planted within for sustenance of his deer.”

[[File:0038.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall Park From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.]]
*Anonymous, June 1829, describing City Hall Park, New York, NY (''Casket'' 4: 241)<ref>“City Hall, New York,” ''Casket, or Flowers of Literature, Wit & Sentiment'' 4, no. 6 (June 1829): 241, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XVBZVBJS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The City Hall of New York, is situated at the northern extremity, or base, of a triangular enclosure of four acres, called the ‘'''''Park'''''.’ The eastern and western sides are respectively bounded by Chatham street and Broadway, which here meet in a point near St. Paul’s church.
:“The approach from the south along Broadway, is peculiarly striking. The front and west end of the building present an angular [[view]] between the luxuriant foliage of trees surrounding the '''Park'''; while the brilliant whiteness of the facade, in contrast with the placid verdure of the [[lawn]], in front, produces a luminous and aerial effect that fascinates every spectator.” [Fig. 10]

[[File:1830.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Joshua Rowley Watson, ''Sedgley--J. Fishers Esqr. opposite Eaglesfield 28th. October'', 1816.]]
*Anonymous, June 1829, describing Sedgeley, seat of James C. Fisher and William Crammond, near Philadelphia, PA (''Casket'' 4: 265)<ref>“Sedgely Park, the Seat of James C. Fisher, Esq.,” ''Casket, or the Flowers of Literature, Wit & Sentiment'' 4, no. 6 (June 1829): 265, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8Q67BD4S view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The natural advantages of Sedgeley '''Park''' are not frequently equalled even upon the banks of the romantic [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]]. From the height upon which the mansion is erected, it commands an interesting and extensive [[view]]. . .
:“In the arrangement of the grounds the proprietor has been peculiarly happy. The '''park''' exhibits the marks of cultivation and taste, and the mansion is beautifully shaded with the native and luxuriant forest trees of the country.” [Fig. 11]

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 84)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The general appearance of the whole grounds, should be that of a well-managed '''park''', and the lots only so far ornamented with [[shrub]]s and flowers, as to constitute rich [[border]]s to the [[avenue]]s and pathways, without giving to them the aspect of a dense and wild [[coppice]], or a neglected garden, whose trees and plants have so multiplied and interlaced their roots and branches, as to completely destroy all that airiness, grace, and luxuriance of growth, which good taste demands.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, June 29, 1832, describing the Jefferson Barracks, Jacksonville, IL (1975: 353)<ref name="Bryant"></ref>
:“. . . the Jefferson Barracks, a military station of the United States. . . It is situated in a fine natural '''park''' of noble trees principally black oak which extends I am told for some miles back from the shore. The trees are at considerable distances from each other and the tops are spreading and full of foliage.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing Cincinnati, OH (1838: 2:51)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The proprietor has a passion for gardening, and his ruling taste seems likely to be a blessing to the city. He employs four gardeners, and toils in his grounds with his own hands. His garden is on a [[terrace]] which overlooks the [[canal]], and the most '''park''' like [[eminence]]s form the background of the [[view]]. Between the garden and the hills extend his vineyards, from the produce of which he has succeeded in making twelve kinds of wine, some of which are highly praised by good judges.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], January 1837, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” describing [[Hyde Park]], [[seat]] of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3: 5)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,” ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 3, no. 1 (January 1837): 1–10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HPNHTESI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most distinguished amateur and patron of gardening, in every sense of the word, in this state, was the late [[Dr. Hosack]]. [[Hyde Park|Hyde '''Park''']], on the Hudson, the [[seat]] of this gentleman, has been probably the best specimen of a highly improved residence in the United States. . . the '''park''' large, well wooded, and intersected by a fine stream.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1838, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1838: 22)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Much as public [[square]]s, and '''parks''', and [[avenue]]s, and [[fountain]]s contribute to the beauty of a city, they are no less necessary to its salubrity. It was not intended by the Creator that the habitations of men should be piled upon each other, as they are in some cities, almost like boxes of merchandize in a warehouse; and he has made no provision for the security of life and health, under the circumstances which preclude the supply of an abundance of fresh and pure air.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing New York, NY (1840: 1:151)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (London: G. Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The present City Hall was erected in 1803, at an expense of half a million of dollars. . . When the trees of the '''park''' are in full leaf, it is difficult to get an entire [[view]] of it.
:“The '''park''' is the centre of New York, and its two most thronged and finest [[avenue]]s from the two sides of it. Broadway, the much crowded and much praised Broadway, the Corso, the Toledo, the Regent Street, of New York, pours its tide of population past the western side of the verdant triangle, and, just at the '''park''', its crowd and its bustle are thickest.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, NY (1841: 1:38–39)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the '''Park''', which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson Square, the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington Square, about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-[[walk]]s or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a '''park''', or [[public garden]], or public [[walk]], where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed.”

[[File:0982.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, L. S. Punderson, ''Public [[Square]], New Haven'', 1862.]]
*Dickens, Charles, 1842, describing Yale College, New Haven, CT (1842: 94)<ref>Charles Dickens, ''American Notes'' (Paris: Baudry’s European Library, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TTQMJ9AD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“New Haven, known as the City of Elms, is a fine town. Many of its streets (as its alias sufficiently imports) are planted with rows of grand old elm-trees; and the same natural ornaments surround Yale College, an establishment of considerable [[eminence]] and reputation. The various departments of this Institution are erected in a kind of '''park''' or [[common]] in the middle of the town, where they are dimly visible among the shadowing trees. The effect is very like that of an old cathedral [[yard]] in England; and when their branches are in full leaf, must be extremely [[picturesque]].” [Fig. 12]

[[File:0992.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, Charles B. Lawrence, attr., ''[[Point Breeze]], the Estate of Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte at Bordentown, New Jersey'', 1817–20]]
*Barber, John Warner, and Henry Howe, 1844, describing [[Point Breeze]], the estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, NJ (1844: 102–3)<ref>John Warner Barber and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey; Containing a General Collection of the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c. Relating to History and Antiquities, with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, NJ: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''park''' and grounds of the Count comprise about fourteen hundred acres, which, from a wild and impoverished tract, he has converted into a place of beauty, blending the charms of [[wood|woodland]] and [[plantation]] scenery with a delightful water-[[prospect]]. . . While here, his time was occupied in planning and executing improvements upon his grounds. He did not mingle in society; but was frequently seen walking through his '''park''', attending to his workmen, or, with hatchet in hand, lopping branches from the trees.” [Fig. 13]

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., April 1848, describing the [[pleasure ground]]s and farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (''American Journal of Insanity'' 4: 348)<ref>Thomas S. Kirkbride, “Description of the Pleasure Grounds and Farm of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, with Remarks,” ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): 347–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9RWM2FH8/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[pleasure ground]]s of the two sexes are very effectually separated on the eastern side, by the deer-'''park''', surrounded by a high palisade [[fence]], but the '''Park''' itself is so low that it is completely overlooked from both sides; and the different animals in it are in full [[view]]from the adjoining grounds used by the patients of both sexes.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1848, describing Geneseo, [[seat]] of James S. Wadsworth, Genesee River Valley, NY (''Horticulturist'' 3: 164–65)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The Meadow Park at Geneseo,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 163–66, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/G6VXPK69 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“And what a [[prospect]]! The whole of that part of the valley embraced by the eye—say a thousand acres—is a '''''park''''', full of the finest oaks,—and such oaks as you may have dreamed of, (if you love trees,) or, perhaps, have seen in pictures by CLAUDE LORRAINE, or our own DURAND; but not in the least like those which you meet every day in your woodland [[walk]]s through the country at large. Or rather, there are thousands of such as you may have seen half a dozen examples of in your own country. . .
:“No underwood, no bushes, no [[thicket]]s; nothing but single specimens or groups of giant old oaks, (mingled with, here and there, an elm) with level glades of broad [[meadow]] beneath them! An Englishman will hardly be convinced that it is not a '''park''', planted by the skilful hand of man hundreds of years ago.
:“This great [[meadow]] '''park''' is filled with herds of the finest cattle—the pride of the home-farm.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing Livingston Manor, seat of Mary Livingston, on the Hudson River, NY (1849; repr., 1991: 46)<ref name="Downing Treatise">A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mansion stands in the midst of a fine '''park''', rising gradually from the level of a rich inland country, and commanding [[prospect]]s for sixty miles around. The '''park''' is, perhaps, the most remarkable in America, for the noble simplicity of its character, and the perfect order in which it is kept. The turf is, everywhere, short and velvet-like, the gravel-roads scrupulously firm and smooth, and near the house are the largest and most superb evergreens.”

*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing St. John’s Park, New York, NY (1850: 332)<ref name="Loudon 1850">J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed. (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“856. ''[[Public Garden]]s''. . .
:“''At New York''. . . St. John’s '''Park''' is of considerable extent, and has lately been thrown open to the inhabitants: it is tastefully and very judiciously planted, with the ornamental trees and [[shrub]]s indigenous to the country. (''Gard. Mag''., vol. iii. p. 347.)”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), September 1850, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 412)<ref>C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey, “Notes on Gardens and Nurseries,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 9 (September 1850): 406–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XHZHRHEU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The new and elegant mansion, so long vacant, is now occupied by the proprietor, and an air of liveliness, which they did not before possess, is now communicated to the '''park''', the [[pleasure-ground]] and the garden. . . The vast expanse of '''park''', which adds so much to the character of the old English residence, would possess only half the attraction it now does, but for the herds of deer which traverse its bounds, giving life and animation to the scene.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1851, describing plans for improving the [[public ground]]s of Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 54–55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (1967): 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“My object in this Plan has been three-fold:
:“1st: To form a national '''Park''', which should be an ornament to the Capital of the United States; 2nd: To give an example of the [[natural style]] of [[Landscape Gardening]] which may have an influence on the general taste of the Country. . .
:“'''1st: The President’s Park or Parade''' “This comprises the open Ground directly south of the President’s House. Adopting suggestions made me at Washington I propose to keep the large area of this ground open, as a place for parade or military reviews, as well as public festivities or celebrations. A circular carriage [[drive]] 40 feet wide and nearly a mile long shaded by an [[avenue]] of Elms, surrounds the Parade, while a series of foot-paths, 10 feet wide, winding through thickets of trees and [[shrub]]s, forms the boundary to this '''park''', and would make an agreeable shaded [[promenade]] for pedestrians. . .
:“'''2nd: Monument Park'''
:“This comprises the fine [[plot]] of ground surrounding the [[Washington_Monument_(Washington,_D.C.)|Washington monument]] and bordered by the Potomac. To reach it from the President’s '''Park''' I propose to cross the canal by a wire suspension [[bridge]], sufficiently strong for carriages, which would permit vessels of moderate size to pass under it, and would be an ornamental feature in the grounds. I propose to plant Monument '''Park''' wholly with ''American'' trees, of large growth, disposed in open groups, so as to al[l]ow of fine [[vista]]s of the Potomac river. . .
:“'''4th: Smithsonian Park or [[Pleasure Ground]]s'''
:“An arrangement of choice trees in the [[natural style]], the [[plot]]s near the Institution would be thickly planted with the rarest trees and [[shrub]]s, to give greater seclusion and beauty to its immediate precincts. . .
:“'''6th: The [[Botanic Garden]]. . .'''
:“The pleasing natural undulations of surface, where they occur, I propose to retain, instead of expending money in reducing them to a level. The surface of the '''Parks''', generally, should be kept in grass or [[lawn]], and mown by the mowing machine used in England, by which, with a man and horse, the labor of six men can be done in one day. . .
[[File:0023.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[Andrew Jackson Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.]]
:“A national '''Park''' like this, laid out and planted in a thorough manner, would exercise as much influence on the public taste as [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] near Boston, has done. Though only twenty years have elapsed since that spot was laid out, the lesson there taught has been so largely influential that at the present moment the United States, while they have no public '''parks''', are acknowledged to possess the finest rural [[cemetery|cemeteries]] in the world. The [[Public Ground]]s at Washington treated in the manner I have here suggested, would undoubtedly become a Public School of Instruction in every thing that relates to the tasteful arrangement of '''parks''' and grounds, and the growth and culture of trees, while they would serve, more than anything else that could be devised, to embellish and give interest to the Capital. The straight lines and broad [[Avenue]]s of the streets of Washington would be pleasantly relieved and contrasted by the beauty of curved lines and natural groups of trees in the various '''parks'''. By its numerous public buildings and broad [[Avenue]]s, Washington will one day command the attention of every stranger, and if its un-improved [[public ground]]s are tastefully improved they will form the most perfect background or setting to the City, concealing many of its defects and heightening all its beauties.” [Fig. 14]

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1851, “The New-York Park” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 345–49)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The New-York Park,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): 345–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2XEW44DT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE leading topic of town gossip and newspaper paragraphs just now, in New-York, is the new '''park''' proposed by MAYOR KINGSLAND. Deluded New-York has, until lately, contented itself with the little door-[[yard]]s of space—mere grass [[plat]]s of verdure, which form the [[square]]s of the city, in the mistaken idea that they are parks. . .
:“Thanking MAYOR KINGSLAND most heartily for his proposed new '''park''', the only objection we make to it is that it is ''too small''. One hundred and sixty acres of '''park''' for a city that will soon contain three-quarters of a million of people? It is only a child’s play-ground. . .
:“Looking at the present government of the city as about to provide, in the Peoples’ '''Park''', a breathing zone, and healthful place for exercise for a city of half a million of souls, we trust they will not be content with the limited number of acres already proposed. Five hundred acres is the smallest area that should be reserved for the future wants of such a city, now, while it may be obtained. ''Five hundred acres'' may be selected between 39th-street and the Harlem river, including a varied surface of land, a good deal of which is yet waste area, so that the whole may be purchased at something like a million of dollars. In that area there would be space enough to have broad reaches of '''park''' and [[pleasure-ground]]s, with a real feeling of the breadth and beauty of green fields, the perfume and freshness of nature. In its midst would be located the great distributing reservoirs of the Croton aqueduct, formed into lovely [[lake]]s of limpid water, covering many acres, and heightening the charm of the sylvan accessories by the finest natural contrast. In such a '''park''', the citizens who would take excursions in carriages, or on horseback, could have the substantial delights of country roads and country scenery, and forget for a time the rattle of the pavements and the glare of brick [[wall]]s. Pedestrians would find quiet and secluded [[walk]]s when they wished to be solitary, and broad [[alley]]s filled with thousands of happy faces, when they would be gay. The thoughtful denizen of the town would go out there in the morning to hold converse with the whispering trees, and the wearied tradesmen in the evening, to enjoy an hour of happiness by mingling in the open space with ‘all the world.’
:“The many beauties and utilities which would gradually grow out of a great '''park''' like this, in a great city like New-York, suggest themselves immediately and forcibly. Where would be found so fitting a position for noble works of art, the [[statue]]s, monuments, and buildings commemorative at once of the great men of the nation, of the history of the age and country, and the genius of our highest artists?
:“We have said nothing of the social influence of such a great '''park''' in New-York. But this is really the most interesting phase of the whole matter. . .
:“Even upon the lower platform of liberty and education that the masses stand in Europe, we see the elevating influences of a wide popular enjoyment of galleries of art, public libraries, '''parks''' and gardens, which have raised the people in ''social'' civilization and social culture to a far higher level than we have yet attained in republican America. And yet this broad ground of popular refinement must be taken in republican America, for it belongs of right more truly here, than elsewhere. It is republican in its very idea and tendency. It takes up popular education where the common school and ballot-box leave it, and raises up the working-man to the same level of enjoyment with the man of leisure and accomplishment. The higher social and artistic elements of every man’s nature lie dormant within him, and every laborer is a possible gentleman, not by the possession of money or fine clothes—but through the refining influence of intellectual and moral culture.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], December 1851, “State and Prosperity of Horticulture” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 540)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The State and Prospects of Horticulture,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 12 (December 1851): 537–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XR68IJEG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From [[cemetery|cemeteries]] we naturally rise to public '''parks''' and gardens. As yet our countrymen have almost entirely over-looked the sanitary value and importance of these breathing places for large cities, or the powerful part which they may be made to play in refining, elevating, and affording enjoyment to the people at large. . . The plan [for a [[public ground]] in Washington] embraces four or five miles of carriage-[[drive]]—[[walk]]s for pedestrians—[[pond]]s of water, [[fountain]]s and [[statue]]s—[[picturesque]] groupings of trees and [[shrub]]s, and a complete collection of all the trees that belong to North America. It will, if carried out as it has been undertaken, undoubtedly give a great impetus to the popular taste in [[landscape-gardening]] and the culture of ornamental trees; and as the climate of Washington is one peculiarly adapted to this purpose—this national '''park''' may be made a sylvan museum such as it would be difficult to equal in beauty and variety in any part of the world.”

[[File:0459.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.]]
*Twain, Mark, October 26, 1853, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 2)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson, The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Seeing a '''park''' at the foot of the hill, I entered—and found it one of the nicest little places about.” [Fig. 15]

===Citations===
*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences . . . ,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PARK''', *PARCUS, a large inclosure, privileged for wild beasts of chase, either by the king’s grant, or by prescription.
:“*The word is originally ''Celtic'', it signifies an inclosure, or place shut up with [[wall]]s.
:“Manwood defines a '''''park''''' a place of privilege for beasts of venery, and other wild beasts of the forest, and of chase, ''tam sylvestres quam campestres''.—A '''''park''''' differs from a forest in that, as Crompton observes, a subject may hold a '''''park''''' by prescription, or the king’s grant, which he cannot do by a forest. See FOREST.
:“A '''''park''''' differs from a chase also; for that a '''''park''''' must be enclosed; if it lie open, it is a good cause of seizing it into the king’s hand; as a free chase may be, if it be enclosed. Nor can the owner have any action against such as hunt in his '''''park''''', if it lie open. See CHASE.
:“Du Cange refers the invention of '''''parks''''' to king Henry I. of England; but Spelman shews, it is much more ancient; and was in use among the Anglo-Saxons. Zosimus assures us, the ancient kings of Persia had '''''parks'''''.
:“'''PARK''' is also used for a moveable pallisade set up in the fields to inclose sheep in to feed, and rest in during the night. See HURDLES.
:“The shepherds shift their '''''park''''', from time to time, to dung the ground, one part after another.”

*Whately, Thomas, 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 157, 182–83)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A garden is intended to walk or to sit in, which are circumstances not considered in riding; a '''park''' comprehends all the uses of the other two; and these uses determine the ''proportional extent'' of each; a large garden would be but a small '''park'''; and the circumference of a considerable '''park''' but a short riding.
:“A '''''park''''' and a garden are more nearly allied, and can therefore be accommodated to each other, without any disparagement to either. . .
:“The affinity of the two subjects is so close, that it would be difficult to draw the exact line of separation between them: gardens have lately encroached very much both in extent and in style on the character of a '''park'''; but still there are scenes in the one, which are out of the reach of the other; the small sequestered spots which are agreable in a garden, would be trivial in a '''park'''; and the spacious [[lawn]]s which are among the noblest features of the latter, would in the former fatigue by their want of variety; even such as being of a moderate extent may be admitted into either, will seem bare and naked, if not broken in the one; and lose much of their greatness, if broken in the other. The proportion of a part to the whole, is a measure of its dimensions: it often determines the proper size for an object, as well as the space fit to be allotted to a scene; and regulates the style which ought to be assigned to either.
:“But whatever distinctions the extent may occasion between '''park''' and garden, a state of highly cultivated nature is consistent with each of their characters; and may in both be of the same kind, though in different degrees. The same species of preservation, of ornament, and of scenery, may be introduced; and though a large portion of a '''park''' may be rude; and the most romantic scenes are not incompatible with its character.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . '', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PARK''', pa’rk. s. A piece of ground inclosed and stored with deer and other beasts of chase.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 13, 93–94)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is no error more prevalent in modern gardening, or more frequently carried to excess, than taking away [[hedge]]s to unite many small fields into one extensive and naked [[lawn]], before [[plantation]]s are made to give it the appearance of a '''park'''; and where ground is subdivided by [[sunk fence]]s, imaginary freedom is dearly purchased at the expence of actual confinement. . .
:“The chief beauty of a '''park''' consists in uniform verdure; ''undulating'' lines contrasting with each other in variety of forms; trees so grouped as to produce light and shade to display the varied surface of the ground; and an undivided range of pasture. . .
:“The ''farm'', on the contrary, is for ever changing the colour of its surface in motley and discordant hues; it is subdivided by straight lines of [[fence]]s. The trees can only be ranged in formal rows along the [[hedge]]s; and these the farmer claims a right to cut, prune, and disfigure.”

*Nicol, Walter, 1812, ''The Planter’s Kalendar'' (1812: 378)<ref>Walter Nicol, ''The Planter’s Kalendar'' (Edinburgh: D. Willison for A. Constable, 1812), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEMUHDCC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It may, however, be humbly suggested, that the '''Park''', or the [[Lawn]], should never be daubed too full of groups, or of single plants. When there are too many put in, the whole '''park''' acquires a confined air and appearance; and, whatever be the intrinsic worth of the plants individually considered, the eye turns from the appearance with dislike.”

*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1021, 1028)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“7265. ''The '''park''''' is a space devoted to the growth of timber, pasturage for deer, cattle, and sheep, and for adding grandeur and dignity to the mansion. On its extent and beauty, and on the magnitude and architectural design of the house, chiefly depend the reputation and character of the residence. In the [[geometric style]], the more distant or concealed parts were subdivided into fields, surrounded by broad stripes or double rows, enclosed in [[wall]]s or [[hedge]]s, and the nearer parts were chiefly covered with wood, enclosing regular surfaces of pasturage. In the [[modern style]], the scenery of a '''park''' is intended to resemble that of a scattered forest, the more polished glades and regular shapes of [[lawn]] being near the house, and the rougher parts towards the extremities. The paddocks or small enclosures are generally placed between the family stables and the farm, and form a sort of intermediate character. . . .
:“7313. ''Public '''parks''', or equestrian promenades'', are valuable appendages to large cities. Extent and a free air are the principle requisites, and the roads should be arranged so as to produce few intersections; but at the same time so as carriages may make either the tour of the whole scene, or adopt a shorter tour at pleasure. In the course of long roads, there ought to be occasional bays or side expansions to admit of carriages separating from the course, halting or turning. Where such [[promenade]]s are very extensive, they are furnished with places of accommodation and refreshment, both for men and horses; this is a valued part of their arrangement for occasional visitors from a distance, or in hired vehicles.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PARK''', ''n''. [Sax. ''parruc'', ''pearruc''; Scot. ''parrok''; W. ''parc''; Fr. id.; It. ''parco''; Sp. ''parque''; Ir. ''pairc''; G. Sw. ''park''; D. ''perk''. . .]
:“A large piece of ground inclosed and privileged for wild beasts of chase, in England, by the king’s grant or by prescription. To constitute a '''park''', three things are required; a royal grant or license; inclosure by pales, a [[wall]] or [[hedge]]; and beasts of chase, as deer, &c.
:“'''''Park''' of artillery, or artillery '''park''''', a place in the rear of both lines of an army for encamping the artillery, which is formed in lines, the guns in front, the ammunition-wagons behind the guns. . . ''Encyc''.
:“'''''Park''' of provisions'', the place where the sutlers pitch their tents and sell provisions, and that where the bread wagons are stationed.”

*Holley, O. L., 1843, ''The New York Register for 1843'' (1843: 240)<ref>O. L. Holley, ''The New York Register for 1843 containing an Almanac with political, statistical, and other information relating to the State of New York and the United States'', (Albany: J. Disturnell, 1843): 240, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/KCVFBZZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:BLOOMINGDALE LUNATIC ASYLUM
:(Connected with the New-York Hospital.)
:The Bloomingdale Lunatic Asylum is pleasantly situated near the banks of the Hudson River, distant seven miles from the city of New-York, and has attached to it forty acres of land, laid out in gardens, [[pleasure ground]]s, gravel [[walk]]s and farm lots, well adapted to the unfortunate inmates.
:The building is erected on one of the most elevated and healthy sites on the Island, and sufficiently retired for the comfort and convenience of the patients.

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 418)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''PARK''', in the modern acceptation of the word, is an extensive adorned inclosure surrounding the house and gardens, and affording pasturage either to deer or cattle.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1848, “A Talk About Public Parks and Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 156–57)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “A Talk About Public Parks and Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 153–58, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VZD8Q6ZN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Make the public '''parks''' or [[pleasure ground]]s attractive by their [[lawn]]s, fine trees, shady [[walk]]s and beautiful [[shrub]]s and flowers, by fine music, and the certainty of ‘meeting everybody,’ and you draw the whole moving population of the town there daily. . .
:“you must remember that there is no forced intercourse in the daily reunions in a [[public garden]] or '''park'''. There is room and space enough for pleasant little groups or circles of all tastes and sizes, and no one is necessarily brought into contact with uncongenial spirits; while the daily meeting of families, who ''ought'' to sympathise, from natural congeniality, will be more likely to bring them together than any other social gatherings. Then the advantage to our fair country-women— health and spirits, of exercise in the pure open air, amid the groups of fresh foliage and flowers, with a chat with friends, and pleasures shared with them, as compared with a listless lounge upon a sofa at home, over the last new novel or pattern of embroidery! . . .
:“Judging from the crowds of people in carriages, and on foot, which I find constantly thronging Green-wood and [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], I think it is plain enough how much our citizens, of all classes, would enjoy public '''parks''' on a similar scale. Indeed, the only drawback to these beautiful and highly kept [[cemetery|cemeteries]], to my taste, is the gala-day air of recreation they present. People seem to go there to enjoy themselves, and not to indulge in any serious recollections or regrets.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 31, 95, 109–11, 115–16, 169, 173, 219, 333)<ref name="Downing Treatise"></ref>
:“It must not be forgotten that, during all this period, or nearly six centuries, '''''parks''''' were common in England. . .
:“Although these '''parks''' were more devoted to the preservation of game and the pleasures of the chase than to any other purpose, their existence was, we conceive, not wholly owing to this cause—but we look upon them as indicating that love of nature and that desire to retain beautiful portions of it as part of a residence, which form the ground-work of the taste for the [[Modern_style|modern]] or [[landscape gardening]], since the latter is only an epitome of nature with the charms judiciously heightened by art.
:“And as the ''[[Avenue]]'', or the straight line, is the leading form in the [[geometric style|geometric]] arrangement of [[plantation]]s, so let us enforce it upon our readers, the GROUP is equally the key-note of the [[Modern style]]. The smallest place, having only three trees, may have these pleasingly connected in a group; and the largest and finest '''park'''—the Blenheim or Chatsworth, of seven miles square, is only composed of a succession of groups, becoming masses, [[thicket]]s, [[wood]]s. . .
:“One of the loveliest charms of a fine '''park''' is, undoubtedly, variation or undulation of surface. Everything, accordingly, which tends to preserve and strengthen this pleasing character, should be kept constantly in [[view]]. . .
:“Where the grounds of the residence to be planted are level, or nearly so, and it is desirable to confine the [[view]], on any or all sides, to the [[lawn]] or '''park''' itself, the boundary groups and masses must be so connected together as, from the most striking part or parts of the [[prospect]] (near the house for example) to answer this end. . .
:“But where the house is so elevated as to command a more extensive [[view]] than is comprised in the demesne itself, another course should be adopted. The grounds planted must be made to connect themselves with the surrounding scenery. . . Where the '''park''' joins natural [[wood]]s, connexion is still easier, and where it bounds upon one of our noble rivers, [[lake]]s, or other large sheets of water, of course connexion is not expected; for sudden contrast and transition is there both natural and beautiful. . .
:“Were it not that of late it [the linden tree] is so liable to insects, we could hardly say too much in its praise as a fine ornament for streets and public '''parks'''. There, its regular form corresponds well with the formality of the architecture; its shade affords cool and pleasant [[walk]]s, and the delightful odor of its blossoms is doubly grateful in the confined air of the city. . .
:“The beech is quite handsome and graceful when young, and when large it forms one of the heaviest and grandest of ''beautiful'' '''park''' trees. . .
:“When the Black walnut stands alone on a deep fertile soil it becomes a truly majestic tree; and its lower branches often sweep the ground in a graceful curve, which gives additional beauty to its whole expression. It is admirably adapted to extensive [[lawn]]s, '''parks''', or [[plantation]]s, where there is no want of room for the attainment of its full size and fair proportions. . .
:“In places of large extent there may be scenes in different portions of the '''park''' of totally different character; one simply beautiful, abounding with graceful and flowing lines, and another highly [[picturesque]], and full of spirited breaks and variations.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], January 1849, “On the Mistakes of Citizens in Country Life” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 309)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “On the Mistakes of Citizens in Country Life,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 7 (January 1849): 305–9, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4J7CTS94 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If you wish for rural beauty, at a cheap rate, either on the grand or the moderate scale, choose a spot where the two features of home scenery are trees and grass. You may have five hundred acres of natural '''park'''—that is to say, fine old [[wood]]s, tastefully opened, and threaded with [[walk]]s and [[drive]]s, for less cost, in preparation and annual outlay, than it will require to maintain five acres of artificial [[pleasure-ground]]s. A pretty little natural glen, filled with old trees, and made alive by a clear perennial stream, is often a cheaper and more unwearying source of enjoyment than the gayest [[flower garden]]. Not that we mean to disparage beautiful '''parks''', [[pleasure-ground]]s, or [[flower garden]]s; we only wish our readers, about settling in the country, to understand that they do not constitute the highest and most expressive kind of rural beauty,—as they certainly do the most ''expensive''.”

*[[J. C. Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, ''Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1850: 329)<ref name="Loudon 1850"></ref>
:“841. ''[[landscape gardening|Landscape-Gardening]]'' is practised in the United States on a comparatively limited scale; because, in a country where all men have equal rights, and where every man, however humble, has a house and garden of his own, it is not likely that there should be many large '''parks'''. The only splendid examples of '''park''' and [[hothouse]] gardening that, we trust, will ever be found in the United States, and ultimately in every other country, are such as will be formed by towns and villages, or other communities, for the joint use and enjoyment of all the inhabitants or members.”

*Jeffreys [pseud.], January 1850, “Critique on November Horticulturist” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 311–12)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], “Critique on the October Horticulturist,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (January 1849): 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A ''true'' country house should also have some appearance of [[Rustic_style|rusticity]]—not vulgarity—but a keeping with all which surround it. Not castellated, nor magnificent; neither ostentatious nor pretending, but plain, dignified, quiet and unobtrusive; yet of ample dimensions, and exceeding convenience. Then, in '''park''' or [[lawn]], on hill or plain, flanked with mossy foliage, and well kept grounds, it becomes a perfect picture in a finished landscape.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], June 1850, “Our Country Villages” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 540)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Our Country Villages,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 12 (June 1850): 537–41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2DJ27X4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The indispensable desiderata in rural villages of this kind [newly planned in the suburbs of a great city], are the following: 1st, a large open space, [[common]], or '''park''', situated in the middle of the village—not less than 20 acres; and better, if 50 or more in extent. This should be well planted with groups of trees, and kept as a [[lawn]]. The expense of mowing it would be paid by the grass in some cases; and in others a considerable part of the space might be enclosed with a wire [[fence]], and fed by sheep or cows, like many of the public '''parks''' in England.
:“This '''park''' would be the nucleus or ''heart of the village'', and would give it an essentially rural character. Around it should be grouped all the best cottages and residences of the place; and this would be secured by selling no lots fronting upon it of less than one-fourth of an acre in extent. . .
:“After such a village was built, and the central '''park''' planted a few years, the inhabitants would not be contented with the mere [[meadow]] and trees, usually called a '''park''' in this country. By submitting to a small annual tax per family, they could turn the whole '''park''', if small, or considerable portions, here and there, if large, into [[pleasure-ground]]s. In the latter, there would be collected, by the combined means of the village, all the rare, hardy [[shrub]]s, trees and plants usually found in the private grounds of any amateur in America.”

*[[A. J. Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], March 1851, “The Management of Large Country Places” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 106–7)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “The Management of Large Country Places,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 3 (March 1851): 105–8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HKQH76RW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The great and distinguishing beauty of England, as every one knows, is its '''parks'''. And yet the English '''parks''' are only very large [[meadow]]s, studded with great oaks and elms—and grazed—''profitably grazed'', by deer, cattle and sheep. We believe it is a commonly received idea in this country, with those who have not travelled abroad, that English '''parks''' are portions of highly dressed scenery—at least that they are kept short by frequent mowing, etc. It is an entire mistake. The mown [[lawn]] with its polished garden scenery, is confined to the [[pleasure ground]]s proper—a spot of greater or less size, immediately surrounding the house, and wholly separated from the '''park''' by a [[terrace]] [[wall]], or an iron [[fence]], or some handsome architectural barrier. The '''park''', which generally comes quite up to the house on one side, receives no other attention than such as belongs to the care of the animals that graze in it. As most of these '''parks''' afford excellent pasturage, and though apparently one wide, unbroken surface, they are really subdivided into large fields, by wire or other invisible [[fence]]s, they actually pay a very fair income to the proprietor, in the shape of good beef, mutton and venison. . .
:“Of course, any thing like English '''parks''', so far as regards ''extent'', is almost out of the question here; simply because land and fortunes are wisely divided here, instead of being kept in large bodies, intact, as in England. Still, as the first class country-[[seat]]s of the Hudson now command from $50,000 to $75,000, it is evident that there is a growing taste for space and beauty in the private domains of republicans. What we wish to suggest now, is, simply, that the greatest beauty and satisfaction may be had here, as in England—(for the plan really suits our limited means better,) by treating the bulk of the ornamental portion as open '''park''' pasture—and thus getting the greatest space and beauty at the least original expenditure, and with the largest annual profit. . .
:“All that is to be borne in mind is, that the '''park''' may be as large as you can afford to purchase—for it may be kept up at a profit—while the [[pleasure-ground]]s and garden scenery, may, with this management, be compressed into the smallest space actually deemed necessary to the place—thereby lessening labor, and bestowing that labor, in a concentrated space, where it will tell.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1385.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a Small Garden Situated in a '''Park''',” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XII.

File:1386.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a '''Park''' Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

File:1387.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a '''Park''' Exhibiting their manner of planting, after a more grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIV.

File:0994.jpg|Anonymous, “Williamsburgh & the slip of land between York & James rivers from thence to Hampton,” c. 1781. According to Hugh Jones, a "large pasture enclosed like a '''park'''" surrounded the governor’s residence and was encircled and marked on the plan as "Governor’s Park.”

File:0994_detail.jpg|Anonymous, "Williamsburgh & the slip of land between York & James rivers from thence to Hampton" [detail], c. 1781.

File:2296.jpg|A. P. Folie, “Plan of the town of Baltimore and it’s environs,” 1792. "Howard's '''Park'''" inscribed at top left.

File:2253.jpg|Benjamin Taylor, John Roberts (engraver), “A New & Accurate Plan of the City of New York in the State of New York in North America,” 1797.

File:0039.jpg|Charles Bulfinch, ''Plan of [[Public garden/Public ground|Grounds]] adjacent to the Capitol'', 1822.

File:2000.jpg|Robert Cary Long Jr., Washington Monument and Howard's '''Park''', c. 1829.

File:0811.jpg|William Smith after [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] of St. John’s Chapel, From the '''Park''''', 1829.

File:1116.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, ''The '''Park''' and City Hall, New York'', in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol 1, pl. 49.

File:1808.jpg|Sarah Fairchild, ''Union '''Park''', New York'', c. 1845.

File:0363.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the [[Meadow]] '''Park''' at Geneseo,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'', 3, no. 4 (October 1848): pl. opp. 153.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at Hyde '''Park''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

File:0484.jpg|John Bachmann, ''New York City Hall, '''Park''' and Environs'', c. 1849.

File:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union '''Park''', New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

File:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

File:0947.jpg|Anonymous, ''Study of trees in '''Park''' Scenery'', in [[A. J. Downing]], “Study of Park Trees,” ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 9 (September 1851): pl. opp. 394.

File:1038.jpg|Frederick Graff, ''Plan of [[Lemon Hill]] and Sedgley '''Park''', Fairmount and Adjoining Property'', October 15, 1851.

File:0584.jpg|Lewis Miller, Title page, ''Sketchbook of Landscapes in the State of Virginia'' (1853).

File:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

File: 0023_detail4.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'' [detail], 1851. Manuscript copy by Nathaniel Michler, 1867.
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792. The park is the shaded open area in the center of the plan.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''[[The Woodlands|Woodlands]], the [[Seat]] of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the [[Bridge]] at Gray’s Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792—94.

File:2254.jpg|William Groombridge, ''[[The Woodlands]], the [[Seat]] of William Hamilton, Esq.'', 1793.

File:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

File:1731.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Horsdumonde, the House of Colonel Henry Skipwith, Cumberland County, Virginia'', June 14, 1796.

File:0051.jpg|William Strickland, “[[The Woodlands]],” 1809, in ''Casket'' 5, no. 10 (October 1830): pl. opp. 432.

File:1830.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''Sedgley--J. Fishers Esqr. opposite Eaglesfield 28th. October'', 1816.

File:0992.jpg|Charles B. Lawrence, attr., ''[[Point Breeze]], the Estate of Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte at Bordentown, New Jersey'', 1817—20.

File:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820—25.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File:1994.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''[[View]] of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill River]]'', c. 1824—26.

File:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall '''Park''' From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

File:0052.jpg|W. J. Bennett, ''Broad Way from the Bowling Green'', c. 1826.

File:0665.jpg|Anonymous, Bonaparte’s residence and the surrounding '''park''', c. 1830.

File:1100.jpg|Robert Walter Weir, “Lunatic Asylum, New York,” Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, in ''New York Mirror'' (February 1, 1834): opp. 241.

File:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.

File:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

File:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of the Fairmount Water-Works with Schuylkill in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

File:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

File:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Natural_style|natural style]]'', in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25.

File:0497.jpg|Anonymous, “Bowling Green [[Fountain]],” in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York: Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. 30.

File:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

File:0351.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], “Presidents [[Arch]] at the end of Penna [[Avenue]],” 1851.

File:1001.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount]] Fordham—the Country [[Seat]] of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.

File:1264.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: Center Circle'', 1852.

File:0982.jpg|L. S. Punderson, ''Public [[Square]], New Haven'', 1862.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1383.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the grand House. . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. X.

File:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two "Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

File:1389.jpg|Batty Langley, “Variety of Lawns, or Openings, before a grand Front of a Building, into a '''Park''', Forest, Common, &c.” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVI.

File:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

File:0477.jpg|John Scoles, ''Government House'', 1795.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''[[View]] of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'', 1815.

File:2082.jpg|Joshua Rowley Watson, ''Eaglesfield from the northeast, May 11th, 1817'', 1817.

File:2119.jpg|Robert Campbell, after Thomas Birch, ''[[View]] of the Dam and Water Works at Fairmount, Philadelphia'', 1824.

File:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825—28.

File:1987_1.jpg|Tucker Factory, Vase with view of Sedgeley Park, 1828–1836.

File:1987_2.jpg|Tucker Factory, Vase with view of Sedgeley Park, 1828–1836.

File:2014.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], “Front [[View]] of [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520A.

File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520A.

File:0727.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.

File:0726.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''The Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1841.

File:0483.jpg|Anonymous, ''Croton Water Celebration 1842'', 1842.

File:2283.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), ''[[View]] of the Great Conflagration at New York July 19th 1845'', 1845.

File:0523.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]] (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), ''Union Place Hotel, Union Square New-York'', c. 1845.

File:1437.jpg|C. Bachman, ''New York'', c. 1848.

File:1441.jpg|David William Moody, ''Springfield'', c. 1850.

File: 1239_detail1.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'' [detail], 1836.

File: 1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Types]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

File:2296.jpg

2021-04-08T17:34:47Z

A-Whitlock:

{{break}}
A. P. Folie, "Plan of the town of Baltimore and it's environs," 1792. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division Washington, D.C.

File:2296.jpg

2021-04-08T17:33:58Z

A-Whitlock:

File:2225 detail.jpg

2021-04-07T17:30:32Z

A-Whitlock:

William Hooker, ''Hooker’s map of the village of Brooklyn in the year 1827'' [detail], 1861. Map Collection, B A-1827 (1861?).Fl, Brooklyn Historical Society.

Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden

2021-04-07T17:29:53Z

A-Whitlock:

'''Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden''' was a nursery founded in 1825 by the Belgian-born horticulturist, [[André Parmentier]], who immigrated with his family to Brooklyn in May 1824. Clearly, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] had designs of creating a nursery in the United States even before departing Belgium: in the notice of his election to the New-York Horticultural Society in June 1824, he is described as having brought with him “an extensive collection of fruit trees, rare plants, and seeds.”<ref>“Horticultural Memoranda,” ''New-York American'' (June 28, 1824), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XQW7ZAR4/q/horticultural%20memoranda view on Zotero].</ref> He was recognized almost immediately in the horticultural press for introducing several rose species into this country.<ref>“Mr. Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (May 19, 1827), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XT8G5JP2 view on Zotero].</ref>

==Overview==
'''Alternate Names:''' Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden; Horticultural Botanic Garden; Horticultural Garden; Parmentier’s Garden 
'''Site Dates:''' 1825–1833 
'''Site Owner(s)''': André Joseph Ghislain Parmentier (1780–1830); Sylvie Parmentier (1793–1882) 
'''Associated People:''' Grant Thorburn (1773–1863), agent; George Fuller (d. 1830), laborer; Owen Redden (dates unknown), laborer; Dr. Adrian Vanderveer (1796–1857) 
'''Location:''' Brooklyn, NY, on the site of what is now the Brooklyn Academy of Music 
'''Condition:''' demolished 
[https://www.google.com/maps/place/Brooklyn+Academy+of+Music/@40.6864925,-73.9798375,17z/data=!3m2!4b1!5s0x89c25bb2230c6207:0x66b41367ae2f3e10!4m5!3m4!1s0x89c25bb222ef61bd:0x93b2b536d094bf28!8m2!3d40.6864885!4d-73.9776488 View on Google maps]

<hr>

==History==
[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “Rustic prospect-arbor,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.]]
One of the earliest advertisements for the nursery, published in the ''New-York Evening Post'' on June 6, 1825, describes the location of the garden at the intersection of Jamaica and Flatbush turnpikes—which, at the time, was just outside the village of Brooklyn.<ref>Advertisement, ''New-York Evening Post'' (June 6, 1825), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref> The site, according to one period commentator, was originally “one of the most stony, rugged, sterile pieces of ground on the whole island,” but was transformed by [[André Parmentier|Parmentier’s]] industry into a richly stocked [[nursery]], laid out according to the principles of “[[picturesque]] gardening.”<ref>“Rural Scenery,” ''New England Farmer'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI/q/rural%20scenery view on Zotero].</ref> It featured winding, sinuous [[walk|walking paths]] and, most notably, a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[belvedere]] (and was occasionally referred to as an [[arbor]]) [Fig. 1] that allowed for “a view of the whole garden and the surrounding scenery . . . including Staten Island, the Bay, Governor’s Island, and the city of New York.”<ref>J. W. S., “Foreign Notices: —North America,” ''Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural and Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 36 (February 1832): 70–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/69KZ93MG/q/foreign%20notices view on Zotero].</ref> Although the primary business of the [[nursery]] was to sell plants—with a focus on grape vines, fruit trees, and roses—it also served a dual purpose as a place for public enjoyment.<ref>Advertisement, ''New-York Evening Post'' (June 6, 1825), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref> Indeed, many of [[André Parmentier|Parmentier’s]] sales were made through the post or through agents, such as the seedsman Grant Thorburn, and the Horticultural and Botanical Garden functioned more as promotional tool, drawing visitors and modeling how they might lay out the plants acquired there.<ref>Grant Thorburn, a Scottish-born seedsman and author, is identified as an agent in numerous advertisements for Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden. Other agents mentioned in various advertisements include the grocers Charles Swan, Harvey Spencer, and John J. Moore.</ref> To that end, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] also offered his services as a landscape designer, and was identified by [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] as “the only practitioner . . . of any note” in the United States. Downing described his [[nursery]] as having offered “a specimen of the [[natural style]] of laying out grounds, . . . and contributed not a little to the dissemination of a taste for the [[natural style|natural mode]] of [[landscape gardening]].”<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York & London: Wiley and Putnam; Boston: C. C. Little & Co., 1841), 21–22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QDVESTBX/q/treatise%20on%20the%20theor view on Zotero].</ref>
[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]

In about 1828 [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] published a broadside of his Horticultural and Botanical Garden featuring a map of the grounds, offering a most detailed view of the layout and design of his [[nursery]] [Fig. 2]. The vineyards and rose [[shrubbery|shrubs]] were enclosed by meandering [[walk]]s that led to the “[[rustic style|Rustic]] [[arbor|Arbour]]” and “French Saloon” at the east corner of the [[plot]] (situated at the upper left on the map), and straight [[alley]]s, lined with fruit trees, divided his [[orchard]]s. Along the eastern edge of the nursery, abutting the Jamaica Turnpike, was a small cluster of buildings that included the barn, [[greenhouse]]s, tool and work houses, as well as the Parmentier family’s home and living quarters for laborers; adjacent to these buildings were hot [[bed]]s and an herbaceous plant garden.<ref>The close quarters may have led to a dispute in July 1830, when one of his laborers beat another with a garden hoe. Newspaper reports are mute on what precipitated the attack but noted that the victim, George Fuller, died shortly thereafter. His attacker, Owen Redden, was tried for murder but eventually acquitted by reason of insanity. See “Outrage,” ''New-York Morning Herald'' (July 9, 1830), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/SZ2JVFV8 view on Zotero], and “Oyer and Terminer,” ''American'' (June 17, 1831), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/VCM3W7RT view on Zotero].</ref>The broadside is likely the document Parmentier sent to the Société d’Horticulture de Paris in 1829, and it was later reprinted, with some alterations, in the February 1832 issue of ''Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural and Domestic Improvement''.<ref>The editor of the ''Annales de la Société d’Horticulture de Paris'' noted that Parmentier sent a map of his nursery, along with a letter on the propagation of fruit trees in America; see “Sur les Arbres fruitiers d’Amérique,” ''Annales de la Société d’Horticulture de Paris'' 4 (1829): 352, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/WRFUH5XB view on Zotero]. For the 1832 reprint of the map, see ''Gardener's Magazine'' (February 1832): 71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/69KZ93MG/q/foreign%20notices view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2227.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Prosper Desobry, ''Map of Parmentier's Garden, Brooklyn, to be sold at auction on Wednesday, Novr. 13th, 1833, at 12 o'clock at the Merchant's Exchange by Pine & Van Antwerp, 1833''.]]
The article that accompanied the 1832 publication of the map was intended to aid in the sale of the Horticultural and Botanical Garden. [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] had died in November 1830 after a prolonged illness, and his widow, Sylvie, endeavored to maintain the property following his death under increasingly difficult circumstances. In March 1831 parts of the property, including a barn and outhouses, were destroyed by arson, and in September of that year the Parmentiers’ son Léon died at the age 12.<ref>For information on the fire at Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden, see ''American'' (March 17, 1831), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TNER2ST7 view on Zotero], and for the death notice of Léon Ghislain Leopold Parmentier, see ''American'' (September 20, 1831), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/R2NERJC5 view on Zotero].</ref> Sylvie Parmentier subsequently put the nursery up for sale in November 1831. Finding no immediate buyers, she continued to oversee the garden until November 1833, when she sold it to Dr. Adrian Vanderveer of nearby Flatbush. Vanderveer paid $53,000 for the garden, which he divided into lots and sold them at auction for nearly $70,000.<ref>Some papers cite the original sale price as $57,000; see “Price of Farms,” ''New-York American'' (November 22, 1833), p. 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZB28JDE7 view on Zotero]. For additional details of the sale and subsequent auction, see “Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (October 23, 1833), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CSXXMK56/q/parmentier's%20garden view on Zotero], “All in the Wrong,” ''Commercial Advertiser'' (November 9, 1833), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/4AV8M7X3 view on Zotero], and ''New-York American'' (November 19, 1833), p. 4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CQZTHBC6 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Elizabeth Athens''

<hr>

==Texts==
*Anonymous, June 6, 1825, advertisement for Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden (''New-York Evening Post'')<ref>Advertisement, ''New-York Evening Post'' (June 6, 1825), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/DXBVT3AF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[André Parmentier|ANDREW PARMENTIER]] has established himself in America with a view to Horticulture, and has already set on foot a [[nursery]] of considerable extent and variety, of ornamental & fruit-bearing trees, at the cross-roads formed by the intersection of the Jamaica & Flatbush turnpikes. . . He has also a fine collection of [[shrubbery|shrubs]] and flowers, in [[pot]]s, for sale.

:“[[André Parmentier|Mr. P.]] intends to devote particular care to adding to his collection, those European fruits and remarkable rare trees, which are as yet unknown here, or have not been generally introduced into the United States.

:“[[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier]] will be happy to exhibit his garden and [[nursery]] to the ladies and gentlemen of New York, who may honor him with a visit.”

*Anonymous, March 4, 1826, “On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens” (''New-York Evening Post'')<ref>“On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (March 4, 1826), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/QW4A64CE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[André Parmentier|Mr. ANDREW PARMENTIER]], lately from Europe, where these gardens are generally adopted, has made at his place, at the division of the Jamaica and Flatbush turnpike, at Brooklyn, L. I. a garden of this kind, which will be the more interesting on account of the great variety of foreign trees and plants he has there introduced. —It is but half an hour’s walk from New York.

:“[[André Parmentier|Mr. P.]] by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and [[picturesque]] gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, one collection of his drawings of cottages, [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s; [[Dutch style|Dutch]], [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[pavilion]]s, [[temple]]s, [[hermitage]]s, rotundas, &c. For further particulars inquire personally or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, which will be attended to.”

*A Horticulturist [pseud.], August 1, 1826, “To the Editor of the N. Y. Advertiser” (''Commercial Advertiser'')<ref>A Horticulturist [pseud.], “To the Editor of the N. Y. Advertiser,” ''Commercial Advertiser'' (August 1, 1826): 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5THTV3GU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Sir—I went yesterday to see the Garden owned by [[André Parmentier|Mr. Andrew Parmentier]]. . . The improvements he has made in that establishment, during the short time he has been there, are really astonishing; among which may be seen peach trees planted in April, 1825, which were inoculated in the same year, and are at present between three and four feet high, having been planted but 15 months. His flower plants, which are kept covered during the heat of the day by a simple and easy method, are by that means kept a long time in blossom, and form a charming and delightful [[view]]. There are always a great number in blossom, his collection amounting to above 5000 in [[pot]]s. He has besides planted 20,000 grape vines, which will occupy at least five acres of ground, and are likely, in a very few years, to furnish the market of the city of New-York with an abundant supply of that excellent and wholesome fruit. [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier]] has arranged his garden in the [[modern style|picturesque style]], with a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[belvedere|Belvidere]] placed at the corner of Jamaica road, which displays a most extensive perspective. It is the first of the kind erected in the United States, and will be covered with grape vines next fall. Mr. Parmentier was very polite and attentive to me, in showing me all the details of his large establishment, which contains 24 acres of land, and is surrounded with a solid stone [[fence]].

:“This [[Botanic Garden]] can be visited free of expense; and, as it is likely to become the most important one of the kind in the United States, strangers of taste visiting New-York, will find it to their gratification to view this garden, which is only two miles from New-York.”

*Anonymous, May 19, 1827, “Mr. Parmentier’s Garden” (''New-York Evening Post'')<ref>“Mr. Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (May 19, 1827), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XT8G5JP2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At the [[greenhouse|green houses]] in Mr. Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden in Brooklyn. . . the admirers of flowers may see many rare and elegant varieties of roses, together with many other curious and beautiful flowers now in blossom. . . [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier]] has introduced into this country the species of rose with red petals emitting the perfume of tea, sometimes called the red tea rose of Florence; this is also in flower. The Napoleon rose, and the Maria Louisa rose, with a number of others, will also be in bloom in a few days. As these plants are cultivated in [[pot]]s, their transportation may be safely effected at any season.”

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, “Rural Scenery” (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187)<ref>“Rural Scenery,” ''New England Farmer'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI/q/rural%20scenery view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Landscape and Picturesque Gardens.''—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than [[picturesque]] and landscape gardens. . .

:“For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of [[landscape gardening|landscape]] and [[picturesque]] gardening, the public is much indebted to [[André Parmentier|Mr. A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the Horticultural Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and [[shrubbery|shrubs]] that are found in his [[nursery|nurseries]]. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France.”

*Viator [pseud.], August 15, 1828, “Nurseries and Gardens on Long Island” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 25)<ref>Viator [pseud.], “Nurseries and Gardens on Long Island,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 4 (August 15, 1828): 25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HFMDHNUX view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At Brooklyn we called at the celebrated Horticultural Garden of [[André Parmentier|Mr. ANDRE PARMENTIER]]. This is a recent establishment begun in 1825. It contains 20 acres, and is surrounded by a [[wall]] of masonry, after the manner which we are told is practised on the old continent. . . This garden, so far as completed, has been laid out by the very intelligent proprietor in the most [[modern style]] and with great taste; for in the branch of ornamental and [[picturesque]] gardening, [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier]], it is believed, greatly excels.”

*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden, Near Brooklyn” (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, October 3, 1828, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden, Near Brooklyn,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E/q/parmentier's view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To the left of the garden an [[avenue]] leads to a [[rustic style|Rustic]] [[Arbor]] curiously constructed of the crooked limbs of trees, in their rough state, covered with bark and moss; from the top of this [[arbor]] a [[view]] of the whole garden, and the surrounding scenery is exhibited, extending to Staten Island, the bay, Governor’s Island, and the city; at some distance from the [[rustic style|rustic]] [[arbor]] is the French saloon, a beautiful oval, skirted with privet. . .

:“The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier’s]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eye, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce [[picturesque]] effect.”

*Anonymous, March 17, 1831, describing an act of arson at Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanic Garden (''New-York American'')<ref>''New-York American'' (March 17, 1831), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/R6RNKXMT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We regret to be obliged to state, that the barn and outhouses attached to Madame Parmentier’s garden, near Brooklyn, were destroyed last night by fire, together with carts, garden tools and a horse. . . [W]e are authorized by one of Mrs. Parmentier’s neighbors to offer a reward of one hundred dollars for the apprehension and conviction of the incendiary.”

*Anonymous, November 26, 1831, advertisement for the sale of Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden (''Commercial Advertiser'')<ref>Advertisement, ''Commercial Advertiser'' (November 26, 1831), p. 3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/6B8X5KFK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Horticultural Garden of the Late [[André Parmentier|Andrew Parmentier]], Is Offered For Sale. The reputation of this establishment is not confined to the vicinity of New-York, but is well known throughout the United States, and different parts of Europe. It is situated two miles from the city of New-York, at Brooklyn, Long Island, at the junction of the Jamaica and Flatbush Roads, and contains 24 acres.

:“The Grounds are in a very high state of cultivation, and laid out with judgment and taste. The situation is very healthy, and the [[view]] very extensive, commanding the Bay, the city, &c. The garden is enclosed by a pointed stone [[fence]], and inside of that is a hawthorn [[hedge]]. The [[Nursery]] contains a fine and extensive collection of Fruit, Forest and Ornamental Trees; also, a splendid collection of Roses and Herbaceous Plants,—the object of its late Proprietor having always been to collect every new variety.

:“On the premises are a Dwelling House, two Laborers’ Houses, seven Cisterns, and a never-failing Pump of excellent Water—four [[greenhouse|Green]] and [[hothouse|Hot Houses]], containing a rich variety of rare exotics.

:“The advantages to be derived by any person who wishes to engage in the occupation of Gardening, by the purchase of this property, are very great: the business already secured is very extensive, and the prospect of increased encouragement is such as to warrant the belief that the purchase of the property will amply repay the enterprise of any one who may engage in the business.

:“Terms will be made known by applying to Mrs. Parmentier, on the premises.”

*S., J. W., February 1832, “Parmentier’s Garden, Near Brooklyn,” (''Gardener’s Magazine'' 8: 70–72)<ref>J. W. S., “Foreign Notices: —North America,” ''Gardener’s Magazine, and Register of Rural and Domestic Improvement'' 8, no. 36 (February 1832): 70–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/69KZ93MG/q/J.%20W.%20S. view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have compiled from different authorities. . . an account of one of the first [[botanic garden]]s which has ever been established in this country, viz. that of [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] about two miles from Brooklyn, Long Island. The following map. . . will serve to convey some idea of the general disposition of the whole; but I am confident that neither plan nor description can furnish any adequate idea of the particular beauties of the place. Its establishment may, indeed, be looked upon as an epoch in the history of American horticulture; as, though the various branches of that science were before understood and practised by most of our gardeners, it had not attained its full perfection until the arrival of [[André Parmentier|M. Parmentier]]. . . [T]he garden of [[André Parmentier|M. Parmentier]] is, perhaps, the most striking instance we have of all the different departments of gardening being combined extensively and with scientific skill. The rapidity with which this garden was formed added to its effect. Nearly twenty-five acres of ground were originally enclosed; and the inhabitants of the vicinity beheld, with astonishment, in the short space of three years, one of the most stony, rugged, sterile pieces of ground on the whole island, which seemed to bid defiance to the labours of man, stored with the most luxuriant fruit, and blooming with the most beautiful flowers. . .

:“In the northern parts of the garden are [[nursery|nurseries]], containing young plants of every kind of tree which is to be found in the beds. To the left of the garden, an [[avenue]] leads to a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[arbor|arbour]], in the grotesque style, constructed of the crooked limbs of trees in their rough state, covered with bark and moss: from the top of this [[arbor|arbour]], a [[view]] of the whole garden and the surrounding scenery is obtained; including Staten Island, the Bay, Governor’s Island, and the city of New York. . .

:“In short, this establishment is well worthy of notice as one of the few examples in the neighbourhood of New York, of the art of laying out a garden so as to combine the principles of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]] with the conveniences of the [[nursery]] or [[orchard]].”

*Anonymous, June 20, 1833, “Mrs. Parmentier’s Garden” (''New-York Spectator'')<ref>“Mrs. Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Spectator'' (June 20, 1833), p. 1, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ARQEVA2S view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Those ladies and gentlemen who have not entirely yielded themselves to languor and repose during the brightest hours of the morning, would find themselves richly repaid by a visit to the “garden of roses” (as we must be permitted to call it) of Mrs. Parmentier. . . A lady’s taste is visible in the neatness and floral embellishments of Mrs. Parmentier’s Garden, and though there is a large domain to superintend, and though a vast variety of trees and [[Shrubbery]] for the ornament and for use, call for attention in the liberal department of the [[nursery]], yet nothing is neglected—all is equally subject to the most assiduous care and preserving industry.”

*Anonymous, October 23, 1833, “Parmentier’s Garden” (''New-York Evening Post'')<ref>“Parmentier’s Garden,” ''New-York Evening Post'' (October 23, 1833), p. 2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CSXXMK56 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We learn that Mrs. Parmentier has recently disposed of, at private sale, the ground now occupied by her as a Garden, for the sum of ''fifty-three thousand dollars''. . . . The rage for speculation in Brooklyn, has enabled Mrs. Parmentier to retire from active life, with a competency for herself and interesting daughters—the just reward of virtuous and well-spent lives.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849: 459–60)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (New York: George P. Putnam; London: Longman, Brown, Green & Longman, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64/q/treatise%20on%20the%20theor view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Those of our readers who may have visited the delightful garden and grounds of [[André Parmentier|M. Parmentier]], near Brooklyn, some half a dozen years since. . . will readily remember the rustic prospect-[[arbor]] or [[belvedere|tower]], Fig. 87, which was situated at the extremity of his place. . . from its summit, though the garden [[walk]]s afforded no [[prospect]], a beautiful reach of neighborhood for many miles was enjoyed.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
File:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden, at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

File:2227.jpg|Prosper Desobry, ''Map of Parmentier's Garden, Brooklyn, to be sold at auction on Wednesday, Novr. 13th, 1833, at 12 o'clock at the Merchant's Exchange by Pine & Van Antwerp, 1833.''

File:0417.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] prospect-arbor,” in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.

File:2225_detail.jpg|William Hooker, ''Hooker’s map of the village of Brooklyn in the year 1827'' [detail], 1861.

File:2225.jpg|William Hooker, ''Hooker’s map of the village of Brooklyn in the year 1827'', 1861.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[https://www.brooklynhistory.org/blog/brooklyns-secret-garden/ Brooklyn Historical Society]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category:Places|Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]]

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Anonymous, "Residence of Mr. D. Barnes, Middletown, Ct.," ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 6, No. 4 (April 1, 1851), pl. opp. p. 153. Private Collection.

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Anonymous, ''Grouping to produce the Beautiful'', in A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849), 102, fig. 21.

Samuel Vaughan

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A-Whitlock:

'''Samuel Vaughan''' (April 23, 1720–1802) was a London merchant and owner of sugar [[plantation]]s in Jamaica. An ardent supporter of the cause of American independence, Vaughan contributed to the development of several important American sites and institutions, including the [[State House Yard]] and the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, where he also designed the popular [[pleasure ground]] known as [[Gray’s Garden]].

==History==
[[File:2295.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1, Robert Edge Pine, ''Portrait of Samuel Vaughan'', 1785-87.]]
During the 1740s Samuel Vaughan established extensive commercial enterprises in London, the West Indies, and the American colonies. He purchased large quantities of land and slaves in the vicinity of Montego Bay in Jamaica, where he established lucrative sugar [[plantation]]s.<ref>Alan Taylor, ''Liberty Men and Great Proprietors: The Revolutionary Settlement on the Maine Frontier, 1760–1820'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R76N7T3F view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan strengthened his ties to America through marriage in 1747 to Sarah Hallowell (1727–1809), daughter of the wealthy Boston merchant, shipbuilder, and landowner Benjamin Hallowell.<ref>Emma Huntington Nason, ''Old Hallowell on the Kennebec'' (Augusta, ME: Press of Burleigh & Flynt, 1909), 74–75, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USP2T2FM view on Zotero]; ''Biographical Sketches of Representative Citizens of the State of Maine, American Series of Popular Biographies—Maine Edition'' (Boston: New England Historical Publishing Company, 1903), 167, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X4E8FE95 view on Zotero]. </ref> Unlike his loyalist father-in-law, Vaughan was a passionate advocate of American liberty and a great admirer of George Washington. In London he was a member of the “Club of Honest Whigs”—a liberal coterie of intellectuals and religious dissenters (several of them, like Vaughan, were Unitarians) who met to discuss science, philosophy, and social and political reform.<ref>Verner W. Crane, “The Club of Honest Whigs: Friends of Science and Liberty,” ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 23 (April 1966): 220–21, 228, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D99WNVM2 view on Zotero]; Samuel Vaughan, “Samuel Vaughan’s Journal, or ‘Minutes Made by S.V., from Stage to Stage, on a Tour to Fort Pitt.’ Part I,” ed. Edward G. Williams, ''Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine'' 44 (March 1961): 52–53, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INBHGC5M view on Zotero].</ref> At his home in the English village of Wanstead, Vaughan hosted visiting American patriots such as Benjamin Franklin, who became an intimate family friend, and Josiah Quincy Jr., to whom Franklin introduced Vaughan in 1774.<ref>Josiah Quincy, ''Memoir of the Life of Josiah Quincy, Junior, of Massachusetts Bay: 1744–1775'', ed. Eliza Susan Quincy (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1875), 204, 214, 242, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/247JWVJA view on Zotero].</ref> It was possibly at Wanstead that Vaughan developed the knowledge of [[landscape gardening]] that he later brought to America. Nearby Wanstead House—a magnificent Palladian residence designed by Colen Campbell—was among the first in England to have its existing formal gardens renovated (c. 1725–71) in the Romantic, [[natural style|naturalistic mode]] that became known as the [[English style]]. Thousands of shrubs and trees were added to the [[park]], along with architectural accents (such as a boathouse-[[grotto]] on the man-made [[lake]] and an ornamental [[temple]] that also functioned as a poultry house and keeper’s lodge).<ref>Sally Jeffery, “The Gardens of Wanstead,” in ''Proceedings of a Study Day held at the Temple, Wanstead Park, Greater London, September 25, 1999'', ed. Katherine Myers (London: London Historic Parks and Gardens Trust, 2003), 24–36, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HQK9H3S5 view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan would include similar garden features in the landscape projects he later oversaw in Philadelphia.

Within months of the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War, Vaughan relocated his family to Philadelphia where, in December 1783, he met and initiated an enduring friendship with his hero, George Washington, to whom he was introduced by Benjamin Rush.<ref>Anna Coxe Toogood, ''Independence Square, Volume 1: Historical Narrative'' (Independence Historical National Park: National Park Service, 2004), 74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; Craig Compton Murray, “Benjamin Vaughan (1751–1835): The Life of an Anglo-American Intellectual” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1989), 200, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero]; Sarah P. Stetson, “The Philadelphia Sojourn of Samuel Vaughan,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 73 (1949): 461, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan took particular interest in the architecture, grounds, and interior decoration of [[Mount Vernon]], advising Washington on fashionable English trends, offering to supply skilled workmen, and sending gifts such as an English fireplace mantel carved with rustic subjects.<ref>George Washington to Samuel Vaughan, June 20, 1784, ''The Papers of George Washington'', Confederation Series, ed. William Wright Abbot and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 1:466, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G2R8EXJI view on Zotero]; see also 1:45–46, 273–74; 2:326; 4:384; Robert F. Dalzell and Lee Baldwin Dalzell, ''George Washington’s Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 112–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7JPVJBPP view on Zotero]; Joseph Manca, ''George Washington’s Eye: Landscape, Architecture, and Design at Mount Vernon'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 9, 22, 25, 171, 173–74, 194, 198, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GUDJUIC7 view o Zotero]; “Samuel Vaughan and George Washington,” [http://mountvernonnewroom.tumblr.com/post/523869841n17/samuel-vaughan-and-george-washington Mount Vernon website].</ref> Vaughan also became a driving force within Philadelphia’s intellectual, civic, and scientific communities. By January 1784 he had engaged a workman to implement his ambitious plan to landscape the [[State House Yard]] (an open [[green]] at the center of State House [[Square]]) as a [[public garden]].<ref>Toogood 2004, 72, 82–83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; John C. Greene, “The Development of Mineralogy in Philadelphia, 1780–1820,” ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 113 (August 1969): 283–95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2AQBVPGS view on Zotero]; Stetson 1949, 464–65, 469, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref> He joined the American Philosophical Society in the same month, and assumed responsibility for planning Philosophical Hall, the Society’s new headquarters on the grounds of the [[State House Yard]]. In a letter of March 8, 1784, Vaughan assured the Society’s founder, Benjamin Franklin, that the building would “be sufficiently ornamental not to interfere materially with the views of making a publick [[walk]].”<ref>Vaughan quoted in Toogood 2004, 73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; see also 82–83; Greene 1969, 290, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2AQBVPGS view on Zotero]; Stetson 1949, 464–65, 469, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan initially envisioned the [[State House Yard]] as a national [[arboretum]], with “a specimen of every sort of [tree and shrub] in America that will grow in this state.”<ref>Quotation from Samuel Vaughan to Humphry Marshall, May 14, 1785, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, file “Humphry Marshall Papers,” USDA History Collection 7, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SB7UVI3N view on Zotero]. See also Toogood 2004, 86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero].</ref> Vaughan purchased many of these specimens from John and [[William Bartram]], and also consulted the Bartrams’ cousin [[Humphry Marshall]]. His high regard for [[Humphry Marshall|Marshall’s]] efforts to document the “original botanical information of the New World,” led Vaughan in May 1785 to solicit support from the American Philosophical Society (of which he was now a vice-president) and the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture (which he had co-founded a few months earlier). When those efforts failed, he personally supervised and financed publication of [[Humphry Marshall|Marshall’s]] manuscript, ''Arbustrum [sic] Americanum'' (1785), and even translated Latin terms for the English language index.<ref>Quotation from Samuel Vaughan to Humphry Marshall, April 30, 1785, Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, file “Humphry Marshall Papers,” USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZHJJ4VVD view on Zotero]. See also Toogood 2004, 82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; Joseph Ewan, “Philadelphia Heritage: Plants and People,” in ''America’s Garden Legacy: A Taste for Pleasure'', ed. George H. M. Lawrence (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1978), 28 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8PS285CI view on Zotero]; Stetson, 1949, 469–470, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref>

Although Vaughan ultimately scaled back his encyclopedic plan for landscaping the [[State House Yard]], he nevertheless assembled a great number and variety of specimens, which he laid out in accordance with the naturalistic conventions of the [[English style]]. In addition to receiving accolades for his good taste and generosity in developing the [[State House Yard]], Vaughan was praised for his signal contributions to the American Philosophical Society. In a letter of August 2, 1786, Benjamin Rush observed, “He [Vaughan] has been the principal cause of the resurrection of our Philosophical Society. He has even done more, he has laid the foundation of a philosophical hall which will preserve his name and the name of his family among us for many, many years to come.”<ref> William E. Lingelbach, “Philosophical Hall: The Home of the American Philosophical Society,” ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' 43 (1953): 49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E5XJR6BI view on Zotero].</ref> Less well known was Vaughan’s responsibility for the fashionable [[pleasure garden]] recently opened at [[Gray's Garden|Gray’s Tavern]] on the [[Schuylkill River]]. With the aid of an English gardener and a team of laborers, Vaughan had transformed the steep, wooded grounds into a romantic [[park]] known as [[Gray’s Garden]]. A maze of paths meandered through informal plantings of flowers and shrubs, and featured [[picturesque]] [[view]]s of fanciful garden structures such as [[grotto|grottoes]], [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] [[bridge]]s, and a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[hermitage]] that functioned as a [[bathhouse]].<ref>Toogood 2004, 83, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SVQDZ5EJ view on Zotero]; Stetson 1949, 467–68, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero]; Manasseh Cutler, ''Life, Journals and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'', ed. William Parker Cutler and Julia Perkin Cutler, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1888), 1: 275–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1110.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 2, Samuel Vaughan, Sketch plan of [[Mount Vernon]], June–September 1787.]]
Despite his many occupations in Philadelphia, Vaughan traveled frequently to Boston and visited other regions of the United States. In July 1786 he and [[Manasseh Cutler]] began preparations for a trip to the White Mountains, where they intended to study native flora, fauna, and minerals (Vaughan’s pet subject), aided by scientific instruments that Vaughan had imported from Europe.<ref>Cutler 1888, 2:247, 271, 281, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref> In 1787 Vaughan hosted two dinners for George Washington while the president was in Philadelphia for the Federal Convention, and then set off on a 1400-mile journey to [[Mount Vernon]]. During his trip, Vaughan kept a journal in which he detailed the sites and natural phenomena he encountered while traveling through Pittsburgh (celebrating the 4th of July at Fort Pitt), [[Berkeley Springs]], Williamsburg, and other towns.<ref>Williams, March 1961, 53, 56–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INBHGC5M view on Zotero]; Samuel Vaughan, “Samuel Vaughan’s Journal, or ‘Minutes Made by S.V., from Stage to Stage, on a Tour to Fort Pitt.’ Part II, From Carlisle to Pittsburgh,” ed. Edward G. Williams, ''Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine'' 44 (June 1961): 160–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GDP5IR2D view on Zotero]; Samuel Vaughan, “Samuel Vaughan’s Journal, or ‘Minutes Made by S.V., from Stage to Stage, on a Tour to Fort Pitt.’ Part III. From Pittsburgh to Fort Cumberland Thence to Mount Vernon,” ed. Edward G. Williams, ''Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine'' 44 (September 1961): 261–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G4TTHJVB view on Zotero].</ref> At [[Mount Vernon]] Vaughan made notes on the mansion and grounds and completed a sketch [Fig. 2], from which he later produced two more detailed versions, one of which he sent as a gift to Washington.<ref>Williams, June 1961, 273–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GDP5IR2D view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1790 Vaughan took his final leave of America and returned to England. Just prior to his departure, he formally requested that [[William Bartram]]—rather than an English gardener—be entrusted with maintaining the shrubs and trees at the [[State House Yard]], asserting: “He is fully competent to the business, which I conceive not to be the case of the English Gardiner proposed, who not being acquainted with the productions of this Country & who hath neither ability to judge or means to procure the variety necessary to supply those destroyed or dead.”<ref>Stetson 1949, 80, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6QU7WK2J view on Zotero].</ref> From the other side of the Atlantic, Vaughan continued to exchange scientific information and specimens with [[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler]], Washington, and other American friends. He also supervised the development of property inherited from his father-in-law, Benjamin Hallowell, in the town of [[Hallowell, Maine]]. As early as 1784, he had sought to establish a Unitarian community there and he continued to promote the spiritual, agricultural, and mercantile growth of the town through family members who became residents—most notably his son [[Benjamin Vaughan|Benjamin]], who developed a noted garden while advancing the pioneering horticultural work that had become a family tradition.<ref>Taylor 1990, 34–37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R76N7T3F view on Zotero]; Murray 1989, 204, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero]; Nason 1909, 50–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USP2T2FM view on Zotero]; George Willis Cooke, ''Unitarianism in America: A History of Its Origin and Development'' (Boston: American Unitarian Association, 1902), 77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7MMW5NPJ view on Zotero]; John H. Sheppard, ''Reminiscences of the Vaughan Family, and More Particularly of Benjamin Vaughan, LL.D.'' (Boston: David Clapp & Son, 1865), 5–6, 12–15, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JUK7VZVU view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*Vaughan, Samuel, May 28, 1785, in a letter to [[Humphry Marshall]]<ref>Series X, Manuscripts, Box 10/4, file “Humphry Marshall Papers,” Special Collections, National Agricultural Library, 1785), USDA History Collection, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4N9E2PIM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As it is my wish to plant in the [[State House Yard|State house square]] specimens of every tree & shrub that grow in the several states on this Continent that will thrive here, I have enclosed a sketch of such others as I have been able to procure since the 7th of last month, with a list of such others as have occurred to me hitherto, but as I am unacquainted with the vast variety remaining & that you have turned your thoughts in that line, I have to request, & shall be much obliged to you for a list of such as occur to you, with directions in what state or place they are to be had; that I may lay out to procure them to plant in the fall.”

*Hunter, Robert, October, 1785, describing the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, PA (quoted in 1943: 169)<ref>Robert Hunter, ''Quebec to Carolina in 1785–1786: Being the Travel Diary and Observations of Robert Hunter, Jr., a Young Merchant of London'', ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1943), 169, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EDP6T3ER view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The state-house is infinitely beyond anything I have either seen in New York or Boston, and the [[walk]] before it does infinite honor to Mr. Vaughan’s taste and ingenuity in laying it out.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, PA (quoted in 1888: 1:262–63)<ref>Cutler 1888, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ASAS6SD5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As you enter the [[Mall]] through the State House, which is the only [[avenue]] to it, it appears to be nothing more than a large inner Court-[[yard]] to the State House, ornamented with trees and [[walk]]s. But here is a fine display of rural fancy and elegance. It was so lately laid out in its present form that it has not assumed that air of grandeur which time will give it. The trees are yet small, but most judiciously arranged. The artificial [[mound]]s of earth, and depressions, and small [[grove]]s in the [[square]]s have a most delightful effect. The numerous [[walk]]s are well graveled and rolled hard ; they are all in a serpentine direction, which heightens the beauty, and affords constant variety. That painful sameness, commonly to be met with in garden-[[alley]]s, and others works of this kind, is happily avoided here, for there are no two parts of the [[Mall]] that are alike. Hogarth’s 'Line of Beauty' is here completely verified. The public are indebted to the fertile fancy and taste of Mr. Sam'l Vaughan, Esq., for the elegance of this plan. It was laid out and executed under his direction about three years ago. The [[Mall]] is at present nearly surrounded with buildings, which stand near to the board [[fence]] that incloses it, and the parts now vacant will, in a short time, be filled up. On one part the Philosophical Society are erecting a large building for holding their meetings and depositing their Library and Cabinet. This building is begun, and, on another part, a County Court-house is now going up. But, after all the beauty and elegance of this public [[walk]], there is one circumstance that must forever be disgusting and must greatly diminish the pleasure and amusement which these [[walk]]s would otherwise afford. At the foot of the [[Mall]], and opposite to the Court-house, is the Prison, fronting directly to the [[Mall]].

*Vaughan, Samuel, July 1787, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in 1961: 273)<ref>Vaughan 1961, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/G4TTHJVB view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Before the front of the house. . . there are [[lawn]]s, surrounded with gravel [[walk]]s 19 feet wide. with trees on each side the larger, for shade. outside the [[walk]]s trees & [[shrubbery|shrubberies]]. Parralel [''sic''] to each exterior side a [[Kitchen Garden]]s. with a stately [[hothouse|hot house]] on one side. the exteriour side of the garden inclosed with a brick [[wall]].”

*Anonymous, July 1787, “Account of the State-House of Pennsylvania” (''Columbian Magazine'' 1: 513)<ref>Anonymous, “Account of the State-House of Pennsylvania,” ''Columbian Magazine'', 1, no. 11 (July 1787): 513, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZDHUSQJF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[State House Yard|state-house yard]] has been highly improved by the exertions of Mr. Samuel Vaughan, and affords two gravel [[walk]]s, shaded with trees, a pleasant [[lawn]], and several [[bed]]s of shrubs and flowers.”

*Anonymous [“B.”], January 1790, “Explanation of the Plate, exhibiting a View of several Public Buildings in the City of Philadelphia” (''Columbian Magazine'' 4: 25–26)<ref>Anonymous [“B.”], “Explanation of the Plate, exhibiting a View of several Public Buildings in the City of Philadelphia,” ''Columbian Magazine'' 4, no. 1 (January 1790): 25–26, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7TF4THJP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[State House Yard|State-house square]]... is inclosed [''sic''], on three sides, by a brick [[wall]].... This area has, of late, been judiciously improved, under the direction of Samuel Vaughan, Esq. It consists of a beautiful [[lawn]], interspersed with little knobs or tufts of flowering shrubs, and [[clump]]s of trees, well disposed. Through the middle of the gardens, runs a spacious gravel-[[walk]] lined with double rows of thriving elms, and communicating with serpentine [[walk]]s which encompass the whole area. These surrounding [[walk]]s are not uniformly on a level with the [[lawn]]; the margin of which, being in some parts a little higher, forms a bank, which, in fine weather, affords pleasant [[seat]]s. When the trees attain to a larger size, it will be proper to place a few benches under them, in different situations, for the accommodation of persons frequenting the [[walk]]s.

:“These gardens will soon, if properly attended to, be in a condition to admit of our citizens indulging themselves, agreeably, in the salutary exercise of walking. The grounds, though not so extensive as might be wished, are sufficiently large to accommodate very considerable numbers: the objects within [[view]] are pleasing; and the situation is open and healthy. If the ladies, in particular, would occasionally recreate themselves with a few turns in these [[walk]]s, they would find the practice attended with real advantages.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1110.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, Sketch plan of [[Mount Vernon]], June–September 1787.

Image:0069.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787.

Image:0461.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, Plan of Bath [[Berkeley Springs|[Berkeley Springs]]], Virginia, 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June–September 1787.

Image:0462.jpg|Samuel Vaughan, “Warm or [[Berkeley Springs]] in Virginia,” 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June–September 1787.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n78053741.html Library of Congress Name Authority File]

[http://tclf.org/pioneer/samuel-vaughan/biography-samuel-vaughan The Cultural Landscape Foundation]

[http://www.masshist.org/findingaids/doc.cfm?fa=fa0040 The Massachusetts Historical Society]

[http://archon.wmlibraries.com:8080/index.php?p=collections/controlcard&id=6972 Samuel Vaughan Papers, Special Collections Research Center, Swem Library, College of William and Mary]

[http://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0040 Vaughan family papers, Massachusetts Historical Society]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vaughan, Samuel}}

File:2295.jpg

2021-04-07T13:02:13Z

A-Whitlock:

Robert Edge Pine, ''Portrait of Samuel Vaughan'', 1785-87, oil on canvas, 44 x 38 inches. Gift at the bequest of John Vaughan, 1841. Image courtesy of the American Philosophical Society.

File:2295.jpg

2021-04-07T13:01:42Z

A-Whitlock:

Walk

2021-03-31T14:19:41Z

A-Whitlock:

==History==
[[File:0226.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles Fraser, ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The Seat of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.]]
As an integral element of circulation routes through the designed landscape, walk is one of the most common terms in American garden descriptions. Walks were highly varied in their composition, arrangement, and plantings. While widths varied, a narrow walk limited to foot traffic was often called a path, while a broad, straight walk lined with trees was often called an [[avenue]]. Walks were configured in numerous ways and composed of different materials such as brick, shell, gravel, packed dirt, tan (or tan bark), and turf. From most images of walks it is difficult to discern their composition, but contrary to brick paving, which was popular only in colonial revival gardens, textual references appear to indicate that gravel was a surface commonly used. William Forsyth in his 1802 treatise recommended sand or sea-coal ashes on a foundation of brick rubble or gravel for building a walk in a [[kitchen garden]]. He noted the ease of maintenance of such surfaces, which were weeded simply by raking ([[#Forsyth|view text]]). It is interesting to note that despite changing trends in garden styles, treatises remained remarkably consistent in their advice and instruction. Entire passages were frequently borrowed or adapted from earlier publications.

[[File:0647.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.]]
[[File:1192.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Garden plan, 18th century.]]
[[File:0091.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Thomas Jefferson]], General ideas for the improvement of [[Monticello]] [detail], c. 1804. The description notes “Walks in this style wind-ing up the mountain.”]]
Walks were planted in a variety of ways. They could have [[border]]s of low [[shrubbery]] or plants, as in a painting by Charles Fraser [Fig. 1], or be lined with [[pot]]s or [[statue]]s, as at [[Vauxhall Garden]] in New York in 1816. Lombardy poplars and other tall, straight trees accentuated the linearity of axial walks and the formality of urban [[avenue]]s, including Pennsylvania Ave. in Washington, DC [Fig. 2]. Such spreading shade trees as elm, myrtle, and live oak formed arching canopies over walks, an effect that John James in his 1712 translation of A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville called “Close” walks ([[#d'Argenville|view text]]). Although this term does not appear to be used in America, the technique, which framed [[view]]s and invited cooling strolls, was described at sites such as [[Boston Common]].

While their form varied widely, walks served essentially the same functions: to provide passage and to direct movement through the garden; to focus a viewer’s gaze toward an object, building, or [[prospect]]; and to structure and divide the garden. In colonial gardens, the walk was often the principal structuring element of the space, dividing a small garden adjacent to a structure into regular geometric shapes, such as the walks depicted in an unidentified late 18th-century garden [Fig. 3]. In more naturalistic and [[picturesque]] designs that became popular in the 19th century, walks created routes by which visitors were led to carefully sited garden structures or to crafted [[vista]]s, as described in [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson’s]] c. 1804 plan for his mountaintop landscape [Fig. 4] or [[A. J. Downing|A. J. Downing’s]] 1849 plan for a country [[seat]]. In addition, walks offered a means to organize the visual logic of a site by directing a visitor’s gaze to distant [[view]]s or focal points within the garden, such as [[obelisk]]s, [[pavilion]]s, [[gate]]s, or [[seat]]s. Walks could also create the illusion of distance if their designers manipulated their dimensions and layout. This resulted in an impression of greater depth, a particularly useful effect in smaller urban lots. The dimensions of walks were determined by the scale of their settings and their use. Forsyth (1802), for instance, recommended that walks be wide enough to admit a cart in [[kitchen garden]]s, and Joseph Breck (1851) cautioned designers to leave enough room for persons to “walk comfortably in a social manner” ([[#Breck|view text]]).

[[File:0404.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.]]
[[File:0254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Reuben Moulthrop, ''Mrs. Daniel Truman and Child,'' c. 1798–1810.]]
[[File:2256.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.]]
In pictorial representations, walks served many of these same functions. In a perspective view of a building’s front façade, the viewer is often encouraged to focus upon the main entrance located at the terminus of a central walk or [[avenue]] [Fig. 5]. In the backgrounds of portraits, particularly those from the second half of the 18th century, artists often depicted glimpses through a window of their sitters' gardens, in which walks were presented in perspective with converging sides to suggest the illusion of depth [Fig. 6]. In aerial views, walks were often the principle means of indicating the location and existence of a garden, since plants, changing topography, and surface treatments were less easily rendered in plan. In other images, the walk invites the viewer to dwell upon a destination, such as a garden [[seat]] or viewing point, or to venture further into the unseen garden, as in John Trumbull’s 1793 plan for Yale College [[[#Fig_8|See Fig. 8]]]. In all of these types of images, tracing the line of the walk conveys a sense of movement through the landscape, much as a visitor might have experienced surprising “discoveries” of [[view]]s.

In addition to being a common feature in early American gardens, walks were also the setting for much recorded activity. William Byrd II in his diary (1732) frequently mentioned his own perambulations in the garden, either alone or with gentlemen guests after he had entertained them with a meal ([[#Byrd|view text]]). [[Charles Willson Peale]] described strolling through the gardens of Annapolis, Maryland, in language that echoes published accounts of British and European tours.<ref>Elizabeth Kryder-Reid, “The Archaeology of Vision in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Gardens,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 14, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 42–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJX4M93V view on Zotero.] </ref> Walks were social venues in public landscape designs such as [[Boston Common]], the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, a levee in New Orleans, the Battery Park in New York, Fairmount Park in Philadelphia [Fig. 7], and the [[avenue]]s of Washington, DC. They were places to see and be seen, and images of them in the second quarter of the 19th century portray their rising popularity as [[promenade]]s for the general populace. Numerous descriptions and treatises of this period also praised the health-giving properties of these walks and the virtues of fresh air and exercise, particularly for the infirm, mentally ill, and urban poor.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Smith, John, 1629, describing the Charles River in Massachusetts (quoted in Miller and Johnson 1963: 2:399)<ref>Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, ''The Puritans'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XGR26VH view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“in the maine you may shape your [[Orchard]]s, Vineyards, Pastures, Gardens, '''Walkes''', [[Park]]es, and Corne fields out of the whole peece as you please into such [[plot]]s, one adjoyning to another, leaving every of them invironed with two, three, foure, or six, or so many rowes of well growne trees as you will, ready growne to your hands, to defend them from ill weather.”

*Penn, William, March 19, 1685, in a letter to James Harrison, regarding Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 59)<ref name="Thomforde">Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (MS thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“If Ralph this fall, could gett twenty yound populars, about 18 inch round beheaded, to twenty foot, to plant in a '''walk''' below ye Steps to ye water It were not emiss. perhaps to 15 foot long for a Round head, may do as well, plant ym in ye 8 mo. [October] is well.”

*Penn, William, October 15, 1685, describing Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 54)<ref name="Thomforde"></ref>
:“I desire a. . . handsome '''walk''' to ye house of Gravel, or paved wth pitt stones—smooth stones.”

*Jones, Hugh, 1724, describing the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:48)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“. . . stands the Palace or Governor’s House, a magnificent structure built at the publick Expense, finished and beautified with [[Gate]]s, fine Gardens, Offices, '''Walks''', a fine [[Canal]], [[Orchard]]s, and with a great number of the best arms nicely posited by the ingenious Contrivance of the accomplished Colonel Spotswood.”

*<div id="Byrd"></div>Byrd, William, II, September 28, 1732, describing the estate of Gov. Alexander Spotswood, near Germanna, VA (1970: 357–58, 360)<ref>William Byrd, ''The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover in Virginia, Esqr.'', ed. by John Spencer Bassett (New York: B. Franklin, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3VVVZ9XQ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After Breakfast the Colo. and I left the Ladys to their Domestick Affairs, and took a turn in the Garden, which has nothing beautiful but 3 [[Terrace]] '''Walks''' that fall in [[Slope]]s one below another. . .

:“The afternoon was devoted to the ladys, who shew’d me one of their most beautiful '''Walks'''. They conducted me thro’ a Shady Lane to the Landing, and by the way made me drink some very fine Water that issued from a Marble [[Fountain]], and ran incessantly.” [[#Byrd_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, February 2, 1734, describing property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')
:“To Be Let or Sold. . . On the island is a New Dwelling House &c. built on a high Bluff, which commands an entire [[prospect]] of the Harbour, from the Barr to the Town. A delightful [[Wilderness]] with shady '''Walks''' and [[arbor|Arbours]], cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground, where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced, and planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees, capable of being made a very good Vineyard.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], c. May 1743, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. by Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“From the back door is a spacious '''walk''' a thousand foot long; each side of which nearest the house is a grass [[plat]] ennamiled in a Serpenting manner with flowers.”

*Moore, Francis, 1744, describing the [[Trustees’_Garden|Trustees' Garden]], Savannah, GA (quoted in Marye and Marye 1933: 15)<ref>Florence Marye (Nisbet) and Philip Thornton Marye, ''Garden History of Georgia, 1733–1933'', ed. by Hattie C. Rainwater and Loraine M. Cooney (Atlanta, GA: Peachtree Garden Club, 1933), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GNC4U42D view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The Garden is laid out with Cross-'''walks''' planted with Orange-trees, but the last Winter a good deal of Snow having fallen, had killed those upon the Top of the Hill down to their Roots, but they being cut down, sprouted again, as I saw when I returned to Savannah.”

*Stiles, Ezra, September 30, 1754, describing [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, PA (''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 16: 375)
:“passing a a long spacious '''walk''', set on each side with trees, on the summit of a gradual ascent, we saw the proprietor’s house, & walkt in the gardens, where besides the beautiful '''walk''', ornamented with evergreens, we saw fruit trees. . . [with] oranges, limes, lemons, citrons. . . Spruce [[hedge]]s cut into beautiful figures, &c., all forming the most agreeable variety, & even regular confusion & disorder.”

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Sansom 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a broad '''walk''' of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro' a broad gravel '''walk''', to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]]. . .”

*Grant, Anne, 1769, describing Oswego, NY (1809: 236)<ref>Anne MacVicar Grant, ''Memoirs of an American Lady: With Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America as They Existed Prior to the Revolution'' (New York: S. Campbell, 1809), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z7JD6GEV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“A [[summerhouse|summer house]] in a tree, a fish-[[pond]], and a gravel-'''walk''', were finished before the end of May.”

*Eddis, William, October 1, 1769, describing the Governor’s House, Annapolis, MD (1792: 117)<ref>William Eddis, ''Letters from America: Historical and Descriptive; Compromising Occurances from 1769 to 1777 Inclusive'' (London: Printed for the author, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZMDDRPFN view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The garden is not extensive, but it is disposed to the utmost advantage; the centre '''walk''' is terminated by a small green [[mount]], close to which the Severn approaches; this elevation commands an extensive [[view]] of the bay, and the adjacent country.”

*Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 109)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The Area of the Triangle made by the Wash-House, Stable, & School-House is perfectly levil, & designed for a [[bowling green|bowling-Green]], laid out in rectangular '''Walks''' which are paved with Brick, & covered over with burnt Oyster-Shells.”

*Adams, John, February 23, 1777, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 139)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989), 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“There is a most beautiful '''walk''' from the house down to the water; there is a descent not far from the house; you have a fine garden then you descend a few steps and have another fine garden; you go down a few more and have another.”

*Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Shelley 1954: 405)<ref>Fred Shelley, “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954): 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At this Front of the College is a large Court Yard, ornamented with Gravel '''Walks''', Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass.”

*Rush, Dr. Benjamin, July 15, 1782, describing the country seat of John Dickinsen, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 87)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The ground contiguous to this shed was cut into beautiful '''walks''' and divided with cedar and pine branches into artificial [[grove]]s. The whole, both the buildings and '''walks''', were accommodated with [[seat]]s.”

*Washington, George, February 28, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Johnson 1953: 99–100)<ref>Gerald W. Johnson, ''Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine'' (New York: Random House, 1953), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F2JS5DHZ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“My Gardens have gravel '''walks''' (as you possibly may recollect) in the usual Style, but if a better composition has been discovered for these, I should gladly adopt it. the matter however which I wish principally to be informed in, is, whether your '''walks''' are designed for Carriages, and if so, how they are prepared, to resist the impression of the Wheels. I am making a serpentine road to my door, and have doubts. . . whether any thing short of solid pavement will answer.”

*Washington, George, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:96, 97)<ref>Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“[February 28] Planted all the Mulberry trees, Maple trees, & Black gums in my Serpentine '''walks''' and the Poplars on the right '''walk'''—the Sap of which and the Mulberry appeared to be moving. Also planted 4 trees from H. Hole the name unknown but of a brittle wood which has the smell of Mulberry. . .

:“[March 2]. . . Planted the remainder of the Ash Trees—in the Serpentine '''walks'''—the remainder of the fringe trees in the Shrubberies—all the black haws—all the large berried thorns with a small berried one in the middle of each [[clump]]—6 small berried thorns with a large one in the middle of each [[clump]]—all the swamp red berry bushes & one [[clump]] of locust trees.”

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 2, 1787, describing Middletown, CT (1987: 215–16)<ref name="Cutler 87">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At the northern end of the city is a '''walk''' of two rows of buttonwood trees, from the front [[gate]] of a gentleman’s house down to a summer-house on the bank of the river, by far the most beautiful I ever saw. He permits the people of the city to improve it as a [[mall]].”

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:263)<ref name="Cutler 87"></ref>
:“The numerous '''walks''' are well graveled and rolled hard; they are all in a serpentine direction, which heightens the beauty, and affords constant variety. That painful sameness, commonly to be met with in garden-[[alley]]s, and others works of this kind, is happily avoided here, for there are no two parts of the [[Mall]] that are alike. Hogarth’s ‘Line of Beauty’ is here completely verified. The public are indebted to the fertile fancy and taste of [[Samuel Vaughan|Mr. Sam’l Vaughan, Esq.]], for the elegance of this plan. It was laid out and executed under his direction about three years ago.”

*Enys, Lt. John, December 2, 1787, describing the mall in Boston, MA (Cometti, ed., 1976: 202)<ref>Elizabeth Cometti, ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After Dinner we took a '''walk''' on the [[Mall]] as it is called which is a very excellent: Gravel '''walk''' about half a Mile in Lenth with Trees on each side which is kept in very good order and is by far the best thing of the kind I have yet seen in america.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789: 331)
:“The state house [[yard]], is a neat, elegant and spacious public '''walk''', ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''The Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The serpentine gravel '''walks''', which are irregularly regular, seem to point different ways; they however terminate in one object.”

*[[L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Reps 1967: 17)<ref>John W. Reps, Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DQCIQTFZ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“I placed the three grand Departments of State contigous to the principle Palace and on the way leading to the Congressional House the gardens of the one together with the [[park]] and other improvement on the dependency are connected with the publique '''walk''' and [[avenue]] to the Congress house in a manner as most [must] form a whole as grand as it will be agreeable and convenient to the whole city which form [from] The distribution of the local [locale] will have an early access to this place of general resort and all along side of which may be placed play houses, room of assembly, accademies and all such sort of places as may be attractive to the learned and afford diversion to the idle.”

<div id="Fig_8"></div>[[File:0100.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. [[#Fig_8_cite|back up to History]]]]
*Trumbull, John, 1792, describing Yale College, New Haven, CT (Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Picture Collection, 48A-46, box 1, folder 2)
:“The [[Temple]]s of Cloacina (which it is too much the custom of New England to place conspicuously,) I would wish to have concealed as much as possible, by planting a variety of Shrubs, such as Laburnums, Lilacs, Roses, Snowballs, Laurels. &c, &c—a gravel '''walk''' should lead thro [sic] the [[Shrubbery]] to those buildings. . .

:“The yellow is intended to express the gravel '''walks'''—& the green the grass and planting. . .

:“The Eating Hall should likewise be hidden as much as the space will admit with similar shrubs. . .

:“The ground in front of the Buildings to be divided by two broad '''walks''' leading up to the Chapel and Lecture Rooms, and the sides of the '''walks''' to be planted with Elms or other Forest Trees. . .

:“Behind the buildings, the '''walks''' may be irregular and winding, beginning behind the two Chapels, and corresponding to the two broad ones in their front.” [Fig. 8]

*Drayton, John, 1793, describing the Battery Park, New York, NY (quoted in Deák 1988: 1:130)<ref name="Deák">Gloria Gilda Deák, ''Picturing America, 1497–1899: Prints, Maps, and Drawings Bearing on the New World Discoveries and on the Development of the Territory That Is Now the United States'', 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4A6QNFNX view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After passing these islands [Governor’s, etc.], we came opposite the battery; which is at the extreme point of the town. . . It has no merlons, or embrasuers; but the guns. . . are placed upon carriages on a stone platform ''en barbette'', some few feet above the level of the water. Between the guns, and the water is a public '''walk'''; made by a gentle decline from the platform: and going round the ground upon which the battery is placed. Some little distance behind the guns, two rows of elm trees are planted; which in a short time will afford an agreeable shade.”

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1977: 165)<ref>
Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The ground on the West front is laid out in a level [[lawn]] bounded on each side with a wide but extremely formal serpentine '''walk''', shaded by weeping Willows.”

*Brooks, Joshua, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Riley 1989: 18)<ref>John P. Riley, ''The Icehouses and Their Operations at Mount Vernon'' (Mount Vernon, VA: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76PVTIZM view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At the back of the house is a covered staircase to the kitchen or cellar. Here many male and female negroes were at work digging and carrying away the ground to make a level grass plot with a gravel '''walk''' around it, at one end of which is an ice house.”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14 and 18)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“In the rear of this [girl’s school], is another small enclosure, which forms a broad grass '''walk''' and is skirted on each side by [[bed]]s devoted to flowers, which the girls cultivate, as their own. . .

:“Among the varied enjoyments of this settlement [Bethlehem], is a pleasant '''walk''' on the banks of the river Lehigh. Nature has furnished a shade, by means of the trees, which grow near the margin. But, this is improved by a row of locust trees between them and the road or '''walk'''.”

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 126)<ref>John Flowers, ‘People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited’, ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (1983), 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was [''sic''] [[alcove]]s and [[summer house]]s at the termination of each '''walk''', [[seat]]s under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the [[flower garden]] in front of the house.”

*Pintard, John, 1801, describing New Orleans, LA (quoted in Sterling 1951: 231)<ref>David Lee Sterling, “New Orleans, 1801: An Account by John Pintard,” ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 34 (1951): 217–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8A58JVVT view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The only public '''walk''' is the leveé, which is externally thronged with all sorts & conditions of people. It is far from an eligible [[promenade]] for the ladies—who are obliged to frequent it for exercise—It is about 8 feet wide, the [[slope]] towards the river presents all the shipping of the harbour with their usual concomitants of noisey [''sic''] drunken labourers & sailors.”

*Anonymous, 1801, describing in the ''Supplement to the Warner & Hanna Directory'' Chatsworth’s Gardens, Baltimore, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“CHATSWORTH’S GARDENS, Situated in a westerly direction, about half a mile from town, at the intersection of Green and Saratoga streets. The present proprietor, Mr. Mang, has been but a short time there—the arrangement of these Gardens are said to be extremely neat, such as forming pleasant [[summer house]], serpentine '''walks''', shady [[grove]]s, and every other rural appearance, which may give a pleasing relaxation to the leisure hours of the industrious citizen.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 1806, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 323)<ref>
Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The hill is generally too steep for direct ascent, but we make level '''walks''' successively along it’s side, which in it’s upper part encircle the hill & intersect these again by others of easy ascent in various parts.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Garden consists of a large verdant [[lawn]] surrounded by a belt of '''walk''', & [[shrubbery]] for some distance. The outer side of the '''walk''' is adorned here & there, by scattered forest trees, thick & thin. It is bounded, partly as is described—partly by the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] & a creek exhibiting a Mill & where it is scarcely noticed, by a common post & rail. The '''walk''' is said to be a mile long—perhaps it is something less. One is led into the garden from the [[portico]], to the east or lefthand. or from the [[park]], by a small [[gate]] contiguous to the house, traversing this '''walk''', one sees many beauties of the landscape—also a fine [[statue]], symbol of Winter, & age,—& a spacious [[conservatory|Conservatory]] about 200 yards to the West of the Mansion.”

*Anonymous, January 2, 1808, describing in the ''Washington Expositor'' the [[National Mall]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 99–100)<ref name ="O'Malley 1989">Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC, 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At present these large appropriations afford an increase to the pasturage of the city, more beneficial to the poor citizens, than their culture in the ordinary courses. . . by laying off those in their occupancy so as to afford ample '''walks''' open at seasonable hours and under proper regulations to the public, it will give to the city, much earlier than there is otherwise reasonable cause to hope for, agreeable [[promenade]]s, as conducive to the health of the inhabitants, as to the beauty of the places.”

*Graydon, Alexander, 1811, describing the garden of Israel Pemberton, Philadelphia, PA (1811: 34–35)<ref>Alexander Graydon, ''Memoirs of a Life Chiefly Passed in Pennsylvania within the Last Sixty Years'' (Harrisburg, PA: John Wyeth, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SIZFRZVI/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“. . . laid out in the old fashioned style of uniformity, with '''walks''' and allies nodding to their brothers, and decorated with a number of evergreens, carefully clipped into pyramidal and conical forms.”

*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1927: 180)<ref>Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“Lengthways of the house, and thro’ the hall, is a '''walk''', which extends on a [[terrace]] at each end for some way.”

*Ripley, Samuel, 1815, describing Gore Place, summer home of Christopher and Rebecca Gore, Waltham, MA (1815: 272–73)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January) (1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The house is a spacious and noble building. . . It is situated in the centre of pleasant grounds, tastefully laid out, surrounded by a '''walk''' of a mile in circuit, intersected by several other '''walks''', on all of which are growing trees and [[shrubbery]] of various kinds.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (1816: 2:61)<ref name="Lambert">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The [[Vauxhall_Garden|Vauxhall garden]] is situated in the Bowery Road about two miles from the City Hall. It is a neat [[plantation]], with gravel '''walks''' adorned with shrubs, trees, busts, and [[statue]]s.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Savannah, GA (1816: 2:265–66)<ref name="Lambert"></ref>
:“This range of buildings extends nearly three quarters of a mile along the town; and opposite to it is a beautiful '''walk''' or [[mall]], planted with a double row of trees, the same as those at Charleston— (''Melia Azedarach'', or Pride of India). . .

:“About the centre of the '''walk''', and just on the verge of the cliff, stands the Exchange, a large brick building, which contains some public offices; and an assembly-room, where a concert and ball are held once a fortnight during the winter.”

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], August 14, 1816, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing his painting of [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (Miller et al. 1991: 3:435)<ref>Lillian B. Miller, et al., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'' vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“I have been so long neglecting the [[view]] I am about in the Garden that the Tree’s & Shrubery have grown so high that I cannot represent them truely without almost hiding the '''walks''', therefore I shall prefer leaving out many of them—and also make others smaller.”

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the Montgomery House, New Orleans, LA (1951: 43–45)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] '''walks''' & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick [[hedge]] of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road. The '''Walks''' are bordered by very large myrtles cut into the shape of large hay cocks, about 8 feet high & as much in diameter. There are so many of them, and they are so exactly equal in size & form that the effect is curious if not elegant.”

*Forman, Martha Ogle, June 13, 1820, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 104)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“My husband had secretly, cut a long and beautiful shady '''walk''', by our spring along the margin of Forman’s Creek to the Irishmen’s dam. It was a most agreeable surprise and highly pleased all our company. The Ivy was in bloom on each side, the '''walk''', which with the Hemlock Spruce gave it a very pretty effect.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108–9)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“He took me to the [[seat]] of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . A hard rolled '''walk''', by the side of a brick [[wall]]. . . led us to a [[grove]] of young forest trees on the top of [an] [[eminence]].”

*[[Columbian Institute]], 1823, describing the Columbian Institute, Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 127)<ref name="O'Malley 1989"></ref>

:“Four '''walks''' have been laid out, one on Pennsylvania Avenue, one on Maryland Avenue, one opposite the circular road around the west side of the Capitol, and one in the center of the ground leading to the [[pond]]. The three '''walks''' on the sides of the garden are 20 feet wide, with [[border]]s of 26 feet, in which to plant trees and shrubs; the center '''walk''' or road is 15 feet wide; the whole is well graveled.”

*Kremer, Eliza Vierling, 1824–29, describing the pleasure grounds at Salem Academy, Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref>Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“A large garden, some little distance from the Academy, was during the Summer Season, a place for recreation after school hours. . .

:“The hill-side was laid off in [[terrace]]s and winding '''walks'''.”

*Bacon, Edmund, c. 1825, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, V (quoted in Adams 1976: 329)<ref>William Howard Adams, ''The Eye of Thomas Jefferson'' (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IWQT8BPV/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The grounds, around the house were most beautifully ornamented with flowers and [[shrubbery]]. There were '''walks''', and [[border]]s, and flowers, that I have never seen or heard of anywhere else. Some of them were in bloom from early in the spring until late in the winter. A good many of them were foreign. Back of the house was a beautiful [[lawn]] of two or three acres, where his grandchildren used to play a great deal.”

*Hunt, Henry, William Elliot, and William Thornton, 1826, describing a proposed memorial in Washington, DC (U.S. Congress, 19th Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, doc. 123, book 138)

:“Cool and shady '''walks''' will be formed in the neighborhood of the Capitol; the science of Botany encouraged; and a delightful scene from the Capitol created to please the eye of the stranger and citizen.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing a country residence near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 439)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The refreshing shade of the numerous '''walks''', all swept as clean as a parlour floor, add to the charms of this place. Many of these '''walks''' are tastefully ornamented with Orange, Lemon, Shad-dock, Neriums, and other exotics; among which we observed a Myrtle 10 years old, and raised from seed.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Hudson Square, New York, NY (1832: 2:160)<ref name="Trollope">Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“it will give some idea of the care bestowed on its decoration, to know that the gravel for the '''walks''' was conveyed by barges from Boston, not as ballast, but as freight.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Hoboken, NJ (1832: 2:167)<ref name="Trollope"></ref>

:“A gentleman who possessed a handsome mansion and grounds there, also possessed the right of ferry, and to render this productive, he has restricted his [[pleasure ground]]s to a few beautiful acres, laying out the remainder simply and tastefully as a public '''walk'''. It is hardly possible to imagine one of greater attraction; a broad belt of light underwood and flowering shrubs, studded at intervals with lofty forest trees, runs for two miles along a cliff which overhangs the matchless Hudson.”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''The New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/283TSTEV? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the house, gravelled '''walks''' diverge and extend in opposite directions nearly half a mile, exhibiting a diversified scenery of hills and dales, now descending a sloping declivity on the verge of a precipice, again ascending to a commanding plain, opening a scene of unrivalled beauty.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:88)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“On a firm, smooth, gravelled '''walk''' elevated about four feet, by a gradual ascent from the street—one side open to the river, and the other lined with the ‘Pride of China,’ or India tree, we pursued our way to Chartres-street, the ‘Broadway’ of New-Orleans.”

*Anonymous, January 1, 1836, “Leaves from My Note Book” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 32–33)<ref>Anonymous, “Leaves from My Note Book,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 29–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZZDTSVNN/q/leaves%20from%20my%20note%20book view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is one thing about the improvements in New York I very much like, and which, as you are a man of influence, I hope you will endeavor to impress on the Bostonians;—the disposition to ornament the streets with rows of trees, thus giving to them an air of freshness and beauty very much wanting in our large cities and in country towns, for nothing adds more to beauty than rows of trees along the public '''walks''', which may be placed there for a trifling expense.

:“The Battery, St. John’s Park, Washington Square, and many other public '''walks''' exhibit the taste of the New Yorkers in this respect, and their practice of making every open and beautiful piece of ground an object of ornament to the city, and a pleasant resort for the inhabitants, is worthy of observation.”

*Alcott, William A., 1838, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages” (''American Annals of Education'' 8: 337–38)<ref>William A. Alcott, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages,” ''American Annals of Education'' 8, no. 8 (August 1838): 337–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5K3WRQ2I? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Of our larger cities, even Philadelphia and Boston, we do not hesitate to say that almost every thing, in their structure and condition, is at war with the highest physical and moral well being of their inhabitants. We do not indeed forget their beautiful [[common]]s and [[square]]s and public '''walks'''; but it is impossible for us to believe that a few of these will ever atone for that neglect whose effects stare us in the face, not merely in passing through dirty and filthy [[avenue]]s, but in traversing almost every street, and in turning almost every corner. A single [[common]], beautiful though it may be, as any spot on the earth’s surface, and refreshed though it were by the balmy breezes which ‘blow soft o’er Ceylon’s isle;’ or a few public [[square]]s, remembrances though they be of him whose praises will never cease to be celebrated while the ‘city of brotherly love’ shall remain, will yet never purify the crowded, unventilated cellars and shops—and dwellings, too—of a hundred or a thousand thickly congregated streets. . .”

*Adams, Rev. Nehemiah, 1838, describing Portland, ME ([Adams] 1838: 31)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: George W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“An equally striking indication of the spirit of improvement peculiar to these times is the public '''walk''' recently laid out in Portland. This '''walk''', consisting of a carriage and foot way, shaded with trees, is nearly two miles in length, extending in an oval form around a hill, on which is the telegraph [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|observatory]], and commanding a [[view]] of the adjacent scenery, which may be classed among the best in the country.”

*Hovey, C. M., November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elfin Glen, residence of P. Dodge, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9/q/notices%20of%20gardens%20and%20horticulture view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a [[piazza]]; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled; a '''walk''' from thence conducts directly, in a straight line, nearly to the edge of the river, where it terminates in a rustic [[arch]] and [[vase]] on the [[lawn]]; on each side of the '''walk''' there is turf, with circles of flowers at the distance of ten or twelve feet; these are each backed by a line of buckthorn [[hedge]]s, with a [[view]] to screen both the fruit garden on the east, and the vegetable garden on the west, from sight.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Saratoga, NY (quoted in Deák 1988: 1:424)<ref name="Deák"></ref>

:“When the gentleman has swallowed his muriate and four carbonates in proper quantity, a smooth serpentine '''walk''' leads to the summit of a prettily wooded hill, where he may either grind himself round a circular rail-road in a self-moving chair, or ramble off to the shade, for a little meditation.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1840; repr., 1971: 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (1840; repr., Barre, MA: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very [[picturesque]] and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel '''walks''', and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, NY (1841: 1:38–39)<ref name="Buckingham">James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the [[Park]], which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson Square, the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington Square, about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-'''walks''' or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a [[park]], or [[public garden]], or public '''walk''', where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Rochester, NY (2:215)<ref name="Buckingham"></ref>

:“A large piece of ground immediately overlooking the principal Falls of the Genesee, and called the Falls Promenade, is about to be laid out as a public '''walk''' and garden, and will be a fine ornament to the town.”

*Hovey, C. M., September 1841, describing the residence of R. F. Carman, Fort Washington, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 326)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes Made During a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington and intermediate places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 9 (September 1841): 321–27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/R9KPSMKS/q/notes%20made view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[flower garden]] is laid out in angular shaped [[bed]]s of small size, occupying a [[square]] of about one hundred feet, with the '''walks''' edged with box. The only fault we have to find with the plan is the narrowness of the '''walks''', not being above two feet wide, and, consequently, not allowing two to '''walk''' abreast. The same error we saw committed at other places. It should be laid down as a rule, never to make the '''walks''' less than three feet wide, and if three and a half, it will be better.”

*Dickens, Charles, 1842, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1842: 153–54)<ref>Charles Dickens, ''American Notes'' (Paris: Baudry’s European Library, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TTQMJ9AD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The President’s mansion is more like an English club-house, both within and without, than any other kind of establishment with which I can compare it. The ornamental ground about it has been laid out in garden '''walks'''; they are pretty, and agreeable to the eye; though they have that uncomfortable air of having been made yesterday, which is far from favourable to the display of such beauties.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1844, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 24)<ref>
Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846-7-8-9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“. . . the brick '''walks''', for use when the ground is soft or covered with snow, have been extended; other '''walks''' have been laid out through the different [[grove]]s, and covered with tan, and their extension, now in progress, will give us more than a mile in the men’s division, and nearly as much in that appropriated to the females. These '''walks''' have been so located as to embrace our finest and most diversified [[view]]s, to wind through the [[wood]]s and [[clump]]s of trees which are scattered through the enclosure; and among them, it is hoped, will soon be seen summer-houses, rustic [[seat]]s, and other objects of interest, to tempt the patients voluntarily to prolong their '''walks''', and to spend a greater portion of their time out of the wards, and engaged in some agreeable occupation.”

*Longfellow, Alexander W., January 1844, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were very busy planning the grounds & I laid out a linden [[avenue]] for the Professor’s private '''walk'''. I was often reminded of your fancy for such things. . . The house is to be repaired but not essentially altered, the old out buildings to be removed, trees planted a [[pond]], & [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]], created the [[pond]] is an apology for the [[bridge]].”

[[File:0995.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “The Espalier Walk in the Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): pl. opp. 489.]]
*[[Downing, A. J.]], May 1847, describing Wodenethe, residence of Henry Winthrop Sargent, Dutchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 1: 504)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BC9R5CZQ/q/wodenethe view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Our FRONTISPIECE gives a glimpse of this ''Vinery'', at the termination of the main '''walk''' of the fruit-garden. This '''walk''' is 428 feet long, and is bordered with an [[espalier]] rail, upon which many of the choicest peaches, grapes, plums, etc., are trained—not from necessity or for greater protection, as in gardens farther north, for all those fruits ripen perfectly on common standards here, but to give an illustration of this more perfect kind of culture, and to obtain fruit of a larger size and higher color than standards usually produce.” [Fig. 9]

*Lyell, Sir Charles, 1849, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight '''walks''' with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 445)<ref>Londoniensis [pseud.], “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2/q/Notes%20and%20Recollections%20of%20a%20Visit%20to%20the%20Nurseries%20 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the first place, the [[nursery]] is laid out in angular divisions, diverging from a common centre. These divisions are separated from each other by wide '''walks''' and [[avenue]]s, on each side of which is a [[border]] some eight or nine feet wide. These [[border]]s are planted with specimen trees, inside of which are the [[quarter]]s for the [[nursery]] stock.”

*Dufield, Elizabeth Lewis, May 14, 1851, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #977)

:“The house is situated some distance back from the road, as you approach in front, you pass through a fine iron [[gateway]] and '''walk''' strait until about halfway to the house. The '''walk''' then branches off and forms a circular in front of the residence. There are also small circulars on each side. All of these are laid out in flower and cedars and the balance of the [[yard]] in front is filed up with cedars and forest trees.”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''walks''' will be made in every direction and as some compensation for filling up the beautiful vale south of the Monument a capacious fountain will be placed in the centre of the '''walk''' leading into Bank street, from which [[fountain]] a [[jet d’eau]] will rise, fully thirty feet in height.”

===Citations===

*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5, 537)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., Norwood, NJ: W.J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To forme it [the garden] therfore with '''walks''', crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with [[hedge]]s, with [[square]]s, knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure [[square]] parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge: For there may be therein '''walkes''' eyther open or close, eyther pub-like or private. . . for the fairer and larger your allies and '''walkes''' be, the more grace your Garden shall have, the lesse harme the herbes and flowers shall receive, by passing by them that grow next unto the allies sides, and the better shall your Weeders cleanse both the [[bed]]s and the allies. . . .

:“Having an [[Orchard]] containing one acre of ground, two, three, or more, or lesse, walled about, you may so order it, by leaving a broad and large '''walke''' betweene the [[wall]] and it. . . and by compassing your [[Orchard]] on the inside with a [[hedge]] (wherein may bee planted all sorts of low shrubs or bushes).”

*<div id="d'Argenville"></div>Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J., 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 40–41),<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . '', trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712; repr., London: Farnborough, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALKS''' in Gardens, like Streets in a Town, serve to communicate between Place and Place, and are as so many Guidances and Means to conduct us throughout a Garden. . .

:“Among the several Sorts of '''Walks''', I shall take Notice of the Close and the Open, the Single and the Double.

:“The Close are those formed by Trees or Palisades, which joining together at Top, shut out even the Sight of the Sky, and by their Obscurity give a Coolness not penetrable by the greatest Heat of the Sun.

:“These '''Walks''' are very delightful in hot Weather, when you may '''walk''' under the Shade of them in the very middle of the Day. . .

:“’Tis a general Rule to keep open the principal '''Walks''', such as those that face a Building, [[Pavilion]], [[Cascade]], or the like; and these likewise should be kept wider than the others, that from the End of the '''Walk''' you may see Part of the Front of a House, or some other handsome Object. . .

:“SINGLE '''Walks''' are those that consist but of two Rows of Trees or Palisades, to distinguish them from double '''Walks''' that have four, which form three [[Alley]]s close together, a large one in the Middle, and two on the Sides that accompany it, and are called Counter-'''walks'''. . .

:“As to the Names and different Figures of '''Walks''', they may all be included in these that follow: The Parallel-'''walk''', the Strait-'''walk''', the Cross-'''walk''', the Winding or Circular-'''walk''', the '''Walk''' returned [[square]], and the Diagonal or Thwart-'''walk''', in respect of that at Right Angles.” [[#d'Argenville_cite|back up to History]]

*Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 3:46)<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation. . . '', 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

:“And why, is not a level easy '''Walk''' of Gravel or Sand shaded over with Trees, and running thro’ a Corn Field or Pasture Ground, as pleasing as the largest '''Walk''' in the most magnificent Garden one can think of?”

*[[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xviii)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in form of a [[Temple]], made for a Person of Quality, and propos’d to have been placed in the Center of four '''Walks'''; so that a [[Portico]] might front each '''Walk'''. Here is a large Octagonal Room of 22 feet and 26 feet high, adorn’d with Niches and crown’d with a Cupola. All the Ornaments of the Inside are to be of Plaister; and the Outside of Stone.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J.Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c.''. . .

:“VIII. That shady '''Walks''' be planted from the End-[[View]]s of a House, and terminate in those open [[Grove]]s that enclose the Sides of the plain [[Parterre]], that thereby you may enter into immediate Shade, as soon as out of the House, without being heated by the Scorching Rays of the Sun. . .

:“IX. That all the Trees of your shady '''Walks''' and [[Grove]]s be planted with Sweet-Brier, White Jessemine, and Honey-Suckles, environ’d at Bottom with a small Circle of Dwarf-Stock, Candy-Turf, and Pinks. . .

:“XIV. That the '''Walks''' leading up the [[Slope]] of a [[Mount]], have their Breadth contracted at the Top, full on half Part; and if that contracted Part be enclosed on the Sides with a [[Hedge]] whose Leaves are of a light Green, ’twill seemingly add a great Addition to the Length of the '''Walk''', when view’d from the other End.

:“XV. That all '''Walks''' whose Lengths are short, and lead away from any Point of [[View]], be made narrower at their further Ends than at the hither Part; for by Inclination of their Sides, they appear to be of a much greater Length than they really are; and the further End of every long '''Walk''', [[Avenue]], ''&c''. appears to be much narrower than that End where you stand.

:“And the Reason is, that notwithstanding the Sides of such '''Walks''' are parallel to each other, yet as the Breadth of the further End is seen under a lesser Angle, than the Breadth of that Part where you stand, it will therefore appear as if contracted, altho’ the Sides are actually parallel; for equal Objects always appear under equal Angles, Q. E. D.

:“XVI. That the '''Walks''' of a [[Wilderness]] be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.

:“XVII. That the '''Walks''' of a [[Wilderness]] be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country.

:“XVIII. That the Intersections of '''Walks''' be adorn’d with [[Statue]]s, large open Plains, [[Grove]]s, Cones of Fruit, of Ever-Greens, of Flowering Shrubs, of Forest Trees, Basons, [[Fountain]]s, Sun-Dials, and [[Obelisk]]s. . .

:L“XXI. Such '''Walks''' as must terminate within the Garden, are best finish’d with [[Mount]]s, [[Aviary/Bird_cage/Birdhouse|aviary]], [[Grotto]]’s, [[Cascade]]s, Rocks, Ruins, Niches, or Amphitheatres of Ever-Greens, variously mix’d, with circular [[Hedge]]s ascending behind one another, which renders a very graceful Appearance. . .

:“XXIV. [[Canal]]s, Fish-[[Pond]]s, ''&c''. are most beautiful when environ’d with a '''Walk''' of stately Pines, and terminate at each End with a fine [[Grove]] of Forest-Trees, or Ever-Greens. . .

:“XXVI. All Grass-'''Walks''' should be laid with the same Curvature as Gravel-'''Walks''', and particularly in wet and cold Lands; for, by their being made flat or level from Side to Side, they soon settle into Holes in the Middle, by often walking on, and therein retain Wet, ''&c''. which a circular surfaced '''Walk''' resists. The Proportion for the Heights of the Crown, or middle Part of any Grass or Gravel-'''Walk''', is as five is to one, that is, if the '''Walk''' be five Foot in Breadth, the Height of the Middle, above the Level of the Sides, must be one Inch; if ten Foot, two Inches; fifteen Foot, three Inches, ''&c.''. . .

:“XXIX. Little '''Walks''' by purling Streams in [[Meadow]]s, and through Corn-fields, [[Thicket]]s, ''&c''. are delightful Entertainments.

:“XXX. Open [[Lawn]]s should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of [[Avenue]]s to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.

:“The entire Breadth of every [[Avenue]] should be divided into five equal Parts: Of which, the Middle, or grand '''Walk''', must be three Fifths; and the Side, or Counter-'''Walks''' on each Side one Fifth each. But let the Length of [[Avenue]]s fall as it will, you must always observe, that the grand '''Walk''' be never narrower than the Front of the Building.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . ,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[AVENUE]]. . .

:All ''[[avenue]]s'', Mortimer says, should lead to the front of an house, garden-[[gate]], highway-[[gate]], or [[wood]], and terminate in a [[prospect]].—In an ''avenue'' to an house, whatever the length of the '''walk''' is, it ought to be as wide as the whole breadth of the front; and if wider, better. . .

:“[[AVENUE]], in gardening, is a '''walk''', planted on each side with trees, and leading to some place. See [[GROVE]], GLADE. . .

:“GRASS ''[[plot]]s'', and '''''walks''''', make a considerable article in gardening, ''&c''. See '''WALK''', ''&c''.

:“Grass, or ''green-[[plot]]s'' are had either by sowing of hayseed, or laying of turf: for the first, which is the cheapest way, the seed of the finest upland pastures is to be chose, well sifted and cleansed.

:“For the second, the turf should be cut on a down, or [[green]], or [[common]], or sheep-'''walk''', where the ''grass'' is short and fine; if there be any knobs, or roughnesses, the place must be cleansed and rolled after a shower, before it be cut up. The turf is cut in [[square]]s, marked out with lines, raised with a knife, and rolled up; about three inches thick. The [[quarter]]s, or verges are to be prepared with a fine coat of poor earth to lay the turf on; and after laying, the turf must be well watered, rolled, ''&c.''. . .

:“GRAVEL '''''walk''''', in gardening.—To lay, or form a '''walk''' with ''gravel'', all the good soil is to be pared away, below the roots of any grass, or weeds; then the place to be filled two or three inches with coarse gravel unsearsed, laying it highest in the middle; then rolling it. . .

:“Note, the sides next the [[bed]]s should be laid a foot and an half, or two foot with turf, from whence the heat of the sun cannot be reflected as from gravel, to the prejudice of the neighbouring flowers.”

*Miller, Philip, 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1503–4)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Gravel-'''walks''' are very necessary near the House; because, being soon dry after Rain, they are proper for walking on, in all Seasons. But then these should be but few, and those ought to be large and magnificient, proportionable to the Grandeur of the House and Garden. The principal of these '''Walks''' should be elevated parallel with the House, so as to form a [[Terrace]]: this should extend itself each way, in proportion to the Width of the Garden; so that from this there may be a Communication with the Sand-'''walks''', without going on the Grass; or there should be Side-'''Walks''' of Gravel to lead to them, that there may be a dry '''Walk''' continued quite through the Gardens. But there is not a more ridiculous Sight, than that of a straight Gravel-'''walk''', leading to the Front of the House, intersecting the Grass, so as to make it appear like the stiff formal Grass [[plot]]s frequently made in little Court-yards by Persons of low Taste.

:“Grass-'''walks''' in a Garden are both ornamental and delightful in Summer-time and dry Weather.”

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard. . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc. '', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The next thing to be observed is to continue a dry '''walk''', which should lead quite round the whole garden, for as Gardens are designed to promote the exercise of walking, the greater the extent of this dry '''walk''', the better it will answer the Intent. . . and such '''walks''', if laid either with Gravel or Sand, may lead through different [[Plantation]]s, gently winding about in an easy natural way, which will be more agreeable than those long strait '''walks''', which are too frequently seen in gardens.”

*Mawe, Thomas, and John Abercrombie, 1778, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' (1778: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al., 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Sometimes grass-'''walks''' are used, but these are rather improper for general use in Kitchen-gardens, especially in such parts of the garden where wheel-barrows are obliged to come often, which would cut and greatly deface them; besides, they are apt to be wet and disagreeable in all wet weather, and in winter; . . .

:“But when necessary to have the whole space of the Kitchen-garden employed for real use. . . and have a '''walk''' round the garden, not more than a yard wide; allowing the same width for the middle-'''walks''', or so as to admit of wheel-barrows passing to bring in the manure, &c. and may either have a four feet wide [[border]] all round each [[quarter]], next the '''walks''', or not, as you shall think proper; laying the '''walks''' neatly with any gravelly materials, or with coal-ashes, so as to have dry walking, and wheeling with a barrow in all weathers.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . ,'' 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALK''', wa’k. s. . . a length of space, or circuit through which one '''walks'''; an [[avenue]] set with trees; way, road, range, place of wandering.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:33, 55, 124–26)<ref>
Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''''walks''''' come next under construction [i.e. after [[wall]]s], and they are to be begun from the best [[wall]]; the [[border]] of which being regularly levelled and settled, the '''walk''' is to be governed by it. . .

:“The ''number'' and ''breadth'' of the '''walks''' must in a measure be determined by the quantity of allotted ground. . . But better be few and wide, than many and contracted. If the garden is small, one good '''walk''' all round is sufficient; and if long and narrow, the cross '''walks''' should not be many: six, or eight feet, is not too wide in a moderate sized garden. . .

:“''Grass plats'' and '''walks''' should be mowed, as often as there is the least hold for the scythe, for they lose much of their beauty, when the grass gets any thing long; leaves should not be suffered to remain on them as it stains the grass. . .

:“About the house some ''shady'' '''walks''' ought always to be provided, by thick planting, if not of trees, yet of flowering shrubs, and ''evergreens'', of which the ''laurel'' will be found most useful. . .

:“The '''''walks''''' should always be wide, some (in general) serpentine, and contrived as much as possible upon a ''level'', as walking up and down hills can hardly be called pleasure. That they may be extensive, they should skirt the grounds and seldom go across them. In small [[pleasure ground]]s the ''edges'' of the '''walks''' should be regularly planted with flowers, and long ones occasionally so, or with the most dwarf shrubs; and neat sheltered compartments of ''flowers'', (every now and then to be met with) have a pretty effect. If the '''walks''' are extended to distant [[plantation]]s of ''forest trees'', every opportunity should be taken, to introduce something of the herbaceous ''flowery'' kind, which will prove the more pleasing, as found in unexpected situations: The outer '''walk''' of [[pleasure ground]]s and [[plantation]]s, should every now and then break into open [[view]]s of the country, and to parts of the internal space, made pleasing, if not striking, by some ornaments of art and nature.”

*<div id="Forsyth"></div>Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 148)<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In laying out the [[quarter]]s, you must be guided in a great measure by the form and size of the garden; but do not lay them out too small, as in that case a great part of the ground will be taken up with '''walks'''. . .

:“The middle '''walks''' should be about seven feet, which is wide enough to admit a cart; and the others about three or four feet broad; with a [[border]] on each side, five or six feet wide, at least, between the '''walk''' and the fruit-trees. '''Walks''' in [[kitchen garden]]s are generally gravelled, and but seldom laid with turf, as the frequent wheeling and treading soon destroys the grass and renders them very unsightly: But a binding sand makes good '''walks''' and they are easily kept; for when moss or weeds begin to grow, they may be cleaned with a horse-hoe. . . by which they will be made always to look neat and clean. I, however, give the preference to sea-coal ashes, which in my opinion make the best '''walks''' for a [[kitchen garden]], and they are easier kept than any other, being firm and dry, and cleaner to '''walk''' on than sand, especially after frost.

:“The bottoms of the '''walks''' should be filled up with brick rubbish, chippings of stones, or gravel and stones; those raked off the [[quarter]]s will do very well, and by using them you will save carriage.

:“If the soil be stiff and wet, or subject to detain the moisture, there must be under ground drains made to carry off the water.” [[#Forsyth_cite|back up to History]]

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 83)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A gravel '''walk''' is an artificial convenience, and that it should be protected, is one of its first requisites: therefore, so long as good taste and good sense shall coincide, the eye will be pleased where the mind is satisfied.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:260)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE '''WALK''', in extensive grounds, is as necessary as the [[Fence]]. The beauties of the place are disclosed that they may be seen; and it is the office of the '''walk''' to lead the eye from [[view]] to view; in order that, while the tone of health is preserved, by the favourite exercise of nature, the mind may be thrown into unison, by the harmony of the surrounding objects.

:“THE direction of the '''walk''' ought to be guided by the points of [[view]] to which it leads, and the nature of the ground it passes over: it ought to be made subservient to the natural impediments— the Ground, [[Wood]], and Water—which fall in its way, without appearing to have any direction of its own. It can seldom, with propriety, run any distance, in a straight line; a thing which rarely occurs in a ''natural '''walk'''''.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 123)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn">John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year, and Copious Instructions for the Cultivation of Flower Gardens, Vineyards, Nurseries, Hop Yards, Green Houses and Hot Houses'' (Washington, DC: Printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“This [March] is a good time to make grass '''walks'''. First level and roll the ground—then cut sods of equal size and thickness from a pasture, lay them neatly, and roll them well, or sow grass seed very thick, rake it in and roll the ground soon as it is dry.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 59–60, 63)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As to the distribution of gravel-'''walks'''. . . first a magnificent one, from fifteen to twenty or thirty feet wide, should range immediately close and parallel to the front of the house, and be conducted directly across the [[lawn]] into the nearest side shrubberies; from this main '''walk''', other smaller ones, from five to ten or fifteen feet wide, according to the extent of the ground, should branch off at proper intervals, directed in the serpentine way. . . some leading through the ''outer'' boundary [[plantation]]s, as already hinted. . . others into the internal divisions, and others carried along the boundary [[plantation]] of the main [[lawn]]; all of which '''walks''' being conducted through the different parts, in order to afford the convenience of shade and retirement occasionally, as well as to enjoy the variety of the trees, shrubs, and flowers, variously presenting themselves at different turnings. . .

:“Sometimes, similar to the ancient designs, a spacious gravel '''walk''' is extended in a perpendicular line immediately from the front of the house, dividing the [[lawn]], or extended on both boundaries and in other directions, with a wide [[border]] on each side, either straight or sometimes a little serpentined, and planted with the most curious low flowering shrubs, ever-greens, and herbaceous flowering plants.

:“All these gravel-'''walks''' should be laid with the best gravel, six or eight inches deep, at least; but if more the better. . .

:“As to [[avenue]]s and '''walks''' of trees, they may be formed either entirely of deciduous trees, or of ever-greens; but the deciduous kinds are in most estimation for this purpose: however, [[avenue]]s and grass '''walks''', planted with fine ever-green trees, make a beautiful appearance, and will always command admiration. In both sorts, the trees are most commonly disposed in rows, one on each side of the [[avenue]], though sometimes grand '''walks''' of trees, may be both in single straight lines, and in double rows, to exhibit the greater variety; planting the trees generally, both in [[avenue]]s and '''walks''', at proper distances, to have full scope to branch out regularly around and display their beautiful heads and foliage.”

*Mease, James, c. 1813 (quoted in Gardiner and Hepburn 1818: 149–52)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn"></ref>

:“'''Walks''' are either of grass or gravel. The former are best made in March, the latter in April; and the sooner in March the grass ones are commenced the better. . .

:“Grass '''walks''' are troublesome and attended with a constant demand for labour in cutting every new growth of the herbage; besides, in rainy weather, and early in the morning before the dew of the night has been drawn off by the sun, they are damp and productive of colds: yet, where gravel is difficult to be had, they will often be resorted to, and therefore it may be of use to say a few words here upon the manner of making them. . .

:“Gravel '''walks''' however should be preferred, and if possible accomplished. . . The course of the '''walks''' being marked out by stumps and lines, the earth should be dug out of them to the depth of eight inches, and thrown into the middle of the plats to give them a convexity, which is agreeable to the eye. That done, rake the bottom of the '''walk''' quite level, and lay on the gravel so that the '''walks''' shall be at their edges three inches lower than the surface of the plats on either side, as when otherwise they have a mean and flat appearance.

:“If [[edging]]s are to be made to separate the earth from the gravel, especially if of stone, or [[wood]], or box, they should be done first, and they will be a good rule to lay the '''walks''' by.”

*[[Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M24K832A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Vol. 3] [[Wilderness|WILDERNESS]]. . .

:“As to the '''walks''', those that have the appearance of meanders, where the eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty yards in length, are generally preferable to all others, and these should now and then lead into an open circular piece of grass; in the centre of which may be placed either an [[obelisk]], [[statue]], or [[fountain]]; and, if in the middle of the [[wilderness]] there is contrived a large opening, in the centre of which may be erected a dome or banqueting house, surrounded with a green [[plot]] of grass, it will be of a considerable addition to the beauty of the whole. From the sides of the '''walks''' and openings, the trees should rise gradually one above another to the middle of the [[quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing trees, so that the heads of all the trees may appear to [[view]], while their stems will be hid from the sight. . .

:“But beside the grand '''walks''' and openings, there should be some smaller '''walks''' through the middle of the [[quarter]]s, where persons may retire for privacy; and by the sides of those private '''walks''' may also be scattered some wood flowers and plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good effect.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 463–64)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''The '''Walk'''''.—A common principle is, especially where the field is small, to carry a gravel-'''walk''''''Bold text''' completely round, so near the outward boundary as to leave only an intervening [[border]] for flowers and shrubs. As this method produces the longest tract without sharp returns, and admits many expedients for concealing the opposite boundaries, there seems no reason for departing from it, except to lead the spectator to some object that would otherwise escape him, or to keep some intractable deformity out of sight. . .

:“the '''walk''', by curving round them, will take that variety of direction which essentially conduces to a series of interesting effects; allowing parts without any common relation, independent scenes, and fragments of scenes, to be seen only progressively; and disclosing entire [[prospect]]s at the most advantageous station.”

*Thorburn, Grant, 1817, ''The Gentleman & Gardener’s Kalendar'' (1817: 19 and 33)<ref>Grant Thorburn, ''The Gentleman and Gardener’s Kalender for the Middle States of North America'', 2nd ed. (New York: E. B. Gould, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKICNPJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[March] Make new '''walks''' where wanted— clean and roll your gravel and grass '''walks'''. . .

:“This is a good time to make grass '''walks'''. First level and roll the ground—then cut sods of equal size and thickness from a pasture, lay them neatly, and roll them well or sow grass seed very thick, and rake it in and roll the ground as soon as it is dry. Clean grass and gravel '''walks''': the latter may be dug, turning the top to the bottom, which will destroy the weeds and moss, roll them well afterwards. Weed all your flower [[border]]s well, and prepare more for next month.”

*Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 34) <ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref>
:'''''Walks''', Paths, [[Plot/Plat|Plats]], [[Border]]s, and a Hot-[[Bed]] Ground.''
:“58. To render my directions more clear as well as more brief, I have given a plan of my proposed garden, PLATE I . . .
:59. . . . Before, however, I proceed further, let me give my reasons for choosing an ''Oblong [[Square]]'', instead of a ''[[Square]] of equal sides''. It will be seen, that the length of my garden is from East to West. By leaving a greater length in this direction than from North to South three important advantages are secured. ''First'', we get a ''long'' and ''warm'' [[border]] under the ''North [[fence]]'' for the rearing of things early in the spring. ''Second'', we get a ''long'' and ''cool'' [[border]] under the ''South'' [[fence]] for ''shading'', during the great heats. . .

[[File:1350.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of walks, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 796, fig. 549.]]
*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 796)<ref>
J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6105. '''''Walks'''''. In most styles of [[parterre]]s these are formed of gravel; but in the modern sort. . . which consist of turf, varied by wavy dug [[bed]]s (1 and 2), and surrounded by [[shrubbery]]. . . [Fig. 10]

:“6106. ''In extensive and irregular [[parterre]]s'', one gravel-'''walk''', accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as '''walks''' by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting '''walks''' of the same width, of gravel and smaller '''walks''' for displaying particular details. The main '''walk''', however, ought to be easily distinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf.”

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 87)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Dwarf Box''.—This is the low growing variety, generally used for [[edging]] of garden '''walks''' and flower [[bed]]s. Its growth is slow, but at very advanced age it attains to a shrub of from six to eight feet high. It is this variety which is so widely spread and well known throughout the country.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“GRAV’EL-'''WALK''', ''n''. A '''walk''' or [[alley]] covered with gravel, which makes a hard and dry bottom; ''used in gardens and [[mall]]s''. . .

:“'''WALK''', ''n''. ''wauk''. The act of walking; the act of moving on the feet with a slow pace.

:“2. The act of walking for air or exercise; as a morning '''''walk'''''; an evening '''''walk'''''. ''Pope''.

:“4. Length of way or circuit through which one walks; or a place for walking; as a long '''''walk''''';a short '''''walk'''''. The gardens of the Tuilerie and of the Luxemburgh are very pleasant '''''walks'''''.

:“5. An [[avenue]] set with trees. ''Milton''.”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 410–11)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To these remarks for small [[plot]]s of ground, we would add a few common place rules, such as, that straight lines particularly for short distances, unless terminating in bold curves, are not pleasing to the eye; narrow '''walks''', unless winding at short intervals through [[wood]]s, are by no means desirable. . .

:“An [[arbor]] or [[trellis]] covered with the vine, or with a variety of the clematis and climbing roses or other quick growing plants, is a good termination for a '''walk''', which should branch off close round the [[trellis]], to appear as if it led to a continuation elsewhere, at the back a few shrubs might conceal the boundary or [[fence]].”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 128)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A frequent error in landscape gardens, is a multiplicity and confusion of objects. So many things are crowded together, that the spectator does not know to which to direct his attention first. The '''walks''' are often so numerous and so intricate, that they only serve to perplex. This may be easily avoided by adopting as a rule, that there shall be but one principal or leading '''walk''' throughout the whole. It may, by easy curves, be conducted in sight of every material object of [[view]], and return finally to the place of entrance. In this way the same scene need never be exhibited twice. From this main '''walk''' there may be branches, to exhibit different scenes in detail; but it ought to be an invariable rule, that these episodal '''walks''' should never be one half the width of the principal '''walk''', and should always branch off nearly at right angles from it, so that a stranger may never mistake one of them for the main '''walk'''. Where flowers are introduced they should commonly be in [[bed]]s near the '''walk''', while the taller shrubs and trees should be placed back more at a distance.

:“At favorable points, and those only, should the [[view]] be left open for more distant scenes. Sometimes by a judicious arrangement, the same objects seen from different places, may be made to present quite different aspects by appearing to group differently. The '''walk''' should be so directed as not to exhibit these [[view]]s except at the most advantageous points. A bend in a '''walk''' should always exist from some cause either real or apparent.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 15)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''walks''' [of a [[flower garden]]] should if possible be wide enough for two persons to '''walk''' abreast, in order to give a social effect, which should always be the first consideration in the flower garden.”

*[[Robert_Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 11, 32)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“For perspicuity, admit that the area to be enclosed [for a [[flower garden]]] should be from one to three acres, a circumambient '''walk''' should be traced at some distance within the [[fence]], by which the whole is enclosed; the inferior '''walks''' should partly circumscribe and intersect the general surface in an easy serpentine and sweeping manner, and at such distances as would allow an agreeable [[view]] of the flowers when walking for exercise. '''Walks''' may be in breadth from three to twenty feet, although from four to ten feet is generally adopted. . . covered with gravel, and then firmly rolled with a heavy roller. . .

:“Grass verges for '''walks''' and [[border]]s, although frequently used, are, by no means, desirable, except where variety is required; they are the most laborious to keep in order, and at best are inelegant, and the only object in their favour is, there being everywhere accessible.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: iii-vii, 34, 68, 76, and 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii-iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“CHIVES. ''Allium schoenoprasum''. . .
:“Plant the roots for edging to a [[walk]] or [[border]], two inches deep, and the same distance apart, in the form you wish them to be. 
:“SORREL FRENCH. ''Rumex acetosa''. . .
:“You may have it in a [[bed]] any size, the rows being a foot apart, or for [[edging]] along the side of a [[walk]]. . .
:“THYME. ''Thumus vulgaris''. . .
:“Plant slips in rows four inches apart, for [[edging]]. It does well for a [[walk]] side, or you may make a [[bed]] the same distance, the rows a foot apart. 
:“It [[kitchen garden|[a kitchen garden]]] may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. . .”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1844, Excerpt from ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1844: 102)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. . . with Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGJXRU9V view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In fig. 25, is shown a small piece of ground, on one side of a cottage, in which a [[picturesque]] character is attempted to be maintained. The [[plantation]]s here, are made mostly with shrubs instead of trees, the latter being only sparingly introduced, for the want of room. In the disposition of these shrubs, however, the same attention to [[picturesque]] effect is paid as we have already pointed out in our remarks on grouping ; and by connecting the [[thicket]]s and groups here and there, so as to conceal one '''walk''' from the other, a surprising variety and effect will frequently be produced, in an exceedingly limited spot."

*[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 406–9)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALKS''' may be considered with reference to their direction, their construction, and their management. In a small garden, the direction of the main '''walks''' should generally be governed by the boundary lines; and hence, in a [[plot]] of ground which is [[square]] or oblong, the '''walks''' should be straight and rectangular; the object in such a case being to produce the beauties of regularity and symmetry. On the other hand, when the boundaries of the garden are irregular, the surrounding '''walk''' may be irregular also; the object in this irregularity being to create variety by contrast in the direction. When a garden bounded by straight lines, is so large as to contain an acre or two, and the whole of the interior is to be laid out as a pleasure-ground, then the '''walks''' may be varied in direction; the boundary being concealed by trees and shrubs, or by artificial undulations of the soil. In general, it may be laid down as a principle, that all '''walks''' should be straight when there is no obvious reason why they should be otherwise; and hence, in the case of all winding '''walks''', if there is not a natural and apparently unavoidable reason for their deviating from the straight line, an artificial reason ought to be created. . . All straight '''walks''' should lead to some conspicuous object at the further end of the '''walk''', and facing it, so as to appear to belong to it; and this object should be seen the moment the '''walk''' is entered upon. . . A winding '''walk''', on the contrary, requires no object at the further end to allure the spectator; because every turn has the effect of an object by exciting his curiosity and inducing him to advance to see what is beyond.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 26, 73, 269–70, 620)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[Alley|ALLEYS]] are of two kinds. 1. The narrow '''walks''' which divide the compartments of the [[kitchen garden]]; and 2. Narrow '''walks''' in shrubberies and pleasure-grounds, closely bounded and overshadowed by the shrubs and trees. . .

:“[[AVENUE]]. . . These kind of '''walks''' were formerly much more the fashion than they are at present. . .

:“GRAVEL '''WALKS''', like all other '''''Walks''''', (''vide'',) require a good substratum of drainage, and the facing of about five inches deep of gravel. It must have no stones mixed with it larger than good-sized marbles, and about one-fourth of it must be much smaller. If a portion of clay is by nature or art incorporated with the gravel, is will bind more firmly, and present when rolled a more compact and even surface. . .

:“'''WALKS'''. See ''Gravel''. It may be observed here, that of whatever material a '''walk''' is composed, that it is essential to have it well under-drained, and for this purpose an understratum of flints or brick-bats, twelve inches deep, is not too much. '''Walks''' so founded, are never wet or soft. Coal ashes, or which is still better, fresh tan, makes a pleasant winter '''walk''', particularly on tenacious soils, as it never adheres to the shoes, either during rain or after frost; half an inch I think is sufficient. It likewise makes a soft and pleasant summer '''walk''', and from its loose nature, is readily cleared from weeds. If not wanted during summer, it may readily be swept clean off after a few dry days. It is invaluable for covering '''walks''' or footpaths in the [[kitchen garden]], when there is much wheeling of manure or soil. . . —''Gard. Chron''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 444)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . . still another most delightful scene is reserved, a so-called Rococo garden. . . A garden, laid out in this manner, demands much cleverness and skill in the gardener. . . Around it the most charming landscape open to the [[view]], gently swelling hills, interspersed with pretty village, gardens and grounds. In the plan of the garden, ''a'' and ''b'' are massed of [[shrub]]s; ''c'', circular [[bed]]s, separated by a border or belt of turf, ''e'', from the serpentine [[bed]], ''d''. The whole of this running pattern is surrounded by a border of turf, ''f''; ''g'' and ''h'' are gravel '''walks'''; i, beds, with pedestal and [[statue]] in the centre; ''k'', small oval [[bed]]s, separated from the [[bed]], ''l'', by a border or turf; ''m, n, o, p'', irregular arabesque [[bed]], set in turf."

[[File:0996.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.]]
*[[Downing, A. J.]], May 1848, “Design for a Small Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 503–4)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Small Flower Garden,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TGACWM8A/q/small%20flower view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The following little plan of a [[flower garden]], of this kind, on a small scale, is adopted from one of the designs of our late friend, Mr. LOUDON. It is supposed to be formed in a [[plot]] of smooth level [[lawn]], and to be surrounded by a boundary '''walk''', which may, or may not, be backed by a belt of evergreens and flowering shrubs. In the former case, it would make a complete little scene by itself in a portion of the garden or grounds.” [Fig. 11]

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVSJBZIX/q/wyllys view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ''foot-'''walks''''' should be four or five feet wide, and should, when practicable, lead to some object—a [[view]]—or a [[summer house]]—or a fine tree, and continue on, so that the return may be by another path. If at convenient points, rough [[seat]]s are placed, it adds to their pleasures; for one can rest, if necessary.”

*[[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 114, 342, 530–31)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''''Walks''''' are laid out for purposes similar to [[Drive]]s, but are much more common, and may be introduced into every scene, however limited. They are intended solely for [[promenade]]s or exercise on foot, and should therefore be dry and firm, if possible, at all seasons when it is desirable to use them. Some may be open to the south, sheltered with evergreens, and made dry and hard for a warm [[promenade]] in winter; others formed of closely mown turf, and thickly shaded by a leafy canopy of verdure, for a cool retreat in the midst of summer. Others again may lead to some sequestered spot, and terminate in a secluded rustic [[seat]], or conduct to some shaded dell or rugged [[eminence]], where an extensive [[prospect]] can be enjoyed. Indeed, the genius of the place must suggest the direction, length, and number of the '''walks''' to be laid out, as no fixed rules can be imposed in a subject so everchanging and different. It should, however, never be forgotten, that the '''walk''' ought always to correspond to the scene it traverses, being rough where the latter is wild and [[picturesque]], sometimes scarcely differing from a common footpath, and more polished as the surrounding objects show evidence of culture and high keeping. . .

:“In our remarks on '''walks''' and roads, we omitted to say anything of the best manner of making gravel '''walks'''. . . A very thin coat of gravel will render a '''walk''' superior to a path which consists only of the natural soil, and such surfacing in our dry climate (though it frequently requires renewing), is often sufficient for distant '''walks''', or those little used except in fine weather. But the approach road, and all '''walks''' immediately about the dwelling, should be laid at least a foot thick with gravel, to insure dryness, and a firm footing at all times and seasons. . .

:“Undoubtedly in almost all examples in the [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]] slate-colored gravel. . . is much the most agreeable to the eye, being unobtrusive, just differing sufficiently with soil to be readily recognised as artistical in its effect, while it harmonizes with the color of the ground, and the soft tints of vegetation. A thirst after something new has induced some persons, even in the interior, to substitute, at considerable cost, the white gravel of the sea-shore for the common pit or beach gravel. The change, we think, is, in point of taste, not a happy one. The strong white of this gravel, as the painters would say, disturbs the tone of a simply beautiful landscape, whose prevailing tints are those of the broad [[lawn]] and rich overshadowing trees; and the glare of these snowy white pebbles is not, we confess, so pleasing in our eyes as the cooler and more quiet color of the slate or grey gravel.”

*<div id="Breck"></div>Breck, Joseph, 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 20)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Width of '''Walks'''''.—The main '''walk''', or '''walks''', of a [flower] garden, should be laid out on a liberal scale. Nothing detracts so much from the pleasures of the flower-garden as contracted '''walks'''. When we wish to enjoy the company of a friend, in the flower-garden, it is much more agreeable to have him by our side, arm in arm, than to be under the necessity of making the tour of the garden in Indian file. The main '''walks''' should, therefore, be calculated so as to admit two persons to '''walk''' comfortably in a social manner; and, if wide enough for a little one in addition, so much the better. From five to six feet will not be too wide for the main [[avenue]]. The internal compartments, of course, should have much narrower '''walks''', the width of which must be graduated in a degree by the size of the garden.

:“The '''walks''' of the flower-garden should be constructed of such material as will make firm and dry walking at all seasons of the year.” [[#Breck_cite|back up to History]]

*New York State Lunatic Asylum Trustees, 1851, describing the ideal grounds for a lunatic asylum (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 53)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The salutary influence on the insane mind of highly cultivated lawns—pleasant '''walks''' amid shade trees, [[shrubbery]], and [[fountain]]s, beguiling the long hours of their [sic] tedious confinement—giving pleasure, content, and health, by their beauty and variety, are fully appreciated by us.”

*Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr., 1976: 2:47)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The little cottage. . . was built last year for Augustus W. Clason, Esq. of Westchester. . . The grounds contain fifteen acres, of which five are wooded with a very old growth, and the rest lie in grass. It is intended to throw '''walks''' through the [[lawn]] and adorn their [[border]]s, but not to set apart any one spot for a garden.”

*Jaques, George, February 1851, “Trees in Cities” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 50–52)<ref>George Jaques, “Trees in Cities,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 17, no. 2 (February 1851): 50−52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/87A6ZJSH/q/trees%20in%20cities view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I propose, at present, to speak first of planting trees upon side-'''walks'''. In American cities, it is customary to construct streets with a wide carriageway in the middle, and a ''walk'' for pedestrians on either side. Trees are usually planted on the line between these foot-'''walks''' and the carriageway. . .

:“Take as an example [[Boston Common]]. Here we have, for the most part, a smooth grass surface, intersected by straight wide gravel-'''walks''', and these lined on each side with trees placed along at equal distances form each other. But suppose no tree or '''walk''' were there, and a ''carte blanche'' were given to any one that he might arrange all things to his own fancy, what would you do, Mr. Editor? Would you plant ''straight'' rows of ''equidistant'' trees there? Probably not. For, although such an arrangement of fruit or shade trees may be in its place very convenient and useful, it can never please the eye which admires the [[picturesque]] beauty of trees growing in groups.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0481.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728. "Rope '''Walks'''" indicated in the center, above "Fort Hill".

Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century. “[[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha Ha]] '''Walk''' here” inscribed at center top.

Image:1053.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. 208. Straight-lined '''walks''' are indicated at R and across the top linking X and X. Meandering '''walks''' begin at the four entrances marked by b.

Image:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

Image:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. '''Walks''' are seen leading up to the [[mount]] at F.

Image:1391.jpg|Batty Langley, “Frontispieces of [[Trellis]] Work for the Entrances into [[Temple]]s of [[View]], [[Arbor]]s, Shady [[Walk]]s, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII. Caption for top figure also reads: “An Arbor in a Fortified Island.”

Image:1393.jpg|Batty Langley, “Shady '''walks''' with [[Temple]]s of [[Trellis]] work after the grand manner of Versailles,” and “An [[Avenue]] in Perspective, terminated with the ruins of an ancient Building after the Roman manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XXII.

File:1398.jpg|Batty Langley, ''The Design of an Elegant [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] Contain’g ARP 1.2.20. Including Walks'', in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

File:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760. "Rope '''Walk'''" is inscribed at middle right.

Image:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

Image:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of [[Monticello]] Mountain, before May 1768. '''Walk''' is written at the top left on this plan.

Image:0588.jpg|Joseph F. W. Des Barres, ''A Plan of the Town of Newport in the Province of Rhode Island'' (1780) in ''The Atlantic Neptune, published for the use of the Royal Navy of Great Britain'' (London: 1780–81).

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, "Plan of the Seat of John Penn, junr Esqr in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c. 1785. The '''walk''' meanders across the grounds from the Mansion House at “a” to the [[Ha-Ha/Sunk_fence|ah-ha]] at “g.”

Image:0071.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan for the City of Washington, March 1791.

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792. There is a tree lined '''walk''' running east west on the central axis of the Mall in the center of the plan. The word "'''walk'''" is inscribed in the description of the plan on the bottom right.

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. ". . .a gravel '''walk''' should lead into the [[shrubbery]]. . ."

Image:0100_detail.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe [detail], 1793.

image:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA.

Image:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

Image:0091.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General ideas for the improvement of [[Monticello]] [detail], c. 1804. The description notes “'''Walks''' in this style wind-ing up the mountain.”

Image:0166.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “. . . winding '''walk''' surrounding the [[lawn]] before the house.”

Image:1350.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "[[walk|''Walks'']]", in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 796, fig. 549.

Image:1351.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of [[French_style|French]] [[parterre]] of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 797, fig. 550.

Image:1352.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The botanic [[Flower_garden|flower garden]] with a gravel-'''walk''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 801, fig. 553.

Image:1372.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a [[Ferme_ornée/Ornamental_farm|ferme ornée]] with wild and irregular [[hedge]]s, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1023, fig. 722.

image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Gardens]] and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

Image:0935.jpg|Alexander Walsh, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308. "A '''walk''' 5 ft. in width, A A, of a semi-elliptical form. . . '''walks''' of 4 ft. width C C C C. . ."

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the '''walk'''. . .”

image:1000.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] of the Vinery at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 2 (August 1846): pl. opp. 58.

Image:1503.jpg|Anonymous, "The Rococo Garden of Baron Hügel, near Vienna," Horticulturist, vol. 1, no. 10 (April 1847), pl. opp. p. 441. "''g'' and ''h'' are gravel '''walks'''."

Image:1050.jpg|Richard Dolben, “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847.

Image:0995.jpg|Anonymous, “The Espalier '''Walk''' in the Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): pl. opp. 489.

Image:0943.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a small [[Greenhouse|Green-House]]” and “Section of the Same,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (December 1848): 259, figs. 32 and 33.

Image:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country [[Seat]], after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. “. . .Varied '''walks''', concealed from each other”.

Image:0380.jpg|Anonymous, “The Ravine '''Walk''' at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 350, fig. 40.

Image:0391.jpg|Anonymous, “The Irregular Flower-garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 428, fig. 76. “. . . and the '''walks''' ''e''.”

image:0775.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of a cottage, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 23. "Ground [[plot]] showing the location of the house, '''walks''', roads &c. in the [[Modern_style/Natural_style|natural style]] with [[hedge]] and [[shrub]] [[border]]s. "

Image:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. "O" marks "'''walks'''".

Image:0787.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29. "T T, foot '''walks'''. . . "

Image:0790.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Design for a Vinery & [[Greenhouse|Green House]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 43'

Image:0584.jpg|Lewis Miller, Title page, ''Sketchbook of Landscapes in the State of Virginia'' (1853).

Image:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount_Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington'', c. 1859. "13. Plank '''Walk''' to Landing", on lower left, leading to n.8 Tomb.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure_ground/Pleasure_garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): plate opp. 280.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1387.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a [[Park]] Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A [[View]] of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:2258.jpg|Sydney L. Smith (engraver) from a watercolor drawing by Christian Remick (c. 1768), ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', 1902.

Image:0074.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower [[bed]]s and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the [[terrace]] walks at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.

Image:0337.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The West Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787—92.

Image:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A [[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1790.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0343.jpg|George Isham Parkyns, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1795.

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:0092.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], “Plan of Spring Roundabout at [[Monticello]],” c. 1804.

Image:0073.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of serpentine [[walk]] and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], May 23, 1808.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819).

Image:0169.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird’s-eye [[view]] of the University of Virginia, c. 1820.

Image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820—25.

Image:0647.jpg|Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.

Image:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

Image:0486.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay & Harbour of New York, From the Battery,” in ''Bourne Views of New York'' (1831), plate 8.

image:1705.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], [[Kitchen garden]], in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1834), 721, fig. 696. “. . .on the north, at the surrounding '''walk''' (c). . .”

Image:1298.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''[[View]] of the Waterworks at Fairmount'', 1835–36.

Image:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.

Image:1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''[[View]] of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.

Image:0479.jpg|Fitz Hugh Lane after Charles Hubbard, ''The National Lancers with the Reviewing Officers on [[Boston Common]]'', 1837.

Image:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of the Fairmount Water-Works with [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill]] in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

Image:1032.jpg|Anonymous, “Consecration Dell,” in ''The [[Picturesque]] Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), 161.

Image:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The [[Seat]] of General George P. Morris),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.

Image:1120.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Fairmount Gardens, with the Schuylkill Bridge. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 24.

Image:1121.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Schuylkill Water-Works. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery: or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 37. Steps and '''walks''' leading up to the reservoir seen in the background.

Image:0835.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the [[National_Mall|Mall]]'', Washington, DC, 1841.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (recto). Walks are both the straight and winding paths across the property.

Image:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

Image:1861.jpg|Anonymous, ''Grounds of a cottage orneé'', in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening,'' (1844): 102, fig. 25.

Image:1049.jpg|N. Vautin, [[View]] of North Side (Rear) of Longfellow House, June 1845.

Image:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells, attr., ''Roseland Cottage,'' c. 1846. The walk is to the right of the cottage.

Image:0329.jpg|Anonymous (artist), A. Kollner (lithographer), “North West [[View]] of the Mansion of George Washington [[Mount Vernon]],” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on Agriculture from His Excellency George Washington'' (1847), opp. 124.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[Montgomery Place]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.

Image:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Seat]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Conservatory]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

Image:0487.jpg|William Wade, ''Castle Garden: From the Battery'', 1848. ". . .a public '''walk'''; made by a gentle decline from the platform. . ."

Image:1007.jpg|Anonymous, “A [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Alcove]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.

Image:0996.jpg|Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a [[Geometric_style|Geometric]] Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.

Image:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

Image:0428.jpg|Edward Weber, ''[[View]] of Washington City and Georgetown'' [detail], 1849.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Hyde Park]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

Image:0361.jpg|Anonymous, “Beaverwyck, the [[Seat]] of Wm. P. Van Rensselaer, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 7.

Image:0366.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at Pine Bank,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' , 4th ed. (1849; repr., 1991), pl. opp. 57.

Image:0367.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esq.” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 57.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Geometric style]], from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 62, fig. 14.

Image:0771.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of Brier Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2

Image:0773.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of Anglo-Italian Villa, New York, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 8.

Image:0774.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]]s for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

Image:0776.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “A [[plot]] of village property 724 feet by 488,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

Image:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird’s Eye [[View]] of Boston'', c. 1850.

Image:0492.jpg|Anonymous, ''Saratoga Schottisch'', New York, 1851.

Image:1038.jpg|Frederick Graff, ''Plan of [[Lemon Hill]] and Sedgley Park, Fairmount and Adjoining Property'', October 15, 1851.

Image:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, ''[[View]] of Washington'', 1852.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

Image:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d., a '''walk''' is visible in the background on the right hand side leading to the buildings.

Image:0703.jpg|Lewis Miller, “The Yellow Sulphur Springs, Montgomery County,” n.d.

Image:1191.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of an unidentified garden, 18th century.

Image:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

Image:1192.jpg|Anonymous, Garden plan, 18th century.

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Isaac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717 (1890).

Image:1377.jpg|Batty Langley, Garden with a [[canal]], in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:1390.jpg|Batty Langley, “The Design of a [[Fountain]] & [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|Cascade]] after the grand Manner at Versailes,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVII.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A [[prospect]] of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748-50.

Image:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West [[Prospect]] of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

Image:0255.jpg|John Singleton Copley, ''Rebecca Boylston'', 1767.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

Image:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

Image:0256.jpg|The Beardsley Limner, ''Mrs. Hezekiah Beardsley (Elizabeth Davis)'', c. 1788-90.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c.1787-93.

Image:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

Image:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

Image:0613.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 1, no. 7 (July 1789): pl. 7, opp. 394.

Image:0452.jpg|The Denison Limner (Probably Joseph Steward), ''Captain Elisha Denison'', c. 1790.

Image:0278.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain John Pratt (1753-1824)'', 1792.

Image:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

Image:0258.jpg|William Clarke, ''Mrs. Levin Winder (Mary Stoughton Sloss)'', 1793.

Image:0546.jpg|William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793. A walk is seen across the lawn on the right hand side, between the tree and the summerhouse.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, ''Government House'', 1795.

Image:0058.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795-99.

Image:2250_detail1.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:2250_detail2.jpg|Unknown, Kitchen Garden [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

Image:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:0280.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Townscape of Bennington'', 1798.

Image:0083.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Sedgeley, c. 1799.

Image:0683.jpg|C. Foster, “Western Baptist Theological Institute, at Covington KY, opposite Cincinnati, Ohio,” in Charles Cist, ''Cincinnati in 1841: Its Early Annals and Future Prospects'' (1841), pl. opp. 270.

Image:0324.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Back of the State House, Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0305.jpg|William Russell Birch, “State-House, with a view of Chesnut Street Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box [[Grove]]'', c. 1800.

Image:0226.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The [[Seat]] of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

Image:0732.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Springland'', c. 1800.

Image:0173.jpg|Anonymous, ''Overmantel from the Bannister house'', c. 1800-20.

Image:0296.jpg|Anonymous, ''Townscape, Stonington, Connecticut'', 1800-25.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, ''A [[View]] of New Orleans taken from the [[plantation]] of Marigny'', November 1803.

Image:0207.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mt. Deposit'', 1803-05.

Image:0254.jpg|Reuben Moulthrop, ''Mrs. Daniel Truman and Child'', c. 1798–1810. A walk is depicted on the right, leading from the house through the garden.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, [[view]] from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0742.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Design for a Garden for George Reed, New Castle, Delaware'', c. 1805, in Emily T. Cooperman and Lea Carson Sherk, ''William Birch: Picturing the American Scene'' (2011), 218, fig. 127.

Image:1924.jpg|P. Lodet, ''Clermont, [[Seat]] of the Chancellor Livingston - North River 1807'', 1807.

Image:0731.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''[[View]] from Springland'', c. 1808.

Image:0322.jpg|William Russell Birch, “China Retreat Pennsyl.a the [[Seat]] of M.r Manigault,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), 79, pl. 19.

Image:0326.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The [[View]] from Springland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (1808), pl. 2.

Image:1679.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], ''The Moreau House'', July 2, 1809.

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “[[View]] of the [[Botanic Garden]] of the State of New York,” in [[David Hosack]], ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden|Elgin Garden]] on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 27.<ref>Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries'' (January 2012), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I9SQRZDH view on Zotero].</ref>

Image:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'', 1815.

Image:0902.jpg|George Bridport, Design for Washington Monument, [[Washington_Square_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Washington Square]], Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:0404.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public [[Square]] in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:0416.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), “[[View]] of Union College in the City of Schenectady,” c. 1820.

Image:0719.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, “[[Seat]] of Josiah Quincy, Esqr.,” 1822.

Image:0521.jpg|William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public [[Square]], Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825-28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J. D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825-30.

Image:1427.jpg|William Guy Wall, ''City Hall'', 1826.

Image:0675.jpg|Anthony Imbert after [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] of the Battery and Castle Garden'', 1826-28.

Image:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:1281.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West Front of the Capitol, c. 1828.

Image:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.

Image:0757.jpg|Jacob Marling, ''North Carolina State House'', 1830.

Image:1043.jpg|Sidney Mason Stone, ''House for Roger Sherman Baldwin, New Haven, Conn. [exterior elevation]'', c. 1830-40.

Image:1244.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.

Image:1279.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West front of the United States Capitol with cows in the foreground, c. 1831.

Image:1432.jpg|Milo Osborne, “Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” in Theodore S. Fay, ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831).

Image:0490.jpg|Archibald L. Dick, “Elysian Fields, Hoboken (New York in the distance),” in ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs'' (1831-34).

Image:1433.jpg|James H. Dakin, “La Grange [[Terrace]], La Fayette Place, City of New York,” 1831-34.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, “Entrance to [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0651.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Southeastern [[view]] of Wesleyan University, Middletown,” in ''Connecticut Historical Collections'' (1836), 510.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.

Image:1458.jpg|Henry Cheever Pratt, ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

Image:1434.jpg|Samuel Davenport, ''New York'', c. 1835.

Image:1027.jpg|Anonymous, “View of [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836), 234.

Image:0419.jpg|John La Tourette, “University of the State of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.,” detail from ''Map of the State of Alabama'', c. 1837.

Image:0489.jpg|John William Hill (artist), William James Bennett (engraver), ''New York, from Brooklyn Heights'', 1837.

Image:1142.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Laurel Hill [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], Philadelphia'', 1838.

Image:1283.jpg|William A. Pratt (artist), Charles Fenderich (lithographer), “Elevation of the eastern front of the Capitol of the United States,” c. 1839.

Image:1750.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949), 132.

Image:0420.jpg|Anonymous, “Franklin College, in Athens, Georgia,” in ''Gleason’s Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion'' 6, no. 19 (May 13, 1854): 297.

Image:0727.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.

Image:0524.jpg|Anonymous, Palladian Villa Style Building in Formal Landscape, c. 1840-50.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''[[Picturesque]] [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] N. W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.

Image:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National Park Service.

Image:0903.jpg|M. Schmitz (artist), Thomas S. Sinclair (lithographer), John B. Colahan (surveyor), ''Map of [[Washington_Square_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Washington Square]], Philadelphia'', 1843.

Image:0663.jpg|John Warner Barber, “College of New Jersey, Princeton,” in ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey'' (1844), pl. opp. 266.

Image:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

Image:1966.jpg|Edward William Mumford, ''Clarke’s Hall & Dock Creek'', c. 1844.

Image:1102.jpg|F. F. Judd (artist), E. B. and E. C. Kellogg (lithographers), “Retreat for the Insane, Hartford, Connecticut,” in ''Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Officers of the Retreat for the Insane at Hartford, Connecticut'' (1846), 314.

Image:0110.jpg|Joseph Goldsborough Bruff (artist), Edward Weber & Co. (lithographer), ''Elements of National Thrift and Empire'', c. 1847.

Image:0660.jpg|William S. Jewett, ''[[Mount]] Washington'', 1847.

Image:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union [[Park]], New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Shrubbery]] and [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.

Image:0847.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at [[Blithewood]], n.d. (c. 1849).

Image:1943.jpg|Godfrey N. Frankenstein, ''Portrait of "The Old House" residence of John Adams and John Quincy Adams Adams'', 1849.

Image:2292.jpg|Weingärtner & Sarony, “Smithsonian Institution, from the North East,” in Robert Dale Owen, ''Hints on Public Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. 108.

Image:0353.jpg|Anonymous, “Example of the beautiful in Landscape Gardening,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), opp. 273, fig. 15.

Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''[[View]] of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, ''[[View]] of Washington'', c. 1850.

Image:1282.jpg|Augustus Köllner, “Capitol (west side),” c. 1850.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

Image:1441.jpg|David William Moody, ''Springfield'', c. 1850.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

Image:1232.jpg|Orsamus Turner, Life Cycle of a Pioneer Woodsman (“Third Sketch of the Pioneer”), in ''Pioneer History of the Holland Purchase'' (1850), opp. 565.

Image:1039.jpg|Anonymous, The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]], in Joseph Breck, ''The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]]: or, Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (1841), frontispiece.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_garden/Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

Image:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith, Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

Image:0557.jpg|Sarony & Major, ''Iranistan, an Oriental Ville'', 1852—54.

Image:1673.jpg|Anonymous, The Claremont, c. 1855.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_garden/Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

Image: 2287.jpg|Ernest Crehen, ''Blue Sulphur-Greenbrier, VA'', in John J. Moorman, ''The Virginia Springs of the South and West'', 1859: facing 217.

Image:1009.jpg|Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860-65.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur (c. 1830), ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]

View/Vista

2021-03-31T14:18:42Z

A-Whitlock:

==History==
[[File:0755.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, George Beck, ''View of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796.]]
Travelers’ accounts of their journeys through the early American colonies contain many descriptions of extensive views and fine prospects. The frequent repetition of these and the related terms vista, “[[eminence]],” and by the mid-19th century, “panorama,” suggests the importance of views and view-making in the perception, design, and representation of American landscapes.<ref>For an example of the significance of the construction of views in landscape perception see Peter M. Briggs, “Timothy Dwight ‘Composes’ a Landscape for New England,” ''American Quarterly'' 40 (September 1988): 359–77, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J9CTDWUA view on Zotero]. For a discussion of the links between optics, monumental architecture and landscapes, and social control, see Jerry D. Moore, ''Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 98–101 and 168–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EFCPC58F view on Zotero].</ref> The significance of composing a view in the landscape is echoed in the visual record of American gardens. Among the most common images of gardens are those framing the façade of the house and those taking a view from the house out toward the landscape.

[[File:0297.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Archibald Robertson, ''Hobuck'', 1808.]]
[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
As Antoine-Joseph Dezallier d’Argenville noted in 1712, one aspect of a “good situation, is, the View and Prospect of a fine Country,” and American property owners often sited their houses with this advice in mind. Planters situated their houses along well-traveled rivers and overlooking harbors, both capturing water views and creating highly visible architectural statements of their status and wealth [Figs. 1 and 2]. As at Monte Video [Fig. 3], houses were often sited on [[eminence]]s to benefit from the natural topography. Gardens built around such houses took full advantage of their natural settings, and treatise writers such as [[A. J. Downing]] (1850) admonished gardeners to “study the character of the place” so as not to “shut out and obstruct the beauty of prospect which nature has placed before your eyes.” The frequent use of the words “command” and “commanding” by visitors recording their impressions indicates the assertion of ownership and control that was so clearly an aspect of the visual presentation of these estates. Water, topographic relief, a variety of rock formations, and vegetal and geological diversity were all prized components of views. Distance was also a measure of merit, not only contributing to the beauty of the scene, but also claiming the breadth of “command” over the countryside.

The term “vista,” while less commonly used than the related terms “prospect” and “view,” was similar in its designation of views created within the garden or looking out of the garden into the surrounding landscape. The term “vista” also carried the more particular connotation, as Thomas Sheridan noted in 1789 and [[Noah Webster]] in 1850, of the sight lines that created a view, whether made by an [[avenue]], a [[meadow]], or a space between trees. A vista within the garden was generally terminated by a focal point, such as the Chinese [[temple]] at Judge [[William Peters|William Peters's]] [[Belmont Mansion]], near Philadelphia. Even more common are descriptions of vistas from the garden to the world beyond. John Parke Custis (1717), [[Hannah Callender Sansom]] (1762), George Washington (1785), and [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1804) all used the term to describe framed views created by land cleared of trees (see Prospect).

[[File:0955.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 4, Alexander Jackson Davis, ''View N. W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.]]
[[File:0844.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Alexander Jackson Davis, ''[[Montgomery Place]]—Shore Seat'', n.d., drawing. The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook, c. 1830–50.]]
[[File:0509.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Charles Fraser, ''Rice Hope'', c. 1803.]]
Views were carefully planned and manipulated by a variety of techniques. The architecture of the dwelling often included exterior viewing platforms such as [[porch]]es, [[piazza]]s, [[portico]]s, and [[veranda]]s [Fig. 4]. Views of the house often were choreographed by carefully designed approaches, which allowed a visitor to catch glimpses of the house as he or she arrived and departed. As an 1837 article in the ''Horticultural Register'' noted, the view should be “so divided into different scenes or compartments” by various types of vegetation. Garden buildings or [[seat]]s, such as those seen at [[Montgomery Place]] [Fig. 5], and those placed under a cluster of trees in [[Charles Fraser|Charles Fraser's]] painting of Rice Hope [Fig. 6], punctuated the landscape with invitations to pause and to admire the vista. Distant views were framed by plantings or by pruned trees, as at [[The Woodlands]] and at Springland [Fig. 7]. Their composition was also influenced by elevated mounts, such as those flanking the front [[gate]]s of [[Mount Vernon]]; or by openings in [[hedge]]s, trees, and [[wall]]s [Fig. 8].
[[File:0326.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, William Russell Birch, “The View from Springland,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 2.]]

Another element of view-making was the use of barriers (such as [[wall]]s, [[fence]]s, and [[hedge]]s) to screen less [[picturesque]] elements of a [[plantation]]. This technique was reported in 1790 in a description of the Elias Hasket Derby Farm in Peabody, Mass. John Trumbull’s 1793 plan for Yale College included instructions for a similar barrier that would provide a screen for the nose as well as the eyes. Inscribed on the plan is the directive that “The Temples of Cloacina [or priveys] (which it is too much the custom of New England to place conspicuously), I would wish to have concealed as much as possible, by planting a variety of Shrubs, such as Laburnums, Lilacs, Roses, Snowballs, Laurels, &c.”<ref>John Trumbull describing his plan for Yale College, New Haven, Connecticut. Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Picture Collection, 48-A-46, box 1, folder 2.</ref>
[[File:0727.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 8, Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.]]

In urban settings, where lot size and the proximity of buildings limited sightlines into the distance, gardens often reflected treatises’ instructions to enhance views with smaller property. Such structures as [[temple]]s or [[summerhouse]]s were placed in gardens to serve as both focal points and viewing platforms (see [[Belvedere]]). These effects could also be achieved without building; in 1758 Theophilus Hardenbrook advertised designs for “Niche’s eyetraps ''trompe l’oeil'', to represent a building, terminating a [[walk]], or to hide some disagreeable object” in the New York Gazette. Treatises also suggested enhancing small gardens by laying out [[walk]]s or [[terrace]]s with converging (rather than parallel) sides to create the impression of greater depth. Similarly, such features as alleys or [[avenue]]s with dimensions that appeared to converge created the illusion of distance from the viewer.

Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe has commented that in England the importance of the creation of views and prospects “became apparent when the enclosed medieval walled garden gradually expanded into walled gardens of more than one compartment—preparing the way for a unity of design in the 17th c.”<ref>Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe, “Vista,” in ''Oxford Companion to Gardens'', ed. Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 590, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S392BPJ8 view on Zotero].</ref> In England the importance of views into the countryside increased as a principle of garden design and as an aspect of changing land use and property-holding practices.<ref>For an example of the design practices used in creating views and prospects in eighteenth-century English gardens, see Douglas Chambers, “Prospects and the Natural Beauties of Places: Joseph Spence,” in ''The Planters of the English Landscape Garden'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993), 164–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/S3BW6ZQK view on Zotero]. For a discussion of changing land-use practices and their implications on the organization of sight in landscape gardening, see Denis E. Cosgrove, ''Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 189–222, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NZTXKTCT view on Zotero]; Raymond Williams, ''The Country and the City'' (London: Palladin, 1973), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TR28NC32 view on Zotero]; Simon Pugh, ed., ''Reading Landscape: Country, City, Capital'' (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9T4DIAXW view on Zotero], including the essay by John Barrell, “The Public Prospect and the Private View: the Politics of Taste in Eighteenth-Century Britain,” 19–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DF29TKTA view on Zotero].</ref> For historians of American gardens, understanding the visual organization of space is equally important not only because it was a fundamental principle of imported garden design, but also because it was a key factor in the design of gardens in America’s unique political, economic, and social setting. Abigail Adams’s poetic rendering of the view from Richmond Hill, New York, in 1789 evokes not only a romantic view of nature but also a vision of American estates as villas, linking the new nation to a past era of republican ideals.<ref>For a fuller discussion of the villa in the New World, see James Ackerman, ''The Villa: Form and Ideology of Country Houses'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EC879QB view on Zotero].</ref> In 1824, Benjamin Silliman described Monte Video in Connecticut as poised between a [[wilderness]] of “rocks and forest” and a “vast sheet of cultivation, filled with inhabitants.” His evocative description expresses the landscape’s capacity to inspire both a sense of quiet contemplation and a connection to the industry and “frolicks” of village life.

Understanding the visual logic of American gardens has been particularly important in deciphering gardens as social commentary. For example, the reconstruction of specific viewing platforms, focal points, and openings in the visual barriers of a garden ([[wall]]s, [[fence]]s, rows of trees) provides valuable information about the ways in which people were intended to circulate in a garden.<ref>Elizabeth Kryder-Reid, “The Archaeology of Vision in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Gardens,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 14 (Spring 1994): 42–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJX4M93V view on Zotero], and Kryder-Reid, “Sites of Power and the Power of Sight: Vision in the California Mission Landscape,” in Dianne Harris and D. Fairchild Ruggles, ''Sites Unseen: Landscape and Vision'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007), 181–212, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8SGWDUKH view on Zotero].</ref> At Fairmount Park in Philadelphia, for instance, the stairs and viewing [[pavilion]]s created an explicit route through the grounds with carefully orchestrated views that are apparent in myriad illustrations and descriptions of the site. In another example, the triangular terraced garden built by Charles Carroll of Carrollton in Annapolis during the 1770s created very different visual effects depending upon where the viewer stood. A passerby on Spa Creek saw [[terrace]]s that elevated and accentuated an impressive Georgian brick house. A visitor permitted to stroll to the top [[terrace]] was treated to a sweeping view of the creek and countryside beyond, an effect enhanced by the foreshortening of the [[terrace]]s and [[Fall/Falling_garden|falls]], the placement of [[pavilion]]s at the ends of the sea [[wall]], and the spreading angle of the brick [[wall]] marking the garden’s hypotenuse. Only those permitted into the house, with its privileged views overlooking the [[terrace]]s, gained the vantage point to appreciate the garden geometry with its 3–4–5 proportions and [[parterre]] planting patterns.

The organization of vision may also provide information regarding the social hierarchy that is encoded in gardens. For instance, Dell Upton has argued that the terraced gardens of such [[plantation]]s as John Tayloe II’s Mount Airy in Richmond County inscribed the status of Virginia’s whites and blacks into the topography. The landscape design of [[gate]]s, ramps, [[terrace]]s, and [[walk]]s created a series of physical and social hurdles that each individual had to navigate differently, depending on his or her social standing in colonial society.<ref>Dell Upton, ''Holy Things and Profane: Anglican Parish Churches in Colonial Virginia'' (New York: Architectural History Foundation and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76MUH9HK view on Zotero], and “White and Black Landscapes in Eighteenth-Century Virginia,” in ''Material Culture in America, 1600–1860'', ed. Robert Blair St. George (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), 357–69, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N9BT889P view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usages===
*Custis, John Parke, April 1717, describing Gov. Alexander Spotswood’s improvements to the gardens of the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Martin 1991: 38)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I happened to be at the Governors, and he was pleased to ask my consent, to cut down some trees that grew on my Land to make an opening, I think he called it a '''visto''', and told me would cut nothing but what was only fitt [''sic''] for the fire. . . As to the clearing his '''visto''', he cut down all before him such a wideness as he thought fitt [''sic''].”

*Anonymous, May 22, 1749, describing the dwelling house of [[Alexander Garden]], Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')

:“From the house ''Ashley'' and ''Cooper'' rivers are seen, and all around are '''visto’s''' and pleasant prospects.”

*Ball, Joseph, September 8, 1758, describing property in Virginia (Library of Congress, Joseph Ball Letterbook)

:“I have a Strang Hankering after a bit of Land upon Linhaven Creek. I would have it on the West or South side where it is Saved already. I want no more than fifty Acres. It must be bounding upon the Creek side; nigh a good Spring: and where I may have a full '''View''' of the Sea.”

*[[Hannah_Callender_Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . from these Windows down a '''Wisto''' terminated by an [[Obelisk]]. . . we left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into '''Visto’s''', in the midst a [[Chinese Taste|chinese]] [[temple]], for a [[Summerhouse|summer house]], one [[avenue]] gives a fine [[prospect]] of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the [[obelisk|Oblisk]].”

*Eddis, William, October 1, 1769, describing the Governor’s House, Annapolis, MD (1792: 17)<ref>William Eddis, ''Letters from America: Historical and Descriptive; Compromising Occurances from 1769 to 1777 Inclusive'' (London: Printed for the author, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZMDDRPFN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The garden is not extensive, but it is disposed to the utmost advantage; the centre [[walk]] is terminated by a small green mount, close to which the Severn approaches; this elevation commands an extensive '''view''' of the bay, and the adjacent county. . . there are but few mansions in the most rich and cultivated parts of England, which are adorned with such splendid and romantic scenery.”

*Jefferson, Thomas, 1771, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 26)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“open a '''vista''' to the millpond, river, road, etc. qu, if a '''view''' to the neighboring town would have a good effect?”

*Anonymous, January 28, 1771, describing the [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (''New York Gazette'')

:“The Commodious house and large gardens, in the out-ward of this city, known by the name of [[Vauxhall Garden|VAUX-HALL]]; the situation extremely pleasant, having a very extensive '''view''' both up and down the North-River.”

*Anburey, Thomas, September 2, 1781, describing the Moravian community in Bethlehem, PA (1781; repr., 1969: 2:513)<ref>Thomas Anburey, ''Travels through the Interior Parts of America'', 2 vols. (1789; repr., New York: New York Times and Arno Press, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R77SENEZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The house of the single men is upon the same principle as that of the women; upon the roof of which is a Belvidere, from whence you have not only a most delightful [[prospect]], but a distinct '''view''' of the whole settlement.”

*Shippen, Thomas Lee, December 31, 1783, describing Westover, seat of William Byrd III, on the James River, VA (1952: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Lee Shippen, ''Westover Described in 1783: A Letter and Drawing Sent by Thomas Lee Shippen, Student of Law in Williamsburg, to His Parents in Philadelphia'' (Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press, 1952), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3IWWPMJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Imagine then a room of 20 feet [[square]]. . . and commanding a '''view''' of a prettily falling grass [[plat]]. . . about 300 by 100 yards in extent an extensive [[prospect]] of James River and of all the Country and some Gentlemen’s [[seat]]s on the other side.”

*Washington, George, March 15, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:103)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. by Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Began to open '''Vistos''' throw the Pine [[grove]] on the Banks of H. Hole.”

*Enys, Lt. John, December 1, 1787, describing the mall in Boston, MA (Cometti, ed., 1976: 202)<ref name="Cometti">Elizabeth Cometti, ed., ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“After Dinner we took a walk on the [[Mall]]. . . From hence we went to Beacon Hill from whence we had a Charming '''View''' of the town and harbour.”

*Enys, Lt. John, January 26, 1788, describing [[Belvedere]], estate of Gov. John Eager Howard, Baltimore, MD (Cometti, ed., 1976: 235)<ref name="Cometti"></ref>

:“there are some very Charming [[prospect]]s from some of the Hills, among the rest from the [[Seat]] of Colol. Howard which is situated on an [[eminence]] but is well coverd by trees from all the cold winds, has a charming '''View''' of a Water fall at a Mill, a long Rapid below it, a full '''View''' of the town of Baltimore and the Point with the shipping in the harbour, the Bason and all the Small craft, with a very distant [[prospect]] down the river towards the Chasapeak Bay. The whole terminated by the surrounding Hills forms a fine Picture.”

*G., L., June 15, [1788], describing [[The Woodlands]], home of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Madsen 1989: 19)<ref>Karen Madsen, “To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton’s Woodlands,” ''Arnoldia'' 49 (1989): 14–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K567H4M4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[The [[walk]]s were] planted on each side with the most beautiful & curious flowers & shrubs. They are in some parts enclosed with the Lombardy poplar except here & there openings are left to give you a '''view''' of some fine trees or beautiful [[prospect]] beyond, & in others, shaded by arbours of the wild grape, or [[clump]]s of large trees under which are placed [[seat]]s where you may rest yourself & enjoy the cool air.”

*Adams, Abigail, 1789, describing Richmond Hill, NY (quoted in Hammond 1982: 179)<ref>Charles Arthur Hammond, “‘Where the Arts and the Virtues Unite’: Country Life Near Boston, 1637–1864” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVFZVIKT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In front of the house the noble Hudson rolls, his majestic waves bearing upon his bosom innumerable small vessels which are constantly carrying the rich products of the neighboring soil to the busy hand of a more extensive commerce. Beyond the Hudson rises to our '''view''' the fertile country of the Jerseys, covered with a golden harvest and pouring forth plenty like the cornucopia of Ceres. On the right hand an extensive plain presents us with a '''view''' of fields covered with verdure and pastures full of cattle; on the left, the city opens upon us, intercepted only by [[clump]]s of trees and some rising ground. . . If my days of fancy and romance were not past, I could find here an ample field for indulgence.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing Nassau Hall, Princeton, NJ (1789; repr., 1970: 294)<ref>Jedidiah Morse, ''The American Geography; Or, A View of the Present Situation of the United States of America'' (Elizabeth Town, NJ: Shepard Kollock, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/93EGD8Q5 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“Its situation is exceedingly Pleasant and healthful. The '''view''' from the college balcony is extensive and charming.”

*Smith, William Loughton, September 8, 1790, describing a house in Albany, NY (1917: 54)<ref name="Loughton Smith">William Loughton Smith, ''Journal of William Loughton Smith, 1790–1791'', ed. by Albert Matthews (Cambridge, MA: The University Press, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ITHQH4P5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I took a walk to General Schyler’s; his house is a large, [[square]] brick one, with a flat roof; it stands on a rising ground above the river, and enjoys a commanding '''view'''.”

*Bentley, William, October 22, 1790, describing Elias Hasket Derby Farm, Peabody, MA (1962: 1:180)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[231] 22. . . The Principal Garden is in three parts divided by an open slat [[fence]] painted white, & the [[fence]] white washed. It includes 7/8 of an Acre. We ascend from the house two steps in each division. The passages have no [[gate]]s, only a naked [[arch]] with a key stone frame, of wood painted white above 10 feet high. Going into the Garden they look better than in returning, in the latter '''view''' they appear from the unequal surface to incline towards the Hill. . . Beyond the Garden is a Spot as large as the Garden which would form an admirable [[orchard]] now improved as a [[Kitchen garden]], & has not an ill effect in its present state.”

*[[Bartram, William]], 1791, describing St. Simon’s Island, GA (1928: 72)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. by Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>

:“This delightful habitation was situated in the midst of a spacious [[grove]] of Live Oaks and Palms, near the strand of the bay, commanding a '''view''' of the inlet.”

*Smith, William Loughton, April 23, 1791, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1917: 63)<ref name="Loughton Smith"></ref>

:“the '''view''' extends up and down the river a considerable distance, the river is about two miles wide, and the opposite shore is beautiful, as is the country along the river. . . embracing the magnificence of the river with the vessels sailing about; the verdant fields, [[wood]]s, and [[park]]s.”

*Spooner, Rev. John Jones, 1793, describing May-cox Plantation, estate of David Meade, Prince George’s County, VA (1923: 8)<ref>John Jones Spooner, “A Topographical Description of the County of Prince George in Virginia, 1793,” ''Tyler’s Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine'' 5 (1923): 1–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PE72ZT2X view on Zotero].</ref>

:“These grounds contain about twelve acres, laid out on the banks of the James river, in a most beautiful and enchanting manner. Forest and fruit trees are here arranged, as if nature and art had conspired together to strike the eye most agreeably. Beautiful '''vistas''', which open as many pleasing '''views''' of the river; the land thrown into many artificial hollows or gentle swellings, with the pleasing verdure of the turf; and the complete order in which the whole is preserved, altogether tend to form it one of the most delightful rural [[seat]]s that is to be met with in the United States, and do honour to the taste and skill of the proprietor, who was also the architect.”

*La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, François Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de, 1795–97, describing Pottsgrove, PA (1799: 1:35)<ref> François-Alexandre-Frédéric, duc de La Rochefoucauld Liancourt, ''Travels through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'', ed. by Brisson Dupont and Charles Ponges, trans. by H. Newman, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (London: R. Philips, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SRMDWJ2M view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The landscape is beautiful along this road, abounding with a great variety of fine '''views''', wonderfully enlivened by the verdure of the cornfields and [[meadow]]s. . . If agriculture were better understood in these parts; if the fields were well mowed and well fenced; and if some trees had been left standing in the middle or on the [[border]]s of [[meadow]]s, the most beautiful parts of Europe could not be more pleasing.”

*Twining, Thomas, May 7, 1795, describing [[Belvedere]], estate of Gov. John Eager Howard, Baltimore, MD (1894: 115)<ref>Thomas Twining, ''Travels in America 100 Years Ago'' (New York: Harper, 1894) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKJBU8CP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Situated upon the verge of the descent upon which Baltimore stands, its grounds formed a beatiful slant toward the Chesapeak. From the taste with which they were laid out, it would seem that America already possessed a Haverfield or a Repton. The spot, thus indebted to nature and judiciously embellished, was as enchanting within its own proper limits as in the fine '''view''' which extended far beyond them. The foreground presented luxurious shrubberies and sloping [[lawn]]s: the distance, the line of the Patapsco, and the country bordering on Chesapeak Bay.”

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, PA (1798: 58–59)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“One sunny afternoon, I was standing in the door of my house, when I marked a person passing close to the edge of the bank that was in front. . .
:“such figures were seldom seen by me, except on the road or field. This [[lawn]] was only traversed by men whose '''views''' were directed to the pleasures of the [[walk]], or the grandeur of the scenery.”

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], 1798, describing the countryside of Virginia (1977: 473–75)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

:“When you stand upon the summit of a hill, and see an extensive country of [[wood]]s and fields without interruption spread before you, you look at it with pleasure. On the Virginia rivers there are a thousand such positions. But this pleasure is perhaps very much derived from a sort of consciousness of superiority of position to all the monotony below you. But turn yourself so as to include in your '''view''' a wide expanse of Water, contrasting by its cool blue surface, the waving, and many colored carpet of the Earth, your pleasure is immediately doubled, or rather a new and much greater pleasure arises. An historical effect is produced. The trade and the cultivation of the country croud [''sic''] into the mind, the imagination runs up the invisible creeks, and visits the half seen habitations. A thousand circumstances are fancied which are not beheld, and the indications of what probably exists, give the pleasure which its '''view''' would afford. Having satiated your eye with this [[prospect]], retire within the [[Grove]], so that the foreground shall consist of trees, and shadowy earth. The landscape is immediately lightened up with a thousand new beauties, arising from the novelty of the Contrast. This particular effect, of seeing a distant '''view''' glittering among near objects is familiar to every observer. The Landscape is now become a perfect composition.”

*Anonymous, October 2, 1798, describing a property for sale in Spotsylvania County, VA (''Virginia Herald'')

:“The improvements on it are, a comfortable dwelling house, with all necessary out houses, situated on a beautiful [[eminence]], commanding a '''view''' of the greater part of the lower ground.”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Nazareth, PA (1800: 45)

:“From the top of this house [recitation room and Inspector’s study], we were entertained with picture-like '''views''' in every direction.”

*Thornton, Anna Maria Brodeau, September 22, 1802, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (Library of Congress, Papers of Anna Maria Brodeau, 1793–1863)

:“The House is situated on the very summit of the mountain, on a circular level, formed by art, commanding a '''view''' of all the surrounding country, the small town of Charlottesville and a little winding river. . . with a '''view''' of the blue ridge & even more distant mountains form a beautiful scene on the north side of the house.—There is something grand & awful in the situation but far from convenient or in my opinion agreeable—it is a place you wo’d rather look at now & then than live at.”

*Anonymous, February 18, 1803, describing a property for sale in Orange County, VA (''Virginia Herald'')

:“There is a convenient dwelling house and other out houses, fixed on an elevated situation and commands a beautiful '''view''' of the mountains and of the lower country, which added to the health and agreeableness of the neighbourhood, renders the place truly desirable.”

*Jefferson, Thomas, 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Jefferson Papers)

:“'''Vistas''' to very interesting objects may be permitted, but in general it is better so to arrange the [[thicket]]s as that they may have the effect of '''vista''' in various directions. . .
:“the ground between the upper & lower roundabouts to be laid out in [[lawn]]s & [[clump]]s of trees, the [[lawn]]s opening so as to give advantageous catches of [[prospect]] to the upper roundabout.
:“'''Vistas''' from the lower roundabout to good portions of [[prospect]].”

*Caldwell, John Edwards, 1808, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1951: 38–39)<ref>John Edwards Caldwell, ''A Tour through Part of Virginia, in the Summer of 1808; Also, Some Account of the Islands of the Azores'', ed. by William M. E. Rachal (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8F26GMXG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The roofs of the passages, and range of buildings, form an agreeable [[walk]], being flat and floored, and are to have a Chinese railing round them; they rise but a little height above the [[lawn]], that they may not obstruct the '''view'''.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 20, 1809, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

[[File:0116.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Charles Willson Peale]], Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.]]
:“If thus far the eye has been pleased from viewing these fine productions of art, how much more will it be gratified when contemplating the [[prospect]] that bursts upon the sight from the Centre of the Saloon! The verdant [[meadow]], the spacious [[lawn]], [the] [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill's]] lucid stream, the floating [[bridge]], the waves here checked by the projecting rock, then overshadowed by inclining trees, until, by meandering in luxuriant folds, the winding waters lead the entranced eye to Delaware’s proud river, on whose swollen bosom rich merchant ships are seen. . . Such are in part, the beauties of this delightful scenery, & had the '''view''' terminated with highlands or some o’er-towering mountain, no [[prospect]] could have been more perfect.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], 1810, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Miller and Ward 1991: 54)<ref>Lillian B. Miller and David C. Ward, eds., ''New Perspectives on Charles Willson Peale'' (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press for the Smithsonian Institution, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PU8TV8SD/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In this '''view''' imagine that you see a beautiful [[Meadow]] on the right. The Tennants House seems to terminate the lane, from thence it turns up a Gentle declivity to the Mansian, of which you see the Top of a Red roof on the left over the hill. formerly a road went over this hill at the dotted lines.” [Fig. 9]

[[File:0088.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''View to the North from the [[Lawn]] at [[Mount Vernon]]'', 1796.]]
*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1927: 174)<ref name="Elbridge">Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Back of the mansion is a summer house, which commands an elegant '''view''' of the Potomac.” [Fig. 10]

*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1927: 180–81)<ref name="Elbridge"></ref>

:“A door opens at each end, one into the hall, and opposite, one into the [[terrace]], from whence you have an elegant '''view''' of all the rivers &c.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], November 22, 815, in a letter to his daughter, Angelica Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 43)<ref name="Rudnytzky">Kateryna A. Rudnytzky, “The Union of Landscape and Art: Peale’s Garden at Belfield” (Honors thesis, LaSalle University, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KJK46QBZ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have also painted. . . a tolerable large Landscape almost finished, it is a '''View''' of the Garden and most of the Buildings, as seen from what we call my [[seat]] in the Walk to the mill,—difficult part in it, that is, a representation of the down hill or rather Valley between the point of sight and the Garden—
:“The whole comprehending a tolerable handsome '''View''', including Trees of various folliages— But what must render this Picture more interesting, will be some Portraits setting on the Bench under a Beach Tree, (as yet a Small Tree) but being the nearest object, it must be most distinctly finished, The declining [[Meadow]] will form a charming background for the figures on the Bench. There should also be figures in various parts of the Ground to give animation to the sciene, all of which are yet to be done. I intend it for the Museum when finished to my mind I wish I could have you as one of the figure on the Bench.”

*[[Peale, Charles Willson]], August 4, 1816, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (quoted in Rudnytzky 1986: 44)<ref name="Rudnytzky"></ref>

:“I have been so long neglecting the '''view''' I am about in [the] garden that the trees & [[shrubbery]] have grown so high that I cannot represent them truly without almost totally hiding the [[walk]]s, therefore I shall prefer leaving out many of them—and also make them smaller.”

*Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, DC (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, DC: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"ANNALOSTAN ISLAND
: . . . Annalostan Island is evidently of modern formation. . . The highest [[eminence]], on which the house stands, is fifty feet above the level of the river. The common tide rises to the height of three feet. I can never forget how de-lighted I was with my first visit to this island. The amiable ladies whom I had the pleasure to accompany, left their carriage at Georgetown, and we walked to the mansion-house under a delicious shade. The blossoms of the cherry, apple, and peach trees, of the hawthorn and aromatic [[shrub]]s, filled the air with their fragrance. . . The house, of a simple and neat form, is situated near that side of the island which commands a '''view''' of the Potomac, the President's House, Capitol, and other buildings. The garden, the sides of which are washed by the waters of the river, is ornamented with a variety of trees and [[shrub]]s, and, in the midst, there is a [[lawn]] covered with a beautiful verdure. The [[Summerhouse|summer-house]] is shaded by oak and lin-den-trees, the coolness and tranquility of which invite to contemplation. The refresh-ing breezes of the Potomac, and the gentle murmuring of its waters against the rocks, the warbling of birds, and the mournful as-pect of the weeping-willows, inspire a thousand various sensations. What a delicious shade-

:"Ducere sol[l]icitae jucunda oblivia vitae"

:The '''view''' from this spot is delightful. It embraces the [[picturesque]] banks of the Po-tomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the bridge terminates the '''view'''. . . A few feet below the [[Summerhouse|sum-mer-house]] the rocks afford the [[seat]]s, where those who are fond of fishing may indulge in this amusement. From the [[portico]] on the oppo-site [139] side of the house, Georgetown, Calorama, the beautiful [[seat]] of Joel Barlow, Esq. and the adjacent finely-wooded hills, appear a '''vista'''."

*Forman, Martha Ogle, April 29, 1819, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 80)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>

:“I have never seen Rose Hill look more beautiful. When the cherry trees on the [[lawn]] are in full bloom, and the Apple trees unfolding their lovely blossoms, it forms a most pleasing '''view''' of nature.”

*Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Monte Video, property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, CT (1824: 12–15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From this place [the summit] you have a '''view''' of the [[lake]], of the boat at anchor on its surface, gay with its streamers and snowy awning: of the white building at the north extremity of the water, and, (rising immediately above it,) of forest trees and bold rocks, intermingled with each other, and surmounted by the Tower. . .
:“Along this road the house, the tower, the [[lake]], &c. occasionally appear and disappear, through the openings in the trees; in some parts of it, all these objects are shut from your '''view'''; and in no part is the distant '''view''' seen, until passing through the last group of [[shrubbery]] near the house, you suddenly find yourself within a few [[yard]]s of the brow of the mountain, and the valey with all its distinct minuteness, immediately below, where every object is as perfectly visible, as if placed upon a map. . .
:“Everything in this '''view''', is calculated to make an impression of the most entire seclusion; for, beyond the water, and the open ground in the immediate neighbourhood of the house, rocks and forests alone meet the eye, and appear to separate you from all the rest of the world. But at the same moment that you are contemplating this picture of the deepest solitude, you may without leaving your place, merely by changing your position, see through one of the long Gothic windows of the same room, which reach to a level with the turf, the glowing western valley, one vast sheet of cultivation, filled with inhabitants, and so near, that with the aid only of a common spy-glass, you distinguish the motions of every individual who is abroad in the neighbouring village, even to the frolicks [sic] of the children, and the active industry of the domestic fowls, seeking their food, or watching over, and providing for their young. From the same window also, when the morning mist, shrouding the world below and frequently hiding it completely from '''view''', still leaves the summit of the mountain in clear sunshine, you may hear through the dense medium, the mingled sounds, occasioned by preparation for the rural occupations of the day.
:“The other branch of the path, after leaving the defile, passes to the east side of the northern ridge, and thence you ascend through the [[wood]]s, to its summit, where it terminates at the Tower, standing within a few rods of the edge of the precipice. The tower is a hexagon, of sixteen feet diameter, and fifty-five feet high; the ascent, of about eighty steps, on the inside, is easy, and from the top which is nine hundred and sixty feet above the level of Connecticut river, you have at one '''view''', all those objects which have been seen separately from the different stations below. The diameter of the '''view''' in two directions, is more than ninety miles, extending into the neighbouring states of Massachusetts and New-York, and comprising the spires of more than thirty of the nearest towns and villages.”

*Coolidge, Ellen Wayles Randolph, 1825, describing Mount Holyoke, MA (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:109)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the top of Mount Holyoke, which commands, perhaps, one of the most extensive '''views''' in these States, the whole country, as you look down upon it resembles one vast garden divided into [[parterre]]s.”

*Sheldon, John P., December 10, 1825, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Gibson 1988: 5)<ref>Jane Mork Gibson,“‘The Fairmount Waterworks,” ''Bulletin, Philadelphia Museum of Art'' 84 (1988): 5–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RZEZDDEN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Delightful [[seat]]s, surrounded by various kinds of trees and [[shrubbery]], with gardens containing summer houses, '''vistas''', embowered [[walk]]s, &c meet your '''view''' in almost every direction, [[wood]]s sloping gently to the river’s edge, by the side of smooth [[lawn]]s, add to the pleasing variety of the scene; and the [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill]], with its noble dam and [[bridge]]s serves as a most beautiful finish to the foreground.”

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 17, 1828, describing Montpelier, plantation of James Madison, Montpelier Station, VA (1906: 233)<ref>Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. by Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were at first conducted into the Drawing room, which opens on the back [[Portico]] and thus commands a '''view''' through the whole house, which is surrounded with an extensive [[lawn]], as green as in spring; the [[lawn]] is enclosed with fine trees, chiefly forest, but interspersed with weeping willows and other ornamental trees, all of most luxuriant growth and vivid verdure. It was a beautiful scene!”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/283TSTEV? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the [[piazza]], and from the bank on the west side of the house we have a charming '''view''', extending to the opposite side of the river, of the blue summits of the Catskill mountains, and many gentlemen’s [[seat]]s, and cultivated farms.”

*Breck, Joseph, February 1, 1836, describing Bellmont Place, residence of John Perkins Cushing, Watertown, MA (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 43)<ref>Joseph Breck, “Gardens, Hot-Houses, &c., in the Vicinity of Boston,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (February 1, 1836): 41–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IK2ZAWSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the mansion from the road is by a winding [[avenue]] through a fine [[grove]] of ancient deciduous trees. The first '''view''' of the garden and ranges of glass structure, as we emerged from the [[grove]], was truly magnificent.”

*Lyell, Sir Charles, 1846, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight [[walk]]s with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by '''views''' into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing Baltimore, MD (1850: 332–33)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening, new ed., corr. and improved'', (London: Longman et al., 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“856. ''[[Public Garden]]s''. . .
:“''At Baltimore'', the public [[walk]] is along a fine [[terrace]] belonging to a fort nobly situated on the Patapsco, and commanding the approach from Chesapeake Bay, and a magnificent '''view''' of the city and river. . .” <ref>Loudon 1850, vol. II, 303, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG? view on Zotero].</ref>
{{break}}

===Citations===

*Dezallier d’Argenville, Antoine-Joseph, 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 13)<ref> A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dezallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . ,'' trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE fourth Thing required in a good Situation, is, the '''View''' and [[Prospect]] of a fine Country.”

*[[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xviii–xix)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A Pavillion design’d for Sir ''John Curzon'' for his [[Seat]] near ''Derby''. It is a Cube of 20 feet, adorn’d with three Venetian Windows, circular Niches for Busto’s [''sic''], and an Entablature supported by Rustick Coines. There were two of them to have been built opposite to one another, on each side of a '''Vista''' proposed to be cut through a [[Wood]], and to be terminated with an [[Obelisk]] upon a Hill fronting the House; the execution of which was prevented by Sir ''John’s'' Death.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc.,1728; repr., London: Garland: 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c.''. . .
:“III. That '''Views''' in Gardens be as extensive as possible.
:“IV. That such [[Walk]]s, whose '''Views''' cannot be extended, terminate in [[Wood]]s, Forests, mishapen Rocks, strange Precipices, Mountains, old Ruins, grand Buildings, ''&c''.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . .'', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“GLADE, in agriculture, gardening, &c.a '''vista''', or open and light passage, made through a thick [[wood]], [[grove]], or the like; by lopping off the branches of trees along the way. See [[AVENUE]], GROVE, ''&c''.”

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 639–41)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE buildings admitted into gardens may be arranged under two general heads; those which are erected as objects in themselves, and those from which [[prospect]]s and other objects are to be viewed. The first are the principal in their nature and purpose: they require elegance, and the eye expects something in them worthy to detain its attention. The places for these in a good garden are to be variously chosen; on [[eminence]]s, or in shadowy scenes: to terminate the '''view''' as objects, or to surprise the unexpecting eye in a recess of contemplation. We have observed that in many places '''views''' are to be closed; as where the nature of the ground requires it; or where an unpleasing [[prospect]] or object is to be shut out: the [[seat]], building, [[temple]], or whatsoever name or rank its form or bigness give it, is to be accommodated to all these considerations. Where the sole intent is to admit a [[prospect]], and give repose after walking, the form may be plain and simple, convenient and unornamented. . .
:“When a garden is already made in an ill spot, all that can be done is to open agreeable '''views''' by clearing away [[wall]]s and [[hedge]]s in the ground; and trees, and sometimes even buildings, when ill-placed, ill-looking and of little value: this is to be done when something pleasing, some '''view''' of elegant, wild nature can be let in; and where that cannot be, some [[pavilion]], such as we have described, or shall describe, must shut out unalterable deformity.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . '', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''VIEW''', vu’. s. [[Prospect]]; sight, power of beholding; act of seeing; sight, eye; survey, examination by the eye; intellectual survey; space that may be taken in by the eye, reach of sight; appearance, show; display, exhibition to the sight or mind; [[prospect]] of interest; intention, design.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1:260, 263)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . '', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE [[WALK]], in extensive grounds, is as necessary as the [[Fence]]. The beauties of the place are disclosed that they may be seen; and it is the office of the [[walk]] to lead the eye from '''view''' to '''view'''. . .
:“THE direction of the [[walk]] ought to be guided by the ''points of '''view''''' to which it leads. . .
:“[[Seat|SEATS]] have a two-fold use; they are useful as places of rest and conversation, and as guides to the points of '''view''', in which the beauties of the surrounding scene are disclosed. Every point of '''view''' should be marked with a [[seat]], and, speaking generally, no [[seat]], ought to appear, but in some favourable point of '''view'''.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 74 and 153)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“it is hardly possible to convey an adequate and distinct idea of those numerous objects so wonderfully combined in this extensive '''view'''; the house, the church, the [[lawn]]s, the [[wood]]s, the bold promontory of Beechy Head, and the distant plains bounded by the sea, are all collected in one splendid picture, without being crowded into confusion.
:“This '''view''' is a perfect ''landscape'', while that from the tower is rather a ''[[prospect]]''; it is of such a nature as not to be well represented by painting; because its excellence depends upon a state of atmosphere, which is very hostile to the painter’s art. . .
:“Yet the summit of a naked brow, commanding '''views''' in every direction, may require a covered [[seat]] or [[pavilion]]; for such a situation, where an architectural building is proper, a circular [[temple]] with a dome, such as the [[temple]] of the Sybils, or that of Tivoli, is best calculated.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 100)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE Kitchen-garden is a principal district of garden-ground allotted for the culture of all kinds of esculent herbs and roots for culinary purposes, &c. . . .
:“As to the situation of this garden, with respect to the other districts. . . it should generally be placed detached entirely from the pleasure-ground; also as much out of '''view''' of the front of the habitation as possible, at some reasonable distance, either behind it, or towards either side thereof, so as its [[wall]]s or other [[fence]]s may not obstruct any desirable [[prospect]] either of the pleasure-garden, fields, or the adjacent country.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 472)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''view''' FROM the house, and TO the house, cannot always be consulted with mutual improvement. When a high [[terrace]] with ornaments which appear to mark the boundary of the architect’s province, is interposed between the house and the [[lawn]], the '''view''' immediately under the windows cannot certainly be so pleasant as if the house stood in a verdant field:—but let the [[prospect]] be reversed, and every stranger will see more grandeur in the house connected by a [[terrace]] with the garden; and perhaps among the spectators under the influence of cultivated taste, a few may think such a gradation conduces to general harmony.”

*Nicol, Walter, 1823, ''The Villa-Garden Directory'' (1823: 4–5)<ref>Walter Nicol, ''The Villa-Garden Directory, or Monthly Index of Word, to Be Done in Town and Villa Gardens, Shrubberies and Parterres'' (Edinburgh: Archibald Constable, 1823), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DF9Z32E5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Next to the error of rearing high [[fence]]s, is that of bounding the whole premises by a close and connected belt of [[shrubbery]]. . .
:“from no point can a '''view''' of distant objects be had, without being interrupted by this [[edging]]; which is perplexing to the eye, in a great measure, although the situation of the house may be such as to admit of looking over it.
:“Instead of this formal belt or [[edging]], a few festoons or groups of various dimensions, being hung on the outer [[fence]], with intervening single trees, sometimes pretty close to the groups, and sometimes more detached, so as to form irregular '''vistas''', would be more airy, and also more in character here.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''VIEW''', ''n. vu''. [[Prospect]]; sight; reach of the eye. . .

::“2. The whole extent seen. . .

::“3. Sight; power of seeing, or limit of sight. . .

::“4. Intellectual or mental sight. . .

::“5. Act of seeing. . .

::“6. Sight; eye. . .

::“7. Survey; inspection; . . .

::“9. Appearance; show. . .

::“10. Display; . . .

::“11. [[Prospect]] of interest.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 127–28, 130)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In forming [[plantation]]s of trees and shrubs, so as to produce a pleasing landscape effect, few rules can be given which would apply generally. . .
:“In grounds of any considerable extent, the '''view''' of the whole should never be taken in at once; but it should be so divided into different scenes or compartments, which may be bounded by trees, that only a small part is visible at first to the spectator; but as he advances new and varied [[prospect]]s open upon him, so that he is agreeably surprised to find, that what at first seemed to terminate his view, only served to introduce him to new beauties. . .
:“At favorable points, and those only, should the '''view''' be left open for more distant scenes. Sometimes by a judicious arrangement, the same objects seen from different places, may be made to present quite different aspects by appearing to group differently. The [[walk]] should be so directed as not to exhibit these '''views''' except at the most advantageous points. A bend in a [[walk]] should always exist from some cause either real or apparent. . .
:“If it [the house] is situated on an [[eminence]], the back as well as front '''view''' may be exhibited to great advantage, and the effect will be heightened if a '''view''' of water can be then enjoyed. Limited [[prospect]]s and neighboring buildings not worthy of notice, may be concealed by [[plantation]]s of trees. The appearance of distance may be increased by planting trees of dark green and large dense foliage on the foreground, and those of light and airy foliage in the distance; this will produce the same effect as shades in a landscape picture. Trees and shrubs in front of the house should be planted and pruned so as to present a chaste and neat appearance; imitations, therefore, of the wilder scenes of nature, such as rocks, [[cascade]]s, old trees, and festoons of climbing plants, should be situated back and more remote.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 444)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . . still another most delightful scene is reserved, a so-called Rococo garden. . . A garden, laid out in this manner, demands much cleverness and skill in the gardener. . . Around it the most charming landscape open to the '''view''', gently swelling hills, interspersed with pretty village, gardens and grounds. In the plan of the garden, ''a'' and ''b'' are massed of [[shrub]]s; ''c'', circular [[bed]]s, separated by a border or belt of turf, ''e'', from the serpentine [[bed]], ''d''. The whole of this running pattern is surrounded by a border of turf, ''f''; ''g'' and ''h'' are gravel [[walk]]s; i, [[bed]]s, with pedestal and [[statue]] in the centre; ''k'', small oval [[bed]]s, separated from the [[bed]], ''l'', by a border or turf; ''m, n, o, p'', irregular arabesque [[bed]], set in turf."

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVSJBZIX/q/wyllys view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To command a '''view'''—to have the advantage of shade, and shelter, and water—to have the barn and out-buildings near, yet not conspicuous; to permit of easy drainage from the cellar, if it is necessary; to be easy of access from the highway; these are to be considered.”

[[File:0376.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country Seat, after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), p. 114, fig. 24. Downing notes with dotted lines that “fine distant views are had through the vistas in the lines ''e e.''”]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 113–14)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“a ground plan of the place is given, as it would appear after having been judiciously laid out and planted, with several years’ growth. . . It will be seen here, that one of the largest masses of [[wood]] forms a background to the house, concealing also the outbuildings; while, from the windows of the mansion itself, the trees are arranged so as to group in the most pleasing and effective manner; at the same time broad masses of turf meet the eye, and fine distant views are had through the '''vistas''' in the lines ''e e''.” [Fig. 11]

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1850, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1850: 1239)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (Springfield, MA: George and Charles Merriam, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9Z9HAK7E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''VIS’TA''', ''n''. [It., sight; from L. ''visus'', ''video''.]
:“A ''view'' or [[prospect]] through an [[avenue]], as between rows of trees; hence, the trees or other things that form the [[avenue]].
:“The finished garden to the '''view'''
:“Its '''''vistas''''' opens and its [[alley]]s green. ''Thomson''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], March 1850, “How to Arrange Country Places” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 396)<ref>A. J. Downing, “How to Arrange Country Places,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 9 (March 1850): 393–96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7HNUGQK2/q/how%20to%20arrange view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The first principle in ornamental planting, is to study the ''character of the place'' to be improved, and to plant in accordance with it. If your place has breadth, and simplicity, and fine open '''views''', plant in groups, and rather sparingly, so as to heighten and adorn the landscape, not shut out and obstruct the beauty of [[prospect]] which nature has placed before your eyes.”

[[File:1660.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of conservatory designed for gentleman's country seat, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), 95, fig. 32.]]
*Robert B. Leuchars, describing a ground plan of conservatory, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850: 94-95) <ref>Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of conservatory designed for gentleman's country seat, in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of Hothouses'' (1850), 94-95, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/AFVF753S view on Zotero].</ref>
:REFERENCE TO FIG. 32
:''A, A, A, A, A, A'', [[Bed]]s in which the plants are set out and arranged according to their methods of growth, habits, height, &c.
:''B'', Water Tank, with [[jet]] in the centre. This tank is surrounded by [[Rockwork|rock-work]] and characteristic plants.
:''C, C'', [[Seat]]s on each side of the [[jet]], commanding, also, '''views''' of the surrounding grounds.
:''D, D, D, D'', Conduit for the hot-water pipes, for warming the structure. This open conduit passes along the wall the whole length and breadth of the house, and is covered with grating, which serves as a path for watering, and conducting the necessary operations connected with the culture of the plants.
:''E, E, E'', an open Balcony, passing all round the house, and surrounded by a balustrade. This balcony forms a continuation of the [[porch]] on the one side, and runs out upon the ground-level on the other. From this balcony are seen the garden, the [[lake]]s, the [[hot-house]], and the ornamental grounds. The chief purpose of this balcony, however, is to maintain the ground-level of the floor, and to make the [[conservatory]] in harmony with the mansion, without destroying its adaptability as a first-rate plant-house, of that class intended for growing large specimens, planted out in the ground.
:''F'', Steps, leading from the balcony into the [[pleasure-ground]]s.
:''G'', Door opening from the drawing-room.
:''H'', [[Rockwork|Rock-work]] for alpine plants, surrounding the aquarium and [[jet]].

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1391.jpg|Batty Langley, “Frontispieces of [[Trellis]] Work for the Entrances into [[Temple]]s of '''View''', [[Arbor]]s, Shady [[Walk]]s, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII.

File:0245.jpg|Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A '''View''' of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.

File:0925.jpg|William Burgis, ''A South East '''View''' of ye Great Town of Boston in New England in America'', 1743.

File:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A '''View''' of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

File:0189.jpg|Thomas Coram, '''''View''' in St. James’s Goose Creek, Charles Glover, Esqr.'', 1792.

File:0140.jpg|Thomas Coram, '''''View''' in St. James’s Goose Creek, Charles Glover, Esqr.'', 1792.

File:0027.jpg|Rufus Hathaway, ''A '''View''' of Mr. Joshua Winsor's House &c.'', 1793-95

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], '''''View''' of [[Mount Vernon]] looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A '''View''' of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

File:0408.jpg|David Leonard, ''A S. W. '''view''' of the College in Providence, together with the President’s House & Gardens'', c. 1795.

File:0088.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], '''''View''' to the North from the [[Lawn]] at [[Mount Vernon]]'', 1796.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, '''''View''' of Baltimore from Howard Park'', c. 1796.

File:1138.jpg|William Groombridge, '''''View''' of [[Lemon Hill]]'', c. 1800.

File:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

File:0136.jpg|Anonymous, '''View''' of Annapolis from Strawberry Hill, 1805.

File:0326.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The '''View''' from Springland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 2.

File:0731.jpg|William Russell Birch, '''''View''' from Springland'', c. 1808.

File:0876.jpg|Unknown, '''View''' of the Battery Looking North from the Churn, c. 1812.

File:0164.jpg|Joshua H. Hayward, “A '''View''' of the [[Seat]] of Theodore Lyman, Esqr., in Waltham, taken on the principles of perspective,” Mathematical Thesis, 1818.

File:0517.jpg|Joshua Tucker, ''South East '''View''' of Greenvill[e], SC'', possibly 1825.

File:1367.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], In planting with a '''view''' to natural beauty, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1008, fig. 691.

File:1792.jpg|Thomas Cole, '''''View''' of Monte Video, the [[Seat]] of Daniel Wadsworth, Esq.'', 1828.

File:2014.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Front '''View''' of [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520A.

File:0152.jpg|George Hayward after J. Anderson, '''''View''' of The [[Belvedere]] Club House 1794'', 1828.

File:1027.jpg|Anonymous, “'''View''' of [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836): 234.

File:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A '''View''' of the Fairmount Water-Works with [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill]] in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

File:1114.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “'''View''' from Ruggle’s House, Newburgh (Hudson River),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 1, pl. 25.

File:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''[[Picturesque]] '''View''' of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

File:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], '''''View''' N. W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.

File:0894.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, Sketch of '''view''' from J.C. Mallory’s property, 1841–44.

File:1975.jpg|James Smillie (artist), “'''View''' from Battle Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 79.

File:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “'''View''' in the Grounds at [[Hyde_Park_(on_the_Hudson_River,_NY)|Hyde Park]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

File:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country Seat, after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. Downing notes with dotted lines that “fine distant '''views''' are had through the vistas in the lines ''e e.''”

File:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, '''''View''' of Washington'', c. 1850.

File:1970.jpg|James Smillie and E. G. Dunnel (engraver), “[[view|VIEW]] FROM MOUNT AUBURN, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'',” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 112.

File:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, '''''View''' of Washington'', 1852.

</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0845.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, '''View''' of water with islands (Hyde Park), n.d.

File:0846.jpg|Alexander Jackson Davis, ''From [[Montgomery_Place|Montgomery Pl.]] looking up river'', n.d.

File:1055.jpg|Michael van der Gucht, “Four Designs for Cloisters,” in A.-J. Dézallier d'Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712), pl. 9.

File:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728).

File:0343.jpg|George Isham Parkyns, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1795.

File:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,” 1800.

File:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

File:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

File:0320.jpg|William Russell Birch, “York-Island, with a '''View''' of the [[Seat]]s of M.r A. Gracie, M.r Church &c.,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 17.

File:0873.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''Washington, looking up Pennsylvania [[Avenue]] from the [[Terrace]] of the Capitol'', 1809–34.

File:0116.jpg|Charles Willson Peale, Sketches of [[Belfield]], 1810.

File:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from ''A Map of the City of Washington'', 1818.

File:0251.jpg|Charles Codman, ''Kalorama'', c. 1820.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

File:1052.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.

File:1298.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, '''''View''' of the Waterworks at Fairmount'', 1835–36.

File:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.

File:1103.jpg|W. Mason, “[[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” c. 1841, in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Reports of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]]: With a Sketch of Its History, Buildings, and Organization'' (1851), frontispiece.

File:0328.jpg|Anonymous, “Front '''View''' of the Mansion at [[Mount Vernon]],” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on agriculture from His Excellency George Washington. . .'' (1847), opp. 14.

File:1503.jpg|Anonymous, "The Rococo Garden of Baron Hügel, near Vienna," ''Horticulturist,'' vol. 1, no. 10 (April 1847), pl. opp. 441.

File:1660.jpg|Robert B. Leuchars, Ground plan of [[conservatory]] designed for gentleman’s country [[seat]], in ''A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating, and Ventilation of [[Hothouse]]s'' (1850), 95, fig. 32.

File:1265.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: '''View''' of Barn Complex and Gardens'', 1852.

File:1266.jpg|Henry Gritten, ''Springside: '''View''' of Gardener’s Cottage and Barns'', 1852.

File:0047.jpg|Anna Peale Sellers, after [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[Belfield]] Farm, Germantown, PA'', Late 19th century.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

File:0844.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[Montgomery Place]]-Shore [[Seat]]'', n.d., drawing. The Alexander Jackson Davis Sketchbook, c. 1830–50.

File:1388.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a Garden and [[Wilderness]] in an Island,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XV.

File:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748–50.

File:0037.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''William Paca'', 1772.

File:0271.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Mrs. John Watson'', 1791. This portrait features a view of the sitter’s estate.

File:0278.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain John Pratt (1753–1824)'', 1792.

File:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793.

File:0522.jpg|Joseph Steward, ''John Phillips (1719–1795), Dartmouth Trustee, 1773–1793'', 1794–96.

File:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], '''''View''' of [[Mount Vernon]] looking towards the South West'', 1796.

File:1925.jpg|Alexander Robertson, Cleremont the [[seat]] R. R. Livingston, 1796.

File:0509.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Rice Hope'', c. 1803.

File:0742.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Design for a Garden for George Reed, New Castle, Delaware'', c. 1805.

File:0297.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Archibald Robertson, ''Hobuck'', 1808.

File:0323.jpg|William Russell Birch, “'''View''' from the Elysian Bower, Springland, Pennsylva, the residence of M.r W. Birch,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808), pl. 20.

File:2248.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Sweet Briar'', c. 1808. Corcoran Collection (Museum Purchase through a gift of Philip Alexius de Laszlo)

File:2104.jpg|Firm of Joseph Stubbs, decoration after Thomas Birch, Soup plate with '''view''' of [[Lemon Hill]], c. 1825

File:1987_2.jpg|Tucker Factory, Vase with view of Springland, 1828–1836.

File:1941.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, ''Residence of John Adams and John Quincy Adams'', 1831.

File:0486.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay & Harbour of New York, From the Battery,” in ''Bourne '''Views''' of New York'' (1831), plate 8.

File:0739.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Landsdown,” before 1834.

File:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

File:0464.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

File:1458.jpg|Henry Cheever Pratt, ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

File:0727.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.

File:1675.jpg|Anonymous, Vignette of contrasting garden styles, in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), 17.

File:0438.jpg|Anonymous, ''Leaving the Manor House'', c. 1850-55.

File:0435.jpg|Edward Hicks, ''The Cornell Farm'', 1848.

File: 2284.jpg|Middleton Wallace & Co., ''Wilberforce University, Xenia, Ohio. (The colored peoples college)'', c. 1850-60.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references>
</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Vision]]

File:0100 detail.jpg

2021-03-31T14:17:29Z

A-Whitlock:

John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe [detail], 1793, ink and watercolor. Manuscripts and Archives Department, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

Temple

2021-03-31T14:16:21Z

A-Whitlock:

See also: [[Hermitage]], [[Icehouse]], [[Pavilion]], [[Summerhouse]].

==History==
[[File:1711.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William and John Halfpenny, “The Plan and Elivation of a Temple, or Summer House, on a Tarras, In the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 44.]]
[[File:1736.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Batty and Thomas Langley, “Gothick [''sic''] Temple,” in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 57.]]
In architectural history, the term temple was derived from at least two design traditions—the classical and the [[Chinese manner|Chinese]]. The temple in the American garden was a structure that could assume many stylistic variants and could adapt to a range of scales and locations. To illustrate this point, consider the temple that was dressed in the [[Chinese manner|Chinese style]] at [[Belfield]] in Germantown, Pennsylvania, the Gothic at [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] in Cambridge, and the Grecian at [[Monticello]]. [[Charles Willson Peale|Charles Willson Peale’s]] Chinese temple at [[Belfield]] was intended for meditation and reflection because, he claimed, the Chinese were great philosophers.<ref>Therese O’Malley, “Charles Willson Peale’s Belfield, Its Place in American Garden History,” in ''New Perspectives on Charles Willson Peale'', ed. Lillian B. Miller and David C. Ward (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press for the Smithsonian Institution, 1991), 272, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E69HMAT6 view on Zotero].</ref> In the treatise ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), William and John Halfpenny illustrated an elaborate temple, replete with Chinese statuary [Fig. 1]. On a more practical level, [[A. J. Downing]] showed in his treatise how the application of zigzag wooden latticework could transform a simple temple structure into one “in Chinese taste.” [[James Gibbs|James Gibbs’s]] ''Book of Architecture'' (1728) provided [[Thomas Jefferson]] with classical models of temples, while Batty and Thomas Langley’s ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747) offered a range of designs in the “Gothick” mode [Fig. 2].

[[File:0075.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Design for a garden temple and [[dovecote]] at [[Monticello]], c. 1778.]]
The temple in its classical form became an icon of the American republic. The association of Roman virtue with agriculture resulted from the 18th-century rediscovery of ancient texts by Virgil and Pliny the Younger, who had written about husbandry, villas, and [[plantation]]s. Early Americans embraced classical republican imagery in the design of their gardens, which reaffirmed the agrarian ideal through the use of ornament and inscription, as well as through the celebration of the farm and garden. At [[Gray’s Garden]] in Philadelphia, a “federal” temple was built to celebrate the ratification of the Constitution. The structure was composed of a rotunda in which the interior space was defined by thirteen [[column]]s representing the thirteen original colonies. Patriotic interpretations of the classical temple form were also to be found in private gardens. For example, [[Charles Willson Peale|Peale’s]] [[Belfield]] also had a classical temple with thirteen [[column]]s, which was surmounted by a bust of George Washington in place of a traditional Roman one.

[[File:1229.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Houses and a church. Garden temple elevations and floor plan, c. 1795–99.]]
At Grants Hill in Pittsburgh, small temples were built, each in a different order of architecture. [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] likewise planned several temples for his [[plantation]] at [[Monticello]] of varying stylistic forms—Chinese, Gothic, and classical. Some of these designs exemplify [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson’s]] interest in archaeology while others illustrate his highly imaginative recreations of historical styles. [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] relied upon his excellent library of architectural treatises for models, and for some projects he copied elements from the Lantern of Demosthenes, the temple at Chiswick by Lord Burlington, and the Chinese pagoda at Kew Gardens. In another instance, he invented a Gothic variant for a design.<ref>William L. Beiswanger, “The Temple in the Garden: Thomas Jefferson’s Vision of the Monticello Landscape,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (January 1983): 170–88, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/849ZBZWI view on Zotero].</ref>

Temples also varied widely in scale. The Temple of Solitude at the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, Pennsylvania, was intended, presumably, for one person to occupy alone. [[Vauxhall Garden]] in New York, on the other hand, featured another nationally inspired temple, the Grand Temple of Independence, which was an impressive twenty feet in diameter, the same in height, and was crowned by a bust of George Washington. The temple type was at times used either to decorate or to disguise utilitarian structures; examples include the [[icehouse]] at Montpelier, the [[dovecote]] [Fig. 3] and out-chamber at [[Monticello]] [[[#Fig_6|See Fig. 6]]], and [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe’s]] garden temple [Fig. 4]. As [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] instructed, temples often were isolated in the garden, placed on top of [[mount]]s, or in [[wood]]s that were gloomy and evergreen. One such example is an 1804 sketch by [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] for the location at [[Monticello]] of a temple (or a [[seat]]) at the center of a spiral [[labyrinth]] [[[#Fig_7|See Fig. 7]]]. Another example, a “rustic temple,” published in the ''Horticulturist'' in 1847, is shown at the edge of the [[lake]] at [[Montgomery Place]] in Dutchess County, New York [[[#Fig_10|see Fig. 10]]]. With this type of siting, temples provided a retreat for meditation. In the novel ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (1798), the temple was placed at the top of a rock, far from the house. It was a place of resort and instruction and held a harpsichord and a piece of sculpture.

The term “temple” was often used interchangeably with “[[pavilion]],” “pleasure” or “garden house,” and “[[summerhouse]],” all referring to lightweight structures within the garden or landscape (see [[Pavilion]], [[Pleasure ground]], and [[Summerhouse]]). Like them, the temple served as a viewing platform, as a visual punctuation in the garden scene, and as a shelter and resting place within the landscape.

—''Therese O’Malley''

<hr>

==Texts==

===Usage===

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro’ a broad gravel [[walk]], to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]]. . . we left the garden for a [[wood]] cut into [[vista|Visto’s]], in the midst a chinese '''temple''' for a [[summer house|summer house]]. . .”

[[File:0074.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower beds and proposed temples at the corners of the terrace walks at Monticello, before August 4, 1772.]]
<div id="Fig_6"></div>[[File:0076.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Design for a decorative outchamber at Monticello, c. 1778. [[#Fig_6_cite|back up to History]]]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 25–26)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“choose out for a Burying place some unfrequented vale in the [[park]], where is, ‘no sound to break the stillness but a brook, that bubbling winds among the weeds; no mark of any human shape that had been there, unless the skeleton of some poor wretch, Who sought that place out to despair and die in.’ let it be among antient [''sic''] and venerable oaks; intersperse some gloomy evergreens. the area circular, abt. 60 f. diameter, encircled with an untrimmed [[hedge]] of cedar, or of stone [[wall]] with a holly [[hedge]] on it in the form below in the center of it erect a small Gothic '''temple''' of antique appearance. appropriate one half to the use of my own family, the other of strangers, servants, etc. erect pedestals with [[urn]]s, etc., and proper inscriptions. the passage between the [[wall]]s, 4 f. wide. on the grave of a favorite and faithful servant might be a pyramid erected of the rough rock-stone; the pedestal made plain to receive an inscription. let the exit of the spiral at (a) look on a small and distant part of the blue mountains. in the middle of the '''temple''' an altar, the sides of turf, the top of plain stone. very little light, perhaps none at all, save only the feeble ray of an half extinguished lamp. . .

:“a few feet below the spring level the ground 40 or 50 f. sq. let the water fall from the spring in the upper level over a [[terrace]] in the form of a [[cascade]]. then conduct it along the foot of the [[terrace]] to the Western side of the level, where it may fall into a cistern under a '''temple''', from which it may go off by the western border till it falls over another [[terrace]] at the Northern or lower side. let the '''temple''' be raised 2. f. for the first floor of stone. under this is the cistern, which may be a [[bath]] or anything else. the 1st story arches on three sides; the back or western side being close because the hill there comes down, and also to carry up stairs on the outside. the 2d story to have a door on one side, a spacious window in each of the other sides, the rooms each 8. f. cube; with a small table and a couple of chairs. the roof may be Chinese, Grecian, or in the taste of the Lantern of Demosthenes at Athens.” [Fig. 5 and 6]

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 415)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At every turn shaded [[seat]]s are artfully contrived,and the ground abounds with [[arbor|arbours]], [[alcove]]s, and [[summerhouse|summer houses]], which are handsomely adorned with odoriferous flowers. Among these the little federal '''temple''' claims the principal regard. It is the very edifice, that upon the celebration of the ratification of the constitution, was carried in triumphant procession through the streets of this metropolis; and, upon a gentle acclivity,upon the summit of a green [[mound]] in fixed, it hath now obtained a basis. It is a Rotunda, its cupola is supported by thirteen [[pillar]]s handsomely finished; their base, is to receive the cypher of the several states, which they represent, with a star upon every capital, and its top is crowned with the figure of Plenty grasping the cornucopia and other insignia. The ascent to this '''Temple''' is easy, and we gain it by the semicircular steps neatly turned, and the [[view]] therefrom is truly interesting.”

*Anonymous, August 27, 1795, describing in the ''Alexandria Gazette'' a tavern property in Annapolis, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)

:“Indian Queen. FOR SALE, THAT well known Tavern and Stage House. . . The out-buildings are, a coach house, a wash-house, billiard-house, a small office and an excellent '''temple'''.”

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, PA (1798: 9, 24–25) <ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>

:“At the distance of three hundred [[yard]]s from his house, on the top of a rock whose sides were steep, rugged, and encumbered with dwarf cedars and stony asperities, he built what to a common eye would have seemed a [[summerhouse|summer-house]]. The eastern verge of this precipice was sixty feet above the river which flowed at its foot. The [[view]] before it consisted of a transparent current, fluctuating and rippling in a rocky channel, and bounded by a rising scene of cornfields and [[orchard]]s. The edifice was slight and airy. It was no more than a circular area, twelve feet in diameter, whose flooring was the rock, cleared of moss and shrubs, and exactly levelled, edged by twelve Tuscan [[column]]s, and covered by an undulating dome. My father furnished the dimensions and outlines, but allowed the artist whom he employed to complete the structure on his own plan. It was without [[seat]], table, or ornament of any kind.

:“This was the '''temple''' of his Deity. . .

:“[years later] The '''temple''' was no longer assigned to its ancient use. From an Italian adventurer, who erroneously imagined that he could find employment for his skill, and sale for his sculptures in America, my brother had purchased a bust of Cicero. He professed to have copied this piece from an antique dug up with his own hands in the environs of Modena. Of the truth of his assertions we were not qualified to judge; but the marble was pure and polished, and we were contented to admire the performance, without waiting for the sanction of connoisseurs. We hired the same artist to hew a suitable pedestal from a neighbouring quarry. This was placed in the '''temple''',and the bust rested upon it. Opposite to this was a harpsichord, sheltered by a temporary roof from the weather. This was the place of resort in the evenings of summer. Here we sung, and talked, and read, and occasionally banqueted. Every joyous and tender scene most dear to my memory, is connected with this edifice. Here the performances of our musical and poetical ancestor were rehearsed. Here my brother’s children received the rudiments of their education; here a thousand conversations, pregnant with delight and improvement, took place; and here the social affections were accustomed to expand, and the tear of delicious sympathy to be shed.”

*Anonymous, July 6, 1799, describing in the ''Spectator'' [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (quoted in Eberlein and Hubbard 1944: 171)<ref>Harold Donaldson Eberlein and Cortlandt Van Dyke Hubbard, “The American ‘Vauxhall’ of the Federal Era Article Stable,” ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' (April 1944): 68, 150–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RVGSTS36 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“His beautiful garden was opened at 6 o'clock in the morning, and the colours were hoisted under a discharge of 16 guns. The 16 [[summerhouse|summer houses]] being the names of the Sixteen United States, each were decorated with the Emblematical Colours belonging to each State, and ornamented with Flowers and Garlands. At 5 o'clock in the evening, the sixteen colours of each [[summerhouse|Summer-house]] were carried,at the sound of the music, to the Grand '''Temple''' of Independence, which is 20 feet diameter, and 20feet high. . . in the middle of which was presented,the Bust of the great Washington as large as life, and near him a Grand Gold [[Column]], representing the Constitution, and below the said [[Column]] the Figure of Fame, 6 feet high, presenting to him with one hand a Crown of Laurel, and with the other holding a Trumpet, announcing to the public that she crowns Real Merit. Round the Pedestal were seen Military Trophies. The sixteen colours above mentioned were placed round the Pedestal, at the sound of Martial Music—and at each colour being placed round the Bust it was announced by the firing of cannon.”

<div id="Fig_7"></div>[[File:0090b.jpg|thumb|450 px|Fig. 7, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory” [detail], c. 1804. [[#Fig_7_cite|back up to History]]]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (Massachusetts Historical Society, Coolidge Collection, manuscript N171; K162)

:“at the Rocks build a turning Tuscan '''temple''' 10 f. diam. 6 [[column]]s proportions of Pantheon. . .

:“at the Point build Demosthenes’s lantern. . .

:“The best way of forming [[thicket]] will be to plant it in [[labyrinth]] spirally, putting the tallest plants in the center and lowering gradation to the external termination. a [''sic''] '''temple''' or [[seat]] may be in the center, thus leaving space enough between the rows to [[walk]] & to trim up, replant [a three pronged diagram of] the shrubs. . . . [Fig. 7]

:“'''Temples''' or [[seat]]s at those spots on the [[walk]]s most interesting either for [[prospect]], or the immediate scenery.

:“The Broom [[wilderness]] on the South side to be improved for winter walking or riding, conducting a variety of roads through it, forming chambers with [[seat]]s, well sheltered from winds, &spread before the sun. a '''temple''' with yellow glass panes would suit these, as it would give the illusion of sunshine in cloudy weather.”

[[File:0587.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.]]
*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], June 12, 1804, describing the Carroll Garden, Annapolis, MD (Miller et al., eds., 1988: 2:704)<ref name="Miller et al">Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735–1791,'' vol. 2, ''The Artist as Museum Keeper, 1791–1810'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“at each end of the [[wall]] is an octagon Building projecting beyond it, one is a [[summerhouse|''Summer'' House]] & probably the other is a '''Temple''', it is locked up, &at first sight they might be thought to be intended for such purposes but on finding that one has no holes, People are naturally led to believe that the internal structure is similar, since the outsides are perfectly so.” [Fig. 8]

*Cuming, Fortescue, 1810, describing Grants Hill, property of Col. James O'Hara, Pittsburgh, PA (1810: 226)<ref>Fortescue Cuming, ''Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country'' (Pittsburgh: Cramer, Spear and Eichbaum, 1810), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EFUIGI3M view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Was the general to fence it in, [[terrace]] it, which could be done at a small expense, ornament it with [[clump]]s of evergreens and flowering shrubs,and erect a few banqueting houses in the forms of small '''temples''' according to the different orders of architecture, it would be one of the most beautiful spots, which not only America, but perhaps any town in the universe could boast of.”

*Waln, Robert, Jr., 1825, describing the Friends Asylum for the Insane, near Frankford, PA (1825: 232–33)<ref>Robert Waln Jr., "An Account of the Asylum for the Insane, Established by the Society of Friends, near Frankford, in the Vicinity of Philadelphia," ''Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences'' 1 (new series) (1825): 225–51, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D39BHTPH view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A shaded, serpentine [[walk]], now skirting the edge of the [[wood]], now plunging into its dark and dependent foliage, and embracing, in its windings, more than a mile, leads over a neat and lightly constructed [[bridge]], to a pleasure-house, which might justly be termed the '''Temple''' of Solitude. It is securely founded on a rock, which juts abruptly forth from the declivity of a steep hill, three sides of which are almost perpendicular, and of considerable height. . . The straight and towering tulip-tree, the sturdy oak, the chestnut, and the beech, cast their cool shadows around this wood-embossed abode of contemplation. . . The light and airy fabric, perched on the brow of the rock, could alone betray to the enchanted visiter [''sic''], that this sweet, lonely, and romantic retreat, had ever before been explored by man.”

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], c. 1825, describing New York, NY (Miller et al., eds., 2000: 5:248)<ref>Lillian B. Miller et al., eds., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family: Charles Willson Peale: Artist in Revolutionary America, 1735–1791,'' vol. 5, ''The Autobiography of Charles Willson Peale'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Walking with Mrs. Peale one evening to take the fresh air at the Battery, in those pleasant gravelly [[walk]]s skirted with Trees. Adjoining to these [[pleasure ground]]s they observed places of entertainment brilliantly lighted up with lamps and to regaile the Ear a variety of Musick—they are called Gardens, small but neatly fitted up with boxes and [[seat]]s, [[walk]]s divided by small [[bed]]s of flowers. In the center of that they visited was a circular sort of '''Temple''' with an ornamented [[vase]] in the center, round the cornich [cornice] of this '''temple''' a considerable number of lamps, the light of which shew a number of small [[jet]]s from the [[vase]]of waters thrown as high as the cornish. perhaps this [[fountain]] gets its supply of water from some resevoir in the adjacent building, and by pipes beneath the [[walk]]s conveyed to the [[Vase]]. They paid 1/4$ for each ticket, which purchases Ice creams, Cakes or other refreshments as may be choosen to the value. There was another Garden near this where the company are regailled with vocal musick.”

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, "On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens" (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, “On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens,” ''New England Farmer'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and [[picturesque]] gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, Chinese, Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, '''Temples''', [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to.”

*Story, Joseph, September 24, 1831, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (1831: 29)<ref>Joseph Story, ''An Address Delivered on the Dedication of the Cemetery at Mount Auburn'' (Boston: Joseph T. and Edwin Buckingham, 1831), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ABFHUWTP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Whenever the funds of the corporation shall justify the expense, it is proposed that a small Grecian or Gothic '''Temple''' shall be erected on a conspicuous eastern [[eminence]], which in reference to this allotment has received the prospective name of '''Temple''' Hill.”

[[File:1475.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Cortlandt V. D. Hubbard (photographer), The Billiard Room, State Road vicinity, Andalusia, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, spring 1968.]]
*Biddle, Jane, September 14, 1835 or 1836, describing Andalusia, seat of Nicholas and Jane Biddle, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Wainwright 1976: 24)<ref>Nicholas B. Wainwright, ''Andalusia: Countryseat of the Craig Family and of Nicholas Biddle and His Descendants'' (Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7P57ZBW view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The carpenters have begun upon the Billiard Room, & we find that one part of the plan cannot be accomplished, that of raising the little '''temple''' in proportion to what is taken off it by the slanting roof. It has therefore at present so clumsy an appearance that I have stopped them from going on till you can see it. . . They hung a pair of shutters between the [[pillar]]s, which improved the appearance of it, but does not destroy the bad effect of concealing parts of the [[pillar]].” [Fig. 9]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, September 1845, describing its annual exhibition in Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 99)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“John Maguire, gardener to Joshua Longstreth, exhibited ‘a large round '''temple''' about sixteen feet in height terminating with a cone-shaped spire of one-third its altitude, enveloped with green and flowers in profusion.’”

<div id="Fig_10"></div>[[File:0359.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, "The [[Lake]]," [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27. [[#Fig_10_cite|back up to History]]]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 2: 158)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Visit to Montgomery Place,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS/q/montgomery%20place view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . we suddenly behold, with a feeling of delight, THE [[LAKE]].

:“Nothing can have a more charming effect than this natural mirror in the bosom of the valley. It is a fine expansion of the same stream, which farther down forms the large [[cataract]]. Here it sleeps, as lazily and glassily as if quite incapable of aught but reflecting the beauty of the blue sky, and the snowy clouds, that float over it. On two sides, it is overhung and deeply shaded by the bowery [[thicket]]s of the surrounding [[wilderness]]; on the third is a peninsula, fringed with the graceful willow, and rendered more attractive by a ''rustic'' '''''temple'''''; while the fourth side is more sunny and open, and permits a peep at the distant azure mountain tops.

:“This part of the grounds is seen to the most advantage, either toward evening, or in moonlight. Then the effect of contrast in light and shadow is most striking, and the seclusion and beauty of the spot are more fully enjoyed than at any hour. Then you will most certainly be tempted to leave the curious rustic [[seat]], with its roof wrapped round with a rude entablature like Pluto’s crown; and you will take a seat in ''Psyche’s boat'', on whose prow is poised a giant butterfly, that looks so mysteriously down into the depths below.” [Fig. 10]

{{break}}

===Citations===

[[File:1715.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[James Gibbs]], “The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in the form of a Temple,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 67.]]
*[[James Gibbs|Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xviii, xix)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'', 2nd ed. (London: W. Innys and R. Manby, 1739), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z8U3MQ7H view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in form of a '''Temple''', made for a Person of Quality, and propos'd to have been placed in the Center of four [[Walk]]s; so that a [[Portico]] might front each [[Walk]]. Here is a large Octagonal Room of 22 feet and 26 feet high, adorn'd with Niches and crown'd with a Cupola. All the Ornaments of the Inside are to be of Plaister; and the Outside of Stone. . . [Fig. 11]

:“A circular Building in form of a '''Temple''', 20 feet in Diameter, having a Peristylium round it of the Dorick Order, and adorn'd with a Cupola; erected in his Grace the Duke of ''Bolton’s'' Garden at ''Hackwood'', upon the upper ground of an Amphitheatre, back'd with high Trees that render the [[Prospect]] of the Building very agreeable.”

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''TEMPLE''', in architecture.—The ancient '''''temples''''' were distinguished, with regard to their construction, into various kinds; as,

:“'''TEMPLE''' ''in antae''. . .

:“''Tetrastyle''-'''TEMPLE'''. . .

:“''Prostyle''-'''TEMPLE'''. . .

:“''Amphiprostyle, or double prostyle''-'''TEMPLE'''. . .

:“''Periptere''-'''TEMPLE'''. . .

:“''Diptere''-'''TEMPLE'''.”

*Ware, Isaac, 1756, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (1756: 636, 641, 650)<ref>Isaac Ware, ''A Complete Body of Architecture'' (London: T. Osborne and J. Shipton, 1756), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EK2USKV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The first principle is here that there be space to walk, and [[seat]]s to rest. These must be proportioned also to one another: it would be absurd to terminate a vast [[walk]] with a plain bench; nor less ridiculous to erect a pompous '''temple''' where there was not the extent of a hundred [[yard]]s from the building. . .

:“He who would know where to place his [[pavilion]], [[seat]], or '''temple''', in a garden, must first understand what the purpose of it is, and what the true beauty and excellence of the garden itself. . .

:“Thus may the [[grove]]s be constructed ornamentally to the other parts of the garden, elegant and pleasing in themselves, and fit to form recesses in which to place [[statue]]s, '''temples''', and other structures.”

*Whately, Thomas, 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 128–29)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The choice of situations is also very free; circumstances which are requisite to particular structures, may often be combined happily with others, and enter into a variety of compositions. . . A Grecian '''temple''', from its peculiar grace and dignity, deserves every distinction; it may, however, in the depth of a [[wood]], be so circumstanced, that the want of those advantages to which it seems entitled, will not be regretted.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . '', 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''TEMPLE''', tem’pl. s. . . an ornamental building in a garden.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1:265)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . '', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THERE is another species of useless ornament, still more offensive, because more costly, than those comparatively innocent eye-traps; we mean '''TEMPLES'''. Whether they be dedicated to Bacchus, Venus, Priapus, or any other god or goddess of debauchery, they are, in this age, enlightened with regard to theological andscientific knowledge, equally absurd.”

*[[Bernard M'Mahon|M'Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 58, 64)<ref>Bernard M'Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In various parts of the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]], leave recesses and other places surrounded with [[clump]]s of trees and shrubs, for the erection of garden edifices, such as '''temples''', [[grotto]]s, rural [[seat]]s, [[statue]]s, &c. . . .

:“In some spacious [[pleasure ground|pleasure-grounds]] various light ornamental buildings and erections are introduced, as ornaments to particular departments; such as '''temples''', [[bower]]s, banquetting houses, [[alcove]]s, [[grotto]]s, rural [[seat]]s, cottages, [[fountain]]s, [[obelisk]]s, [[statue]]s, and other edifices; these and the like are usually erected in the different parts, in openings between the divisions of the ground, and contiguous to the terminations of grand [[walk]]s, &c.

:“Some of these kinds of ornaments, however, being very expensive, are rather sparingly introduced; sometimes a '''temple''' is presented at the termination of a grand [[walk]] or opening, or sometimes a '''temple''', banqueting-house, or [[bower]] is erected in the centre of some spacious opening or grass-ground in the internal divisions."

[[File:1355.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[J. C. Loudon]], "Grecian temple," in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 809, fig. 562.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 356, 809)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“1808. '''''Temples''''', either models or imitations of the religious buildings of the Greeks and heathen Romans, are sometimes introduced in garden-scenery to give dignity and beauty. In residences of a certain extent and character, they may be admissible as imitations, as resting-places, and as repositories of sculptures or antiquities. Though their introduction had been brought into contempt by its frequency, and by bad imitations in perishable materials, yet they are not for that reason to be rejected by good taste. They may often add dignity and a classic air to a scene; and when erected of durable materials, and copied from good models, will, like their originals, please as independent objects. . .
:“6156. ''Decorations in [[shrubbery|shrubberoes]]''. Those of the [[shrubbery]] should in general be of a more useful and imposing character than such as are adopted in the [[flower garden|flower-garden]]. . .Open and covered [[seat]]s are necessary, or, at least, useful decorations, and may occur here and there in the course of the [[walk]], in various styles of decoration, from the rough bench to the [[rustic style|rustic]] hut. . . and Grecian '''temple'''. (''fig''. 52)" [Fig. 12]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“TEM'PLE, ''n''. [Fr.; L. ''templum''; It. ''tempio''; Sp. ''templo''; W. ''temyl'', '''temple''', that is extended, a [[seat]]; ''temlu'', for form a [[seat]], expanse or '''temple'''; Gaelic, ''teampul''.]

:“1. A public edifice erected in honor of some deity. Among pagans, a building erected to some pretended deity, and in which the people assembled to worship.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 581)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''TEMPLES''' dedicated to some deity of the heathen mythology, as to Pan in a [[grove]], or to Flora among bright sunny [[parterre]]s, are not inappropriate, if the extent of the grounds and the expenditure on their management allow them to be of that size, and of that correctness of style, which can alone give the classic air and dignity which are their only sources of pleasure.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1848, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/CPFBIUCV/q/hints%20and%20designs view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It must be a very highly finished scene, and a garden where all the details are in a very decided and ornate style of art, in which marble '''temples''', [[statue]]s, or even highly finished [[pavilion]]s and [[summerhouse|summer-houses]], may be introduced with harmony and propriety.”

[[File:1418.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, [[J. C. Loudon]], “View from the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Temple,” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''Gardener’s Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 651, fig. 162.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: repr., 1991: 382–83, 456, 507)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson]Downing, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America, 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Grecian architecture in its pure form, viz. the '''''temple''''', when applied to the purposes of domestic life, makes a sad blow at both these established rules [of fitness and expression of purpose]. . .

:“The '''temple''' and the [[pavilion]] are highly finished forms of covered [[seat]]s, which are occasionally introduced in splendid places, where classical architecture prevails. . .

:“86, The [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] '''temple''', on the highest part of the [[mount]] formed of the soil taken from the excavation now constituting the [[pond]]. The [[view]] from the interior of this '''temple''' is shown in Fig. 9, p. 504. [Fig. 13]

:“87, Rustic steps descending from the Chinese '''temple''' to the [[walk]] which borders the [[pond]].”

<hr>

==Images==

===Inscribed===


<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1391.jpg|Batty Langley, “Frontispieces of [[Trellis]] Work for the Entrances into '''Temples''' of [[View]], [[Arbor]]s, Shady [[Walk]]s, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII.

Image:1393.jpg|Batty Langley, “Shady [[walk]]s with '''Temples''' of [[Trellis]] work after the grand manner of Versailles,” and “An [[Avenue]] in Perspective, terminated with the ruins of an ancient Building after the Roman manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XXII.

Image:1715.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], “The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in the form of a '''Temple''',” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 67.

Image:1718.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], “A Circular Building in the Form of a '''Temple''',” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 72.

Image:1736.jpg|Batty and Thomas Langley, “Gothick [''sic''] '''Temple''',” in ''Gothic Architecture'' (1747), pl. 57.

Image:1711.jpg|William and John Halfpenny, “The Plan and Elivation of a '''Temple''', or [[Summerhouse|Summer House]], on a Tarras, In the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] Taste,” in ''Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste'' (1755), pl. 44.

Image:0429.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], A '''temple''' for a garden at [[Monticello]] (after Gibbs), c. 1780.

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. “The '''Temples''' of Cloacina. . . I would wish to have concealed as much as possible. . .”

Image:0100_detail.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe [detail], 1792.

Image:0090b.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory” [detail], c. 1804. “The best way of forming [[thicket]] will be to plant it in [[labyrinth]] spirally. . . a '''temple'''. . . may be in the center”

Image:1355.jpg|[[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|J. C. Loudon]], “Grecian '''temple''',” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), p. 809, fig. 562.

Image:1418.jpg|[[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|J. C. Loudon]], “[[View]] from the [[Chinese_manner|Chinese]] '''Temple''',” Cheshunt Cottage, in ''Gardener’s Magazine'' 15, no. 117 (December 1839): 651, fig. 162.

Image:2112.jpg|James Fuller Queen, '''''Temple''' in Pratt’s Garden on the Schuylkill'', recto, 1840.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0074.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower [[bed]]s and proposed temples at the corners of the [[terrace]] [[walk]]s at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.

Image:0076.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Design for a decorative outchamber at [[Monticello]], c. 1778.

Image:0587.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan of the Harbour and City of Annapolis'', 1781.

Image:0359.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Lake]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 158, fig. 27.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

Image:1475.jpg|Cortlandt V. D. Hubbard (photographer), The Billiard Room, State Road vicinity, Andalusia, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, Spring 1968.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">
Image:1744.jpg|[[James Gibbs]], “Four [[Summerhouse|Summer-houses]] in form of Temples,” in ''A Book of Architecture, containing designs of buildings and ornaments'' (1728), pl. 79.

Image:0075.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Design for a garden temple and [[dovecote]] at [[Monticello]], c. 1778.

Image:0430.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], A garden temple at [[Monticello]] (after Gibbs), c. 1780.

Image:0059.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Houses and a church. Spring house—elevation and plan, 1795–99.

Image:1229.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Houses and a church. Garden temple elevations and floor plan, c. 1795–99.

Image:1230.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Houses and a church. Side elevation and basement floor plan, c. 1795–99.

Image:1231.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Houses and a church. Lodge—Sections showing interior elevation, c. 1795–99.

Image:0009_detail2.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], Letter to Angelica Peale describing his garden at [[Belfield]] [detail], November 22, 1815.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:0044_detail4.jpg| [[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'' [detail], 1816.

Image:0646.jpg|Anonymous, “Montpelier, Va., the Seat of the late James Madison,” 1835.

Image:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Shrubbery]] and [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.

Image:0853.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Octagonal Garden Structure for [[Montgomery Place]]'', c. 1850

Image:0843.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], [[Montgomery Place]], n.d.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

<hr>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Architecture]]

Square

2021-03-31T14:15:54Z

A-Whitlock:

See also: [[Bed]], [[Common]], [[Green]], [[Park]], [[Quarter]]

==History==
[[File:0245.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 1, Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A View of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.]]
In landscape design vocabulary, the term square had three distinct usages derived from its definition as a geometric shape with four right angles and four equal sides. First, “square” referred to square- or rectangular-shaped [[bed]]s and cultivated areas and was often used to describe the divisions within [[nursery|nurseries]], [[kitchen garden]]s, and [[flower garden]]s. This usage was apparent in 1799 when John Latta described the [[flower garden]] at [[Mount Vernon]], and also in 1800 when the ''Federal Gazette'' noted Adrian Valeck’s garden in Baltimore. Used in this sense, the term generally came to be subsumed under the wider terms “[[bed]]” and “[[plot]]” during the early 19th century. Second, the square represented a division of property within a city or town in a grid or orthogonal pattern, as reflected in descriptions of New Haven, Connecticut, by [[Manasseh Cutler]] (1787) and Jedidiah Morse (1789), and a report on Washington, DC, by [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]] (1791). J.-P. Brissot de Warville in 1788 used both senses of the term in his description of the [[bed]]s in the [[State House Yard]] and the grid plan of the entire city of Philadelphia.

[[File:0462.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, [[Samuel Vaughan]], “Warm or [[Berkeley Springs]], in Virginia,” 1787, from the diary of Samuel Vaughan, June–September 1787.]]
Third, and most significantly, square was used to denote a public space. An early and important example is William Penn’s 1683 plan for the city of Philadelphia, which broke from a strict grid to preserve public spaces, called squares, which would remain open for communal use. In 1734, Savannah, Georgia, was laid out with reserved open squares around which building lots were arranged [Fig. 1]. Imported from European urban planning traditions, the open square was a feature in the settlements throughout the New World. Although Spanish, French, Dutch, and German colonies designated the spaces as ''plaza'', ''place d’arms'', ''platz'', and so forth, English-speaking visitors generally described these spaces as squares. They even extended application of the term to Native American settlements, as attested by [[William Bartram|William Bartram’s]] 1791 description of a town in Cuscowilla, Georgia ([[#Bartram|view text]]). Furthermore, in the English colonies, writers often used the term “square” to refer to an area that elsewhere was described as a [[green]], [[yard]], or [[common]]. New Haven Green, University of Virginia, and [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia are all examples of this broader application of the term.

[[File:0974.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Joseph Jacques Ramée, “Monument to the memory of general George Washington, to be erected at Baltimore,” 1813.]]
[[File:0412.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Military academy. Principal story, floor plan, 1800.]]
Squares marked the termination of major streets and [[avenue]]s and provided visual focal points at intersections [Fig. 2].<ref>For an in-depth treatment of early American squares, see John W. Reps, ''The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z3R75RFG view on Zotero], and Carl Feiss, “Early American Public Squares,” in ''Town and Square, from the Agora to the Village: Instruments of Social Reform'', ed. Paul Zucker (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 237–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RMTCSZD4 view on Zotero].</ref> Urban squares were often the setting for monuments, as in Joseph Jacques Ramée’s design for the [[Washington Monument (Baltimore)| Washington Monument]] in Baltimore [Fig. 3], and for public buildings, such as court houses, meeting houses, market houses, and magazines. As [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant]] noted, the [[statue]]s, [[column]]s, and [[obelisk]]s that ornamented many squares not only commemorated celebrated heroes of the past, but also served as instructive examples to the present generation of proper patriotic behavior. Squares often became centers of neighborhood or civic identity, as was the case with Union Square in New York and Rittenhouse Square in Philadelphia. A 1704 resolution of the House of Burgesses of Virginia in Williamsburg suggested that the scale and
openness of squares were ideally suited to position institutions of authority. As a result, squares were used as sites for civic displays, such as a parade of the Salem, Massachusetts, regiment held in 1808. [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] in 1800 indicated a square in his plan for a military school, a space that could be used for drilling and exercises, and that could be kept easily under surveillance [Fig. 4].

[[File:0880.jpg|thumb|left|252px|Fig. 5, James Stoddert, A ground [[Plot|plat]] of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].]]
In addition to public squares, American towns occasionally included smaller residential versions of the same feature. Surrounded by private houses and intended for the recreation and enjoyment of immediate residents, these often-gated residential squares were included in the early plan of Bloomsbury Square in Annapolis, Maryland, as seen in James Stoddert’s plan of 1718 [Fig. 5]. Similar residential squares, such as Gramercy Square in New York and Louisburg Square in Boston, continued to be constructed throughout the period under study, although they never reached the popularity of their London counterparts developed after the Great Fire of 1666.<ref> Feiss, “Early American Public Squares,” 245, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RMTCSZD4 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0521.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public Square, Philadelphia'', 1824.]]
Both residential and public squares provided a venue for garden or landscape design within the city. Many squares were initially grass lots, divided by [[walk]]s or paths, and planted with trees in fairly simple configurations, as at New Haven Green. In the 19th century more elaborate designs became common. [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Benjamin Henry Latrobe’s]] 1819 design for Place d’Armes (renamed Jackson Square) in New Orleans [[[#Fig_13|See Fig. 13]]], and William Rush’s 1824 plan for Franklin Public Square in Philadelphia [Fig. 6], exemplify the inclusion of intricate [[walk]]s and planting [[bed]]s, statuary, and ironwork [[fence]]s and [[gate]]s that marked these squares as ornamental—clearly intended for leisure and recreation and not as pastures for cows or drilling militia. Of particular note is the installation of [[fountain]]s made possible by the introduction of pressurized water systems. These [[fountain]]s set in public squares and [[park]]s became prominent symbols of civic achievement and pride.

An account of the improvements planned for Richmond’s Capitol Square in 1851 conveys the appeal of a “delightful resort” in a growing urban center, typical of mid-19th-century public landscape design projects. The attraction of these urban cases, however, went beyond aesthetics. Writers such as William A. Alcott (1838) and Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline) Tuthill (1848) argued that the healthful and moral benefits of these public spaces should be available to all classes. The opportunity that squares afforded for recreation, light, fresh air, and a mixing of the citizenry propelled these landscapes into instruments of social reform.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
[[File:0144.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Thomas Holme, “A Portraiture of the City of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania in America,” 1681.]]
*Penn, William, August 16, 1683, describing Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Blome 1687: 110)<ref>Richard Blome, ''The Present State of His Majesties Isles and Territories in America'' (London: H. Clark, 1687), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKGSW3DC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are also in each [[Quarter]] of the City, a '''Square''' of eight Acres to be for the like uses, as the ''Moor-fields'' in ''London''.” [Fig. 7]

[[File:0882.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), after 1800.]]
*House of Burgesses of Virginia, May 8, 1704, describing resolutions pertaining to construction in Williamsburg, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“The House took into consideration the report of the Committee appointed to view the '''Square''' markt out belonging to the Capitol and after some time spent therein came to these resolutions following. Resolved. That the Public Prison be included within the Bounds appropriated to the Capitol and that the said bounds already ascertained for the said Capitol be continued from the main road just before the door of One of the Capitol houses to the extent of forty one poles to the Post on the West side of the spring, thence fourteen poles to the corner of the ditch, thence along the said Ditch thirty poles and a half to a post by the said Ditch and from thence to the beginning place.” [Fig. 8]

*Ross, George, March 1, 1727, describing Newcastle, DE (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“In the middle of the Town lies a spacious [[green]] in form of a '''square''', in a corner whereof stood formerly a Fort &c.”

*Prentis, Joseph, 1784, describing his garden in Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 344)<ref name="Lounsbury">Carl R. Lounsbury, ed., ''An Illustrated Glossary of Early Southern Architecture and Landscape'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UK5TCUQQ view on Zorero].</ref>
:“. . . sowed Pease in the '''Square''' next Chimney. . . Glory of England, sowed same Day in '''Square''' next Street.”

*Washington, George, February 12, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig 1978: 4:89)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976-79), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CKQVPUC3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Planted Eight young Pair Trees sent me by Doctr. Craik in the following places—viz.
:“2 Orange Burgamots in the No. Garden, under the back [[wall]]—3d. tree from the Green House at each end of it.
:“1 Burgamot at the Corner of the [[border]] in the South Garden just below the necessary.
:“2 St. Germians, one in each [[border]] (middle thereof) of the upper '''Square''’s by the Asparagas [[Bed]] & Artichoake Ditto upper bordr.
:“3 Brown Beuries in the west '''square''' in the Second flat—viz. 1 on the [[border]] (middle thereof) next the [[Fall/Falling_garden|Fall]] or [[Terrace|slope]]—the other two an the [[border]] above the [[walk]] next the old Stone [[Wall]].”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 3, 1787, describing New Haven, CT, and his plans for the Ohio Company (1987: 1:218, 330–31)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The city of New Haven covers a large piece of ground, a little descending toward the sea, with a southern aspect. It is laid out in regular '''square''’s, with a public '''square''' near the center. Its streets are tolerably wide, and some of them ornamented with rows of trees. There is a row of trees set round the public '''square''', which were small while I was at college, but are now large, and add much to its beauty; a row across the center has been very lately set out, in a line with the State House, two large Meeting Houses and the Grammar School. Within the '''square''', and on the [[border]]s of others adjoining, are six steeples and cupolas on public buildings, within a very small compass of ground.
:“You will see, by the inclosed, that our ideas of streets, and the width of front lots, nearly correspond with yours. I am not, however, pleased with the size nor form of our '''squares'''. It is proposed that there should be nine lots on a side, and four at the end, which I think will have too much of the oblong. Were the ends increased, though, I should prefer an oblong to a '''square'''; the effect would be more pleasing to the eye, and not less convenient. The rear, which I think is now too scanty, might be increased, and the whole of the lots more uniform. The plan we have formed was, unavoidably, done in a hasty manner, without drawing it on paper, and will, I think, be somewhat altered. It is our intention to set rows of mulberry trees, immediately, on each side of the streets, at the distance of ten or fifteen feet from the line on which the houses are to be built. They will make an agreeable shade, increase the salubrity of the air, add to the beauty of the streets, and, what we have principally in view, afford food for an immense number of silk-worms.”

*Brissot de Warville, J.-P., 1788, describing Philadelphia, PA (1792: 316–17)<ref>J.-P. (Jacques-Pierre) Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States of America, Performed in 1788'', ed. Durand Echeverria, trans. Maro S. Vamos and Durand Echeverria (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RB4EKFVG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Behind the State-house is a [[public garden]]; it is the only one that exists in Philadelphia. It is not large; but it is agreeable, and one may breathe in it. It is composed of a number of verdant '''squares''', intersected by [[alley]]s.
:“All the space from Front-street on the Delaware to Front-street on the [[Schuylkill_River|Skuylkill]], is already distributed into '''squares''' for streets and houses.”

[[File:1010.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 9, James Wadsworth, “Plan of the City of New Haven,” 1748.]]
*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing New Haven, CT (quoted in Morse 1970: 221)
:“The town was originally laid out in '''squares''' of sixty rods. Many of these '''squares''' have been divided by cross streets. . . Near the centre of the city is the public '''square'''; on and around which are the public buildings. . .The public '''square''' is encircled with rows of trees, which render it both convenient and delightful. Its beauty, however, is greatly diminished by the [[burial ground]], and several of the public buildings, which occupy a considerable part of it.” [Fig. 9]

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing an Indian town in Cuscowilla, GA (1928: 167–68)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Upon our arrival we repaired to the public '''square''' or council-house, where the chiefs and senators were already convened. . .
:“The banquet succeeded; the ribs and choicest fat pieces of the bullocks, excellently well barbecued, were brought into the apartment of the public '''square''', constructed and appointed for feasting.”

*Bentley, William, June 12, 1791, describing Pleasant Hill, seat of Joseph Barrell, Charlestown, MA (1962: 1:264)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[June] 12. Was politely received at dinner by Mr Barrell, & family, who shewed me his large & elegant arrangements for amusement, & philosophic experiments. . . His Garden is beyond any example I have seen. . . The '''Squares''' are decorated with Marble figures as large as life. No expense is spared to render the whole amusing, instructive, & friendly.”

[[File:1134.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 10, [[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States. . . ,” August 1791. The square is labelled "L".]]
*[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant|L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], August 19, 1791 and January 4, 1792, describing his plans for Washington, DC (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 157, 165)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The grand [[avenue]] connecting the palace and the Federal House will be magnificent. . . as also the several '''squares''' which are intended for the Judiciary Courts, the National Bank, the grand Church, the play house, markets and exchange, offering a variety of situations unparallelled for beauty, suitable for every purpose, and in every point convenient, calculated to command the highest price at a sale.
:“The '''Squares''' colored yellow, being fifteen in number, are proposed to be divided among the several States of the Union, for each of them to improve, or subscribe a sum additional to the value of the land; that purpose and the improvements around the '''Square''' to be completed in a limited time.
:“The center of each '''Square''' will admit of [[Statue]]s, [[Column]]s, [[Obelisk]]s, or any other ornament such as the different States may choose to erect: to perpetuate not only the memory of such individuals whose counsels or Military achievements were conspicuous in giving liberty and independence to this Country; but also those whose usefulness hath rendered them worthy of general imitation, to invite the youth of succeeding generations to tread in the paths of those sages, or heroes whom their country has thought proper to celebrate.
:“The situation of these '''Squares''' is such that they are the most advantageously and reciprocally seen from each other and as equally distributed over the whole City district, and connected by spacious [[avenue]]s round the grand Federal Improvements and as contiguous to them, and at the same time as equally distant from each other, as circumstances would admit. The Settlements round those '''Squares''' must soon become connected.” [Fig. 10]

*Tucker, St. George, May 28, 1795, describing Williamsburg, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“Near the center of the town there is a pleasant '''square''' of about ten acres, which is generally covered with a delightful verdure.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing Newburyport, NH, and Boston, MA (1821: 1:439, 489–91)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels; in New-England and New-York'', 4 vols. (New Haven: The Author, 1821–22), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHBP7TH2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ground, on which the former church, belonging to the same congregation [Presbyterian], stood, was purchased for $8,000; and devoted for ever to the purpose of enlarging a small public '''square'''. . .
:“A handsome lot has been purchased by Moses Brown, Esq. in front of one of the churches, for $13,000; and appropriated for ever, as an open '''square''', to the use of the public; an act of liberality, which needs no comment.
:“Boston contains one hundred and thirty-five streets, twenty-one lanes, eighteen courts, and, it is said, a few '''squares''': although, I confess, I have never seen any thing in it, to which I should give that name. . .
:“It is remarkable, that the scheme of forming public '''squares''', so beautiful, and in great towns so conducive to health, should have been almost universally forgotten. Nothing is so cheerful, so delightful, or so susceptible of the combined elegancies of nature and art. On these open grounds the inhabitants might always find sweet air, charming [[walk]]s, [[fountain]]s refreshing the atmosphere, trees excluding the sun, and, together with fine flowering shrubs, presenting to the eye the most ornamental objects, found in the country. Here, also, youth and little children might enjoy those sports, those voluntary indulgences, which in fresh air, are, peculiarly to them, the sources of health and the prolongation of life. Yet many large cities are utterly destitute of these appendages; and in no city are they so numerous, as the taste for beauty, and a regard for health, compel us to wish.”

*Latta, John, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Martin 1991: 143)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The garden is very handsomely laid out in '''squares''' and flower knots and contains a great variety of trees, flowers and plants of foreign growth collected from almost every part of the world.”

*Beebe, Lewis, 1800, describing a Mr. Pratt’s garden (exact location undetermined) (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Journal of Beebe Lewis, 1799–1801)<ref>Lewis Beebe, ''Lewis Beebe Journal, 1776–1801,'' [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/V2B6NEAQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Likewise the [[border]] of every '''square''' is impossible for me to describe. The remaining parts of each '''square''' within the [[border]], is planted with beans, pease, cabbage, onions, Betes, carrots, Parsnips, Lettuse, Radished, Strawberries, cucumbers, Potatoes, and many other articles.”

*Anonymous, June 14, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' the estate of Adrian Valeck, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 136)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A large garden in the highest state of cultivation, laid out in numerous and convenient [[walk]]s and '''squares''' bordered with [[espalier]]s, on which. . . the greatest variety of fruit trees, the choicest fruits from the best nurseries in this country and Europe have been attentively and successfully cultivated. . . Behind the garden in a [[grove]] and [[shrubbery]] or bosquet planted with a great variety of the finest forest trees, oderiferous & other flowering shrubs etc.”

[[File:0669.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 11, Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''View of the Water Works at Centre Square Philadelphia'', c. 1812.]]
*Scott, Joseph, 1806, describing Centre Square, Philadelphia, PA (1806: 25–26)<ref>Joseph A. Scott, ''Geographical Description of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Printed by R. Cochran, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/55XKIWPN view on Zotero..]</ref>
:“The water-works of Philadelphia are the most extensive of their kind of any in America. . . The water is discharged into a circular aqueduct, extending along Chestnut and Broad streets, into the middle of Market-street, in the centre '''square'''. . . In the centre '''square''', upon Market-street, is a marble edifice, which receives the water from Schuylkill. It also contains a steam engine, which raises the water to a reservoir, whence it descends into wooden pipes, which convey it through the city. The building in the centre '''square''', is a '''square''' of sixty feet, with a Doric [[portico]] on the east and west fronts.” [Fig. 11]

[[File:0001.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 12, George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.]]
*Anonymous, October 15, 1808, describing Salem, MA (''Essex Register'')
:“On Wednesday last the Salem Regiment, the Cadets, the Artillery and the Cavalry, formed a line on Washington '''Square''', and were inspectedand reviewed by the proper officers. The appearance of the whole line was highly gratifying to the spectators. In the afternoon the imitation of battle was performed with spirit and precision; and very much to the satisfaction of the military men.” [Fig. 12]

*Ramsay, David, 1809, describing Charleston, SC (1858: 128)<ref>David Ramsay, ''Ramsay’s History of South Carolina, from Its First Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808'' (Newberry, SC: W. J. Duffie, 1858), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U7WGSJWE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“About the year 1755 Henry Laurens purchased a lot of four acres in Ansonborough, which is now called Laurens’s '''square''', and enriched it with everything useful and ornamental that Carolina produced or his extensive mercantile connections enabled him to procure from remote parts of the world. Among a variety of other curious productions, he introduced olives, capers, limes, ginger, guinea grass, the alpine strawberry, bearing nine months in the year, red raspberrys, blue grapes; and also directly from the south of France, apples, pears, and plums of fine kinds, and vines which bore abundantly of the choice white eating grape called Chasselates blancs. The whole was superintended with maternal care by Mrs. Elinor Laurens with the assistance of John Watson, a complete English gardener.”

*Martin, William Dickinson, May 21, 1809, describing Princeton, NJ (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“In front of it [the College] is a very handsome green '''square''' of about four Acres, enclosed in a railing, & produces very fine herbage. It is attached to the College as a place of recreation & amusement for the students.”

*Proceedings of the Corporation, December 10, 1810, describing the [[Elgin Botanic Garden]], New York, NY (quoted in Hosack 1811: 51)<ref>David A. Hosack, ''Statement of Facts Relative to the Establishment and Progress of the Elgin Botanic Garden'' (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SE9V2UDD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“that so long as the said grounds are continued as a [[botanic garden]], or as an open '''square''' for any other public use, the streets intersecting the same will not be required to be opened.”

*Anonymous, 1815, describing in the ''Georgia Journal'' the improvements of the state capitol in Milledgeville, GA (quoted in Lounsbury 1994: 292)<ref name="Lounsbury"></ref>
:“[Improvements included] the enclosure of the State-House '''square''' and [[avenue]]s of trees planted in it, which in a few years will form an agreeable and beautiful [[Promenade|prominade]] [''sic''].”

*Anonymous, 1817, describing Savannah, GA (quoted in Schwaab and Bull 1973: 144)<ref name="Schwaab">Eugene L. Schwaab and Jacqueline Bull, ''Travels in the Old South'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VBE4QNV7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''Squares''' to the amount of 14 or 16 are judiciously interspersed through the town, relieving the monotony resulting from streets crossing each other at right angles, as those of this city do. Circular enclosures surround the centres of those '''squares''', which together with the side [[walk]]s, are planted with a number of similar ornamental trees.”

*Anonymous, October 10, 1817, describing Richmond, VA (''Richmond Enquirer'')
:“It was but in February, 1816, that the Act passed 'Establishing a Museum on part of the Public '''Square''', in the city of Richmond.' . . . And lo! the building is completed—an ornament to the Public '''Square''', and an ornament to the State which contains it.”

<div id="Fig_13"></div>[[File:0063.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 13, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public Square in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819. [[#Fig_13_cite|back up to History]]]]
*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], January 13, 1819, describing New Orleans, LA (1951: 23)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The public '''square''', which is open to the river, has an admirable general effect, & is infinitely superior to anything in our Atlantic cities as a water [[view]] of the city. This '''square''' extends along the river about—feet, and is—feet deep. The whole of the side parallel to the river is occupied by the Cathedral in the center & by two symmetrical buildings on each side. That to the West is called the Principal, & contains the public offices & council chamber of the city. That on the East is called the Presbytery, being the property of the Church.” [Fig. 13]

*New Orleans City Council, January 16, 1819 (Howard-Tilton Memorial Library, Tulane University)
:“the Mayor is authorized to have as many young willow trees planted along the length of the City Levee as he deems necessary, and to have a protection placed around them as to insure their growth; That the Mayor is furthermore authorized to have other trees planted in the Public '''Square''' to take the place of those that are missing.”

*Anonymous, 1820, describing Memphis, TN (quoted in Schwaab 1973: 179)<ref name="Schwaab"></ref>
:“The streets run to the cardinal points. They are wide and spacious, and, together with a number of [[alley]]s, afford a free and abundant circulation of air. There are, besides, four public '''squares''', in different parts of the town, and between the front lots and the river, is an ample vacant space, reserved as a [[promenade]]; all of which must contribute very much to the health and comfort of the place, as well as to its security and ornament.”

*Anonymous, May 26, 1824, describing the [[Columbian Institute]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 132)<ref>Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, D.C., 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJ3JTTJB view on Zotero].</ref>
:“1st. The water of Tiber Creek being thus conducted into the Capitol '''square''', will afford ample security against the progress of fire.”

*Forman, Martha Ogle, August 20, 1824, describing Newark, NJ (1976: 185)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Newark is a very pretty little Village. I was pleased with its fine Churches, and wide streets, and its large '''squares''' of Grass, with its neat white houses and little [[yard]]s in front filled with [[shrubbery]].”

[[File:1141_top.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 14, Anonymous, Map of Washington Square [detail], c. 1835–40.]]
*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Washington Square, Philadelphia, PA (1832: 2:48–49)<ref>Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G view on Zotero..]</ref>
:“Near this enclosure [at the State House] is another of much the same description, called Washington '''Square'''. Here there was an excellent crop of clover; but as the trees are numerous, and highly beautiful, and several commodious [[seat]]s are placed beneath their shade, it is, spite of the long grass, a very agreeable retreat from heat and dust. It was rarely, however, that I saw any of these [[seat]]s occupied; the Americans have either no leisure, or no inclination for those moments of ''delassement'' that all other people, I believe, indulge in. . . it is nevertheless the nearest approach to a London '''square''' that is to be found in Philadelphia.” [Fig. 14]

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 23, 1832, describing Jacksonville, IL (1975: 357)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. William Cullen Bryant II and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The village of Jacksonville is a remarkably moral place—more so than most villages in New England, and the people seem intelligent. It is a collection of mean little houses about a dirty '''square''', and is one of the ugliest and most unpleasant places I ever saw. It stands in the midst of a prairie and is without a tree, except some very little ones just planted—but these are not on the principal '''square'''.”

[[File:1239.jpg|thumb|600 px|Fig. 15, George Washington Sully, ''View of the New Orleans River Front from [[Canal]] Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.]]
*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a plantation near New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:81–82)<ref name="Ingraham">Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the left and diagonally from the dwelling house we noticed a very neat, pretty village, containing about forty small snow-white cottages, all precisely alike, built around a pleasant '''square''', in the centre of which, was a [[grove]] or cluster of magnificent sycamores. Near by, suspended from a belfry, was the bell which called the slaves to and from their work and meals. This village was their residence, and under the shade of the trees in the centre of the '''square''', we could discern troops of little ebony urchins from the age of eight years downward, all too young to work in the field, at their play. . .” [Fig. 15]

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:91)<ref name="Ingraham"></ref>
:“Though the water, or shore-line, is very nearly semi-circular, the Levée-street, above mentioned, does not closely follow the shore, but is broken into two angles, from which the streets diverge as before mentioned. These streets are again intersected by others running parallel with the Levée-street, dividing the city into '''squares''', except where the perpendicular streets meet the angles, where necessarily the ‘'''squares'''’ are lessened in breadth at the extremity nearest the river, and occasionally form pentagons and parallelograms, with ''oblique'' sides, if I may so express it.
:“After crossing Levée-street, we entered Rue St. Pierre, which issues from it south of the grand '''square'''. This '''square''' is an open [[green]], surrounded by a lofty iron railing, within which troops of boys, whose sports carried my thoughts away to ‘home sweet home,’ were playing, shouting and merry making.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elias Hasket Derby House, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 410–11)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9/q/notices%20of%20gardens%20and%20horticulture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The extent of the garden and [[pleasure ground]] is several acres. The garden lies to the south of the mansion, and is, we should judge, nearly a '''square'''. It is laid out with straight [[walk]]s, running at right angles, with flower [[border]]s on each side of the [[alley]]s, and the '''squares''' occupied by fruit trees; the [[greenhouse|green-house]] and grapery stand in the centre of the garden, and are screened on the back by a [[hedge]].”

[[File:1809.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 16, Otto Boetticher, ''Seventh Regiment on Review, Washington Square, New York'', 1851.]]
*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, NY (1841: 1:38–39)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the [[Park]], which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson '''Square''', the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington '''Square''', about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-[[walk]]s or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a [[park]], or [[public garden]], or public [[walk]], where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed.” [Fig. 16]

[[File:0034.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 17, [[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[national Mall]], Washington, DC (Scott 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A range of trees is proposed to surround three sides of the '''square''' which is intended to be laid open by an iron or other railing, the north side to be enclosed with a high brick [[wall]] to serve as a shelter and to secure the various [[hothouse|hot houses]] and other buildings of an inferior character.” [Fig. 17]

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Philadelphia, PA (1843: 318–19)<ref>Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Public'' '''''Squares'''''.—It is to the wise and liberal foresight of the great founder of Pennsylvania that we owe most of the public '''squares''' which now ornament our city. In the original plan, as laid out by Thomas Holmes, Penn’s surveyor general in 1682, there was to be a public '''square''' in the centre containing ten acres, and one in each [[quarter]] of the city containing eight acres. . .
:“Washington '''square''', on Sixth street between Walnut and Locust, was for many years used as a public [[burial ground]] for the poor and for strangers, under the name of the Potters’ field. . . Its improvement as a public '''square''' commenced in 1815, when a variety of trees were planted, gravel [[walk]]s laid out, and other steps taken which have led to its present attractive appearance. It is intended to erect, in the centre of this '''square''',a monument to the memory of Washington; the cornerstone having been laid with due ceremony at the celebration of his birth day, on the 22nd of February, 1833.
:“Franklin '''square''' is on Sixth street between Race and Vine, being also laid out with gravel [[walk]]s and planted with trees, affording a public [[promenade]] equally agreeable with Washington '''square'''. A magnificent [[fountain]], surrounded by a marble [[basin]], has been constructed in the centre, supplied with water from the works at Fairmount.
:“Logan '''square'''. . . and Rittenhouse '''square'''. . . are both enclosed and planted with trees, and promise in a few years to present an appearance similar to Washington and Franklin '''squares''', affording to the inhabitants of the western part of the city, cool and shady [[walk]]s of equal attraction to those now enjoyed in the eastern '''squares'''.
:“Penn '''square''', at the intersection of Market and Broad streets, was, within the recollection of many now living, not a '''''square''''' but a ''circle'', having the street passing round it and enclosing the distributing reservoir of the city water works.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, April 7, 1843, describing Savannah, GA (Clarke 1993: 2:154)<ref>Graham Clarke, ed., ''The American Landscape: Literary Sources and Documents'', 3 vols. (East Sussex, England: Helm Information, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TRGJ9W95 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Savannah is beautifully laid out; its broad streets are thickly planted with the Pride of India, and its frequent open '''squares''' shaded with trees of various kinds.”

[[File:1429.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 18, John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), “Central Part of Pittsfield, Mass.,” in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp 87.]]
*Barber, John Warner, 1844, describing Pittsfield, MA (1844: 87–88)<ref>John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections, Being a General Collection of Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to the History and Antiquities of Every Town in Massachusetts, with Geographical Descriptions'' (Worcester, MA: Warren Lazell, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F53ITP6J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is a public '''square''' in the center, containing about four acres: in the center of this '''square''' is a large elm, which was left standing when the original forest was cleared away.” [Fig. 18]

*Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline), 1848, describing the public '''squares''' in New York, NY, and Philadelphia, PA (1848: 317, 319)<ref name="Tuthill">Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times; Its Present Condition in Europe and the United States; with a Biography of Eminent Architects, and a Glossary of Architectural Terms, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The citizens of New York have at length become aware of the beauty and salubrity of public '''squares'''. St. John’s Park, Washington '''Square''', Union '''Square''', and several others in recently-built parts of the city, are tastefully ornamented with trees and [[shrubbery]], affording sweet green spots for the eye to rest upon, as a relief from the glare of brick [[wall]]s and dirty pavements.
:“The public '''squares''' of Philadelphia, are incalculably important to the health of the city. Beneath the dense foliage of Washington '''Square''', crowds of merry children enjoy, unmolested, their healthful sports. Within the enclosure of Independence '''Square''', was first promulgated the Declaration of Independence. Franklin '''Square''' has in the centre a [[fountain]], falling into a handsome, white marble [[basin]]. Penn, Logan, and Rittenhouse '''Squares''' are also ornamental to the city.”

*Town Council of the Borough of West Chester, March 13, 1848, describing West Chester, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 492–93)<ref>William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Whereas it has been deemed expedient and proper to improve the public '''Square''', on which the upper reservoir connected with the Waterworks of the borough is situated, by laying out the same in suitable [[walk]]s, and introducing various ornamental trees and [[shrubbery]]: And whereas it will be convenient and necessary to designate the said '''Square''' by some appropriate name: . . . That the public '''Square''', aforesaid, shall for ever hereafter be designated and known by the name of ‘THE MARSHALL '''SQUARE'''.’”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the '''Square''' itself on the western side thereof. . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument. . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and [[picturesque]] [[lawn]]s. . .
:“The eastern portion of the '''square''' will likewise undergo considerable change—the rugged features will be materially softened down, a [[fountain]] and [[jet d’eau]] to correspond with those on the western side will be placed in the valley near the state courthouse. . .
:“The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the '''Square''', however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and [[shrubbery]]. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbor|arbours]], [[parterre]]s, and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the '''Square''' a place of delightful resort.”

===Citations===

*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., Norwood, NJ: W.J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To forme it [the garden] therfore with [[walk]]s, crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with [[hedge]]s, with '''squares''', knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure '''square''' parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge.”

*[[Ephraim Chambers|Chambers, Ephraim]], 1743, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1743: 2:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . '', 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741–43), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[piazza|PIAZZA]], in building, popularly called piache, an Italian name for a [[portico]], or covered [[walk]], supported by [[arch]]es. See [[portico|PORTICO]].
:“The word literally signifies a broad open place or '''square'''; whence it also became applied to the [[walk]]s or [[portico|portico’s]] around them.”

*Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 34) <ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref>
:''[[Walk]]s, Paths, [[Plot/Plat|Plats]], [[Border]]s, and a Hot-[[Bed]] Ground.''
:“58. To render my directions more clear as well as more brief, I have given a plan of my proposed garden, PLATE I . . .
:59. . . . Before, however, I proceed further, let me give my reasons for choosing an ''Oblong '''Square''''', instead of a '''''Square''' of equal sides''. It will be seen, that the length of my garden is from East to West. By leaving a greater length in this direction than from North to South three important advantages are secured. ''First'', we get a ''long'' and ''warm'' [[border]] under the ''North [[fence]]'' for the rearing of things early in the spring. ''Second'', we get a ''long'' and ''cool'' [[border]] under the ''South'' [[fence]] for ''shading'', during the great heats. . .

[[File:1817.jpg|thumb|252px|Fig. 19, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a large public square, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1030, fig. 733.]]
*[[J._C._(John_Claudius)_Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1029–30)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“7319. ''Public'' '''''squares''''', of such magnitude as to admit of being laid out in ample [[walk]]s, open and shady, are almost peculiar to Britain. The grand object is to get as extended a line of uninterrupted [[promenade]] as is possible within the given limits. A [[walk]] parallel to the boundary [[fence]], and at a short distance within it, evidently includes the maximum of extent; but if the enclosure is small, the rapid succession of angles and turns becomes extremely disagreeable, and continually breaks in upon the ''pas des promeneurs'', the conversation of a party, or individual contemplation. The angles, therefore, must be avoided, by ''rounding them off'' in a large '''square'''; in a small one, by forming the [[walk]] into a circle; and in a small parallelogram, by adopting an oval form. In laying out a large '''square'''. . . four objects ought to be kept in view. 1. Sufficient open space (''a''), both of lawn and [[walk]], so as the parents, looking from the windows of the houses which surround the '''square''', may not long at a time lose sight of their children: 2. An open [[walk]], exposed to the sun, for winter and spring (''b''): 3. A [[walk]] shaded by trees, but airy for summer (''c''): 4. Resting-places (''d''); and a centrical covered [[seat]] and retreat (''e''), which, being nearly equidistant from every point may be readily gained in case of a sudden shower, &c. The [[statue]]s of eminent public men are obvious and appropriate decorations for '''squares'''.” [Fig. 19]

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''SQUARE''', ''n''. . .
:“2. An area of four sides, with houses on each side.
:“The [[statue]] of Alexander VII. stands in the large '''''square''''' of the town. ''Addison''.”

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 1)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“the centre part of the garden may be divided into '''squares''', on the sides of which a [[border]] may be laid out three or four feet wide, in which the various flowering plants may be raised, unless a separate [[flower garden]] is intended. The centre [[bed]]s, may be planted with all the various kinds of vegetables as well as Gooseberries, Currants, Raspberries, Strawberries, &c.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 129)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Fountain]]s are going out of use, though we think without sufficient reason. In more frequented grounds, such as public '''squares''' in towns, we think them particularly appropriate. We would not, however, propose even for these, such expensive [[fountain]]s as are frequently seen in Europe, where water is poured forth in immense volumes in marble [[basin]]s, amid tritons and sea horses, and cars. A single streak of water would be a more pleasing object.”

*Alcott, William A., 1838, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages” (''American Annals of Education'' 8: 337–42)<ref>William A. Alcott, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages,” ''American Annals of Education'' 8, no. 8 (August 1838): 337–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5K3WRQ2I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Of our larger cities, even Philadelphia and Boston, we do not hesitate to say that almost every thing, in their structure and condition, is at war with the highest physical and moral well being of their inhabitants. We do not indeed forget their beautiful [[common]]s and '''squares''' and public [[walk]]s; but it is impossible for us to believe that a few of these will ever atone for that neglect whose effects stare us in the face, not merely in passing through dirty and filthy [[avenue]]s, but in traversing almost every street, and in turning almost every corner. A single [[common]], beautiful though it may be, as any spot on the earth’s surface, and refreshed though it were by the balmy breezes which 'blow soft o’er Ceylon’s isle;' or a few public '''squares''', remembrancers though they be of him whose praises will never cease to be celebrated while the 'city of brotherly love' shall remain, will yet never purify the crowded, unventilated cellars and shops—and dwellings, too—of a hundred or a thousand thickly congregated streets. . .
:“We wish to see not only spacious '''squares''' or [[common]]s interspersed with shade, if not with fruit trees, in every village and town and city, but we wish to see [[public garden]]s on an extensive scale. We wish to see these not only for health’s sake, and for the sake of their moral tone and tendency, but as a means of rational amusement—as a means of promoting the public cheerfulness, the public taste, and of consequence, the public happiness.”

*Sayers, Edward, June 1, 1838, “The Kitchen Garden” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 235)<ref>Edward Sayers, “The Kitchen Garden,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 4 (June 1, 1838): 235–37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/FCEF7BSZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In laying a [[Kitchen Garden]] out, it should be done in the most simple manner, both for convenience, and a correspondence of its utility. The most approved method is to have the garden so situated as to be in a '''square''' with the four points of the compass, viz: N. S. E. W., surrounded with either a boarded [[fence]] or brick [[wall]]. The ground will require to be divided into four or six '''squares''', according to its size, if no more than an acre or two, four will be sufficient; if larger, six will be requisite.”

*Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline), 1848, ''History of Architecture'' (1848: 317–20)<ref name="Tuthill"></ref>
:“Every city should make ample provision for spacious public '''squares'''. Trees of every variety, shrubs, flowers, and evergreens, should decorate these grounds, and [[fountain]]s throw up their sparkling waters, contrasting their pure, white marble with the deep green foliage. Here, beneath the shaded [[walk]]s, the inhabitants might enjoy the sweet air, the children sport upon the fresh grass, and all be refreshed and cheered by the sight of beautiful natural objects. Here the young and the old might meet to ‘drive dull care away,’ and lose for a few brief moments the calculating, moneymaking plans that almost constantly usurp American thought and feeling. . .
:“Gardens and '''squares''' are so necessary to the health, as well as the enjoyment of those who are shut up in the close streets of a city, that it should be considered an imperative duty to provide them for all classes of the inhabitants. It may be urged, that if left open and free, the decorations would soon be destroyed by the populace; some few rude hands might occasionally make sad havoc among them, but when the people had once learnt how much such places of resort contributed to their health and pleasure, they would carefully protect them from injury.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 154, 161, 231)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It [the White American Elm] is one of the most generally esteemed of our native trees for ornamental purposes, and is as great a favorite here as in Europe for planting in public '''squares''' and along the highways. Beautiful specimens may be seen in Cambridge, MA, and very fine [[avenue]]s of this tree are growing with great luxuriance in and about New Haven. . .
:“In [[avenue]]s it [the plane tree] is often happily employed, and produces a grand effect. It also grows with great vigor in close cities, as some superb specimens in the '''square''' of the Statehouse, Pennsylvania Hospital, and other places in Philadelphia fully attest. . .
:“In New York and Philadelphia, the Ailantus is more generally known by the name of the ''Celestial tree'', and is much planted in the streets and public '''squares'''.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2282.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Esperanza, NY [detail], n.d.

Image:0600.jpg|Edward Penington, “A Description of two Lotts in the City of Philadelphia, the one belonging to the Proprietary, William Penn, the other to his daughter, Lætitia Penn, . . .” Dec. 12th, 1698. Facsimile, Nov. 4th, 1882, by William Boogher.

Image:0880.jpg|James Stoddert, A ground plat of the city and port of Annapolis (copy), 1718 [1743].

Image:1036.jpg|Thomas Johnston (engraver), William Bradford (publisher), “A Plan of the City of New York from an Actual Survey Made by James Lyne,” 1731. "Hanover '''Square'''" is indicated bordering the East Ward, left of center bottom quadrant.

Image:0796.jpg|Nicholas Scull, ''To the mayor recorder aldermen common council and freemen of Philadelphia this plan of the improved part of the city. . . '', 1762.

Image:0798.jpg|John Montrésor, New York and its Environs to Greenwich, 1766. '''Square''' is inscribed in the triangular area just left of the center of the map.

Image:0799.jpg|Bernard Ratzer, ''PLAN of the CITY of NEW YORK'', c. 1767. A "Great '''Square'''" is indicated near the center of the map in the right top quadrant.

Image:0884.jpg|Thomas Rodney, Plan of Dover, copy of Thomas Noxon’s original from 1740/41, 1768. "'''Square'''” is inscribed within rectangles with painted corners.

Image:0645.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Charles Town, Maryland, 1770. ''“N, O two '''squares''' for meeting houses or other publick creations”''.

Image:0462.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], “Warm or Berkeley Springs, in Virginia,” 1787, from the diary of [[Samuel Vaughan]], June–September 1787.

Image:1747.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Arrangement of the Chunky-[[Yard]], Public '''Square''', and Rotunda of the ''modern'' Creek towns,” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'' 3, part 1 (1853): 54, fig. 3.

Image:1749.jpg|[[William Bartram]], “Plan of the [[Ancient_style|Ancient]] Chunky-[[Yard]],” in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians” (1789), from ''Transactions of the American Ethnological Society'' 3, part 1 (1853): 52, fig. 2. “''C'', a '''square''' [[terrace]] or [[eminence]]. . . Upon this stands the ''Public '''Square'''''.”

Image:1134.jpg|[[Pierre-Charles L’Enfant]], “Plan of the City intended for the Permanent [[Seat]] of the Government of the United States. . . ,” August 1791. The square is labelled "L".

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. "Grand '''Square'''" inscribed at lower center.

Image:0802.jpg|A. P. Folie, “Plan of the town of Baltimore and it’s environs,” 1792. "'''Public Square'''" inscribed in top left quadrant.

Image:0973.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], “Plan of Tivoli Laid Out into Town Lots” [detail], 1795. "Zephyre (sp.) '''Square'''" inscribed in lower quadrant at center.

Image:2253.jpg|Benjamin Taylor, John Roberts (engraver), “A New & Accurate Plan of the City of New York in the State of New York in North America,” 1797.

Image:0236.jpg|Lewis Miller, “The Light Horseman,” 1799. “The hole '''Square''' Belong to Smith. . .” Square is the open public space in front of the house.

Image:1998.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), c. 1800. "Market '''Square'''" is along the central axis just about midpoint on the right.

Image:0882.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), after 1800.

Image:0412.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "Principal Story of a Military School," 1800.

Image:2062.jpg|George E. Blake, ''Blake’s Collection of Duetts for two Flutes, Clarinets, or Violins'', c. 1807. "''The Waterworks, Center '''Square''', Philadelphia''."

Image:0551.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, ''Fourth of July in Centre '''Square''''', 1812

Image:0902.jpg|George Bridport, Design for Washington Monument, Washington '''Square''', Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:1268.jpg|Amos Doolittle, “Plan of New Haven,” 1817.

Image:1240.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Project for the Principal Gates of the Public '''Square''' at New Orleans,” c. March 1819.

Image:0521.jpg|William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public '''Square''', Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:1817.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a large public '''square''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1030, fig. 733.

Image:1267.jpg|Joseph Pilié, “Plan of the Front Part of the City of New Orleans Shewing the additions, alterations and improvements. . . ,” November 15, 1827. The "public '''square'''" is located in the central part of the plan.

Image:0598.jpg|Alexander Wadsworth, “Plan of [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” November 1831. "Central '''Square'''" is inscribed on the left of the plan, above Pine Hill.

Image:1026.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 10 (June 1835): 450.

Image:1141_top.jpg|Anonymous, Map of Washington '''Square''' [detail], c. 1835—40.

Image:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, “City of Washington,” c. 1836. Capitol '''Square''' is east of the [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Garden]].

Image:1856.jpg|Jeromes, Gilbert, Grant and Company, Shelf Clock, 1839—40.

Image:0903.jpg|M. Schmitz (artist), Thomas S. Sinclair (lithographer), John B. Colahan (surveyor), “Map of Washington '''Square''', Philadelphia,” 1843.

Image:0568.jpg|William Keenan, ''Plan of the City and Neck of Charleston, S.C.'', September 1844. The "public '''square'''" is located in the upper part of the plan.

Image:0622.jpg|John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), “Court '''Square''' in Springfield, Mass.,” in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp. 290.

Image:0523.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]] (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer), “Union Place Hotel, Union '''Square''' New-York,” c. 1845.

Image:1070.jpg|James Smillie (artist), J.A. Rolph (engraver), “[[View]] of the Central '''Square''', [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 61.

Image:1809.jpg|Otto Boetticher, ''Seventh Regiment on Review, Washington '''Square''', New York'', 1851.

Image:0987.jpg|George Hayward, “Chatham '''Square''', N.Y. 1812,” 1864.

Image:1997.jpg|Robert A. Lively, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia, after Benjamin Bucktrout’s plan, 1867.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1996.jpg|Thomas Holme, “A Mapp of Ye Improved Part of Pensilvania in America, Divided into Countyes Townships and Lotts,” c. 1687.

Image:0245.jpg|Peter Gordon (artist), Pierre Fourdrinier (engraver), “A [[View]] of Savanah [''sic''] as it stood the 29th of March, 1734,” 1734.

Image:0867.jpg|Matthaeus Seutter, “Plan von neu Ebenezer,” 1747.

Image:1010.jpg|James Wadsworth, “Plan of the City of New Haven,” 1748.

Image:2271.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Esperanza, 1794, Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux, HM 2028.

Image:2274.jpg|[[Pierre Pharoux]], Plan of Courthouse '''Square''' in Esperanza, Architectural drawings and maps of Pierre Pharoux, 1795, HM 2028.

Image:0543.jpg|James Peale, ''Frederick Graff'', 1804.

Image:0001.jpg|George Ropes, ''Salem [[Common]] on Training Day'', 1808.

Image:0669.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, after John James Barralet, ''[[View]] of the Water Works at Centre '''Square''' Philadelphia'', c. 1812.

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819), 33, pl. 1.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington '''Square''''', 1833.

Image:1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''[[View]] of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.

Image:1117.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “The Gothic Church. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840, vol. 2, pl. 6.

Image:0648.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Eastern [[View]] of the Public '''Square''' or Green in New Haven,” 1840.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:1429.jpg|John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), “Central Part of Pittsfield, Mass.,” in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp. 87.

Image:0491.jpg|Edward Sachse, “Baltimore,” 1850.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0144.jpg|Thomas Holme, “A Portraiture of the City of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania in America,” 1683.

Image:0603.jpg|Anonymous, Plan de la Nouvelle Orleans, 1720.

Image:0286.jpg|Franz Xaver Habermann, “La destruction de la [[statue]] royale a Nouvelle Yorck,” 1776.

Image:1424.jpg|James Thackara, “A [[View]] of the New Market from the Corner of Shippen & Second-streets Philada.,” 1787, in ''The Columbian Magazine, or, Monthly Miscellany'' 2, no. 2 (February 1788): opp. 53.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0324.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Back of the State House, Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0183.jpg|Anonymous, Court House '''Square''', Warrenton, 1800.

File:2115.jpg|Pavel Petrovich Svinin, ''Centre '''Square''' and the Marble Works, Philadelphia'', 1811– c.13.

Image:0551.jpg|John Lewis Krimmel, ''Fourth of July in Centre '''Square''''', 1812.

Image:0974.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Monument to the memory of general George Washington, to be erected at Baltimore'', 1813.

Image:0172.jpg|Susanna Heebner, ''House with Six-[[Bed]] Garden'', 1818.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public '''Square''' in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:0709.jpg|William Britton, ''Market '''Square''', Germantown, Pennsylvania'', c. 1820.

Image:0038.jpg|Arthur J. Stansbury, ''City Hall [[Park]], From the Northwest Corner of Broadway and Chambers Street'', c. 1825.

Image:0616.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Western [[view]] of Washington '''Square''', Salem,” in ''Historical Collections'' (1844), 225.

Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, “[[View]] of Hartford, CT. from the Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” 1849.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

File:0057.jpg|James Eights, ''Church and Market Sts., Albany, 1805'', 1857–58.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]

Shrubbery

2021-03-31T14:15:34Z

A-Whitlock:

See also: [[Border]], [[Clump]], [[Espalier]], [[Hedge]], [[Thicket]]

==History==
Generally described as an arrangement of shrubs with the possible inclusion of flowers or trees, the term shrubbery emerged in American usage after 1750, with the fullest descriptions of the feature appearing in the early 19th century. This corresponds with the history of shrubbery in Britain, where in the 18th century it evolved from other related features, such as [[wilderness]], which also employed shrubs, trees, and flowers.<ref>See Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), chaps. 3, 4, 7, and 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref> The term “shrubbery” was sometimes used to describe a collection of shrubs (a category of low woody plants with multiple branches). This use of the term is evident in Fanny Kemble’s 1839 account of Butler Island, Georgia. More frequently, however, it indicated a distinct ornamental feature that included not only shrubs but also trees and possibly flowers, and it is this use of the term that this study focuses upon.

Given that [[wilderness]]es, [[grove]]s, [[thicket]]s, and [[clump]]s could all be composed of the same materials as shrubberies, it is not surprising that a certain degree of ambiguity surrounded the term in 18th- and early 19th-century gardening literature. This confusion is exemplified by the elision of the terms “shrubbery” and “bosquet” in 1800 by an observer of Adrian Valeck’s estate in Baltimore. As late as 1841, [[Robert Buist]] conflated these terms in his reference to [[thicket]] as a mass of shrubbery. As John Abercrombie and James Mean noted in 1817, this ambiguity was compounded by the difficulty in determining the boundaries of the [[flower garden]] and the shrubbery since the two features often adjoined each other and employed similar plant materials. For Abercrombie and Mean, shrubbery was characterized by a predominance of shrubs with only a few flowers, a distinction that also made shrubberies different from [[grove]]s.

The key elements that distinguished shrubberies from [[wilderness]]es (both of which utilized shrubs and flowers), were siting, plant arrangement, and treatment of plant material. In general, wildernesses were composed of trees under-planted with shrubs and cut through by [[walk]]s. In contrast, shrubberies featured plants arranged in graduated heights (from lowest to highest) and were intended as frames or [[border]]s to [[walk]]s. Such distinctions help to clarify Alexander Gordon’s 1849 comment that the way to transform “magnificent groves of magnolias” into “a perfect ''facsimile'' of an English shrubbery would be to introduce [[walk]]s, and judiciously thin out and regulate the mass.”

The graduated plantings commonly featured in shrubberies allowed the maximum display of plants, a technique that derived from 18th-century flower [[border]]s and [[wilderness]] fringes. In 1804, for example, Gardiner and Hepburn recommended planting shorter shrubs in front of taller ones, in order to exhibit each “to most advantage.” In 1841, Buist instructed his reader to keep each plant “distinct, one from another, in order that they may be the better shown off.”

Although the term “shrubbery” was often ambiguously used, examples of specific uses abound in American gardening literature, as demonstrated by the case of [[Mount Vernon]]. George Washington planted shrubberies along the serpentine [[walk]]s that outlined the west lawn. These shrubberies not only bordered the [[walk]]s to the north and south, but also connected the wilderness area (adjacent to the western terminus of the lawn) to the house and its outlying structures. This use of shrubberies was consistent with the guidelines set forth by prevailing treatise writers, such as William Marshall, whose ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803) Washington owned. Marshall maintained that shrubberies were more appropriate for establishing connections among garden features than were [[wood]]s, [[grove]]s, or [[thicket]]s, which belonged to the broader landscape of hills and valleys. Similarly, the American garden writer [[Bernard M’Mahon]], in his ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806), explicitly stated that shrubberies should be used to frame [[walk]]s or [[lawn]]s. The curving sweeps of Washington’s shrubbery also exemplified the [[Modern_style|modern]] (or natural) style espoused by most late 18th- and early 19th-century treatise writers.

[[File:1270.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Solomon Drowne, ''[[Botanic Garden]], 1818'', 1818. “Shrubbery” is marked in the hemicycle plat.]]
At [[Mount Vernon]], Washington also designated a second area as a shrubbery, as revealed in the instructions he sent in 1776 to his nephew and estate manager Lund Washington. In his letter, the elder Washington recommended that [[grove]]s of trees be planted on each side of the house. He also referred to the southern grove, which was made up of ornamental trees under-planted with “wild flowering shrubs,” as a shrubbery. In its massing of vegetation and distinct shape, this shrubbery harked back to wildernesses. But the varied plant material of the shrubbery—ornamental trees interspersed with evergreens and shrubs—suggested a graduated arrangement in accordance with the directions of contemporary treatises.

Washington’s desire for the “clever kind of Trees” in his shrubbery illustrates the frequent use of shrubbery to draw attention to exotic, rare, or highly ornamental shrubs. Treatise writers underscored how a shrubbery could, in [[Bernard M’Mahon|Bernard M'Mahon's]] words, “display a beautiful diversity of foliage and flowers,” by including a list of recommended trees, shrubs, and herbaceous flowers. The inclusion of a shrubbery in Solomon Drowne’s plan (1818) for a [[botanic garden]] exemplifies this use [Fig. 1]. This notion of a shrubbery was most fully developed by [[J. C. Loudon]] in his theory of the [[gardenesque]], which dictated graduated plantings, arranged from low herbaceous plants to taller ornamental trees, and a distinct separation of each specimen in order to emphasize the “display of shrubs valued for their beauty or fragrance.”

Loudon’s 1826 text also alerts us to the wide range of style terminology used in the early 19th century to describe different methods of arranging and situating the shrubbery, such as “[[Geometric_style|geometric]],” “systematic” (or “methodical”), “Chinese,” “[[gardenesque]],” “mingled,” and “select” (or “grouped”). The latter two styles were the most significant: “mingled” referred to rhythmically mixing species according to blooming schedules within each carefully graduated row, whereas “select” referred to massing by genus, species, or variety with gradual blending from one type to the next. In America, such terms were not always used with great precision. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that references to “mixed” or “mingled” arose much more often in garden literature than in common usage.

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, James E. Teschemacher, “A [[Greenhouse|green-house]] constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157. On the left, a shrubbery conceals the entrance to the stables. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to text]]]]
[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon’s]] commentary also points out the predominant use of shrubberies in order to frame the sides of [[walk]]s, to screen out unpleasant [[view]]s, or to link together visually certain aspects of the pleasure ground or flower garden. The function of screening is clearly illustrated by John Trumbull’s inscription of his landscape plan for Yale College (1793), where he instructed to “conceal as much as possible,” the privies, or, as he called them, “The Temples of Cloacina,” a reference to the ancient sewer in Rome. [[André Parmentier]] placed shrubberies along the [[walk]]s at his [[nursery]], particularly those connecting various ornamental features of the garden, such as the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[arbor]] and the “French saloon.”<ref>Anonymous, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref> These shrubberies also screened out the [[nursery]] [[bed]]s and vineyards.

James E. Teschemacher, writing in the ''Horticultural Register'' in 1835, explained at length the appropriateness of using shrubbery to hide the vegetable or [[kitchen garden]] and to obscure the boundaries of a property, making the grounds appear larger. Teschemacher’s lithograph [Fig. 2] illustrates the use of shrubberies positioned along walks to lead the viewer’s attention away from undesirable working areas, such as the vegetable garden, and toward the more appealing [[flower garden]]. Like his predecessors, mid-19th century garden designer William H. Ranlett positioned shrubberies along [[walk]]s, roads, or around the perimeter of houses, thus ensuring that homes built in an urban or suburban context could enjoy a display of flowering vegetation.

By the 1840s, shrubbery had developed as a distinct garden feature defined by graduated, intermixed vegetation; placement along [[walk]]s, roads, [[flower garden]]s, and [[lawn]]s; and use as a linking and screening device. The latter two characteristics were shared with [[hedge]]s, but hedges were understood to be generally uniform in size and species and densely planted to create an impenetrable barrier. More importantly, unlike the [[hedge]], the formation of the shrubbery was driven by the impulse to display prized plants.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 27)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Open Ground on the West—a '''shrubbery'''
:“Shrubs—(Not exceeding a growth of 10. f.). Alder—Bastard indigo. flowering Amorpha—Barberry—Cassioberry. Cassine.—Chinquapin— Jersey-tea. F. Ceanothus—Dwarf Cherry. F. Cerasus. 5. Clethra—Cockspur hawthorn, or haw. Crataegus. 4. Laurel—Scorpion Sena. Emerus— Hazel.—Althea F.—Callicarpa—Rose—Wild honeysuckle—Sweet-briar—Ivy.
:“Trees.—Lilac—Wild Cherry—Dogwood— Redbud—Horse chestnut—Catalpa—Magnolia— Mulberry—Locust—Honeysuckle—Jessamine— Elder—Poison oak—Haw—Fig.
:“Climbing shrubby plants.—Trumpet flower—Jasmine—Honeysuckle.
:“Evergreens.—Holly—Juniper—Laurel—Magnolia—Yew.
:“Hardy perennial flowers.—Snapdragon— Daisy—Larkspur—Gilliflower—Sunflower— Lily—Mallow—Flower de luce—Everlasting pea—Piony—Poppy—Pasque flower—Goldylock, Trollius=Anemone—Lilly of the Valley— Primrose—Periwinkle—Violet—Flag.—(''Account Book 1771''.)”

*Washington, George, August 19, 1776, in a letter to Lund Washington, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Riley 1989: 7)<ref>John P. Riley, ''The Icehouses and Their Operations at Mount Vernon'' (Mount Vernon, VA: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76PVTIZM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I mean to have groves of Trees at each end of the dwelling House. . . these Trees to be Planted without any order or regularity (but pretty thick, as they can at any time be thin’d) and to consist that at the North end, of locusts altogether. and that at the South, of all the clever kind of Trees (especially flowering ones) that can be got, such as Crab apple, Poplar, Dogwood, Sasafras, Laurel, Willow (especially yellow and Weeping Willow, twigs of which may be got from Philadelphia) and many others which I do not recollect at present; these to be interspersed here and there with ever greens such as Holly, Pine, and Cedar, also Ivy; to these may be added the Wild flowering Shrubs of the larger kind, such as the fringe Trees and several other kinds that might be mentioned. It will not do to plant the Locust Trees at the North end of the House till the Framing is up. . . But nothing need prevent planting the '''Shrubbery''' at the other end of the House. Whenever these are Planted they should be Inclosd, which may be done in any manner till I return; or rather by such kind of fencing as used to be upon the Ditch running towards Hell hole. . . If I should ever fulfil my Intention it will be to Inclose it properly; the [[Fence]] now described is only to prevent Horses & ca. injuring the young Trees in their growth.”

*Washington, George,1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig 1978: 4:94, 97, 99)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[February 22] I also removed from the [[Wood]]s and old fields, several young Trees of Sassafras, Dogwood, & red bud, to the '''Shrubbery''' on the No. Side the grass plat. . .
:“Planted the remainder of the Ash Trees—in the Serpentine [[walk]]s—the remainder of the fringe trees in the '''Shrubberies'''—all the black haws—all the large berried thorns with a small berried one in the middle of each [[clump]]—6 small berried thorns with a large one in the middle of each clump—all the swamp red berry bushes & one [[clump]] of locust trees. . .
:“[March 3] Planted the remainder of the Locusts—Sassafras—small berried thorn & yellow Willow in the '''Shrubberies''', as also the red buds— a honey locust and service tree by the South Garden House. Likewise took up the clump of Lilacs that stood at the Corner of the South Grass [[plat]] & transplanted them to the clusters in the '''Shrubberies''' & standards at the south Garden [[gate]]. The Althea trees were also planted. . .
:“Employed myself the greatest part of the day in pruning and shaping the young plantation of Trees & Shrubs. . .
:“[March 7] Planted all my Cedars, all my Papaw, and two Honey locust Trees in my '''Shrubberies''' and two of the latter in my [[grove]]s—one at each (side) of the House and a large Holly tree on the Point going to the Sein landing.”

[[File:0100.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. The three [[square]] privies are surrounded by the shrubbery.]]
*Trumbull, John, 1792, describing Yale College, New Haven, CT (Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Picture Collection, 48A-46, box 1, folder 2)
:“The [[Temple]]s of Cloacina (which it is too much the custom of New England to place conspicuously,) I would wish to have concealed as much as possible, by planting a variety of Shrubs, such as Laburnums, Lilacs, Roses, Snowballs, Laurels. &c, &c—a gravel [[walk]] should lead thro [''sic''] the '''Shrubbery''' to those buildings.
:“The Eating Hall should likewise be hidden as much as the space will admit with similar shrubs.” [Fig. 3]

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the Hermitage, seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125)<ref>John Flowers, “People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Gardens were large, and laid out in the [[English style]]—a Creek wound thro’ the largest, upon its banks grew native '''shrubbery'''.”

*Anonymous, June 14, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' the estate of Adrian Valeck, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 136)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A large garden in the highest state of cultivation, laid out in numerous and convenient [[walk]]s and [[square]]s bordered with [[espalier]]s. . . Behind the garden in a grove and '''shrubbery''' or bosquet planted with a great variety of the finest forest trees, oderiferous & other flowering shrubs etc.”

*Hamilton, Alexander, c. 1801–4, describing Hamilton Grange, estate of Alexander Hamilton, New York, NY (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:263)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If practicable in time I should be glad some laurel should be planted along the edge of the '''shrubbery''' and round the [[clump]] of trees near the house; also sweet briars and [illegible].
:“A few dogwood trees not large, scattered along the margin of the [[grove]] would be very pleasant, but the fruit trees there must be first removed and advanced in front.”

*Taylor, General James, 1805 [?], describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Norton and Schrage-Norton 1985: 148)<ref>John D. Norton and Susanne A. Schrage-Norton, “The Upper Garden at Mount Vernon Estate—Its Past, Present, and Future: A Reflection on 18th Century Gardening. Phase II: The Complete Report” (Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association Library, 1985), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3R9Z6WZT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The flower and '''shrubbery''' gardens on the north side of the [[avenue]] are tastefully laid out in serpentine [[walk]]s and [[square]]s bordered with dwarf box-wood interspersed with handsome flowering shrubs with ornamental trees around the exterior of the inclosure.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 55)<ref> Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
: “The Garden consists of a large verdant [[lawn]] surrounded by a belt of [[walk]], & '''shrubbery''' for some distance.”

*Ripley, Samuel, 1815, describing Gore Place, summer home of Christopher and Rebecca Gore, Waltham, MA (1815: 273)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January 1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is situated in the centre of pleasant grounds, tastefully laid out, surrounded by a [[walk]] of a mile in circuit, intersected by several other [[walk]]s, on all of which are growing trees and '''shrubbery''' of various kinds.”

*Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, DC (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, DC: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"ANNALOSTAN ISLAND
: . . . Annalostan Island is evidently of modern formation. . . The highest [[eminence]], on which the house stands, is fifty feet above the level of the river. The common tide rises to the height of three feet. I can never forget how de-lighted I was with my first visit to this island. The amiable ladies whom I had the pleasure to accompany, left their carriage at Georgetown, and we walked to the mansion-house under a delicious shade. The blossoms of the cherry, apple, and peach trees, of the hawthorn and aromatic '''shrubs''', filled the air with their fragrance. . . The house, of a simple and neat form, is situated near that side of the island which commands a [[view]] of the Potomac, the President's House, Capitol, and other buildings. The garden, the sides of which are washed by the waters of the river, is ornamented with a variety of trees and '''shrubs''', and, in the midst, there is a [[lawn]] covered with a beautiful verdure. The [[Summerhouse|summer-house]] is shaded by oak and lin-den-trees, the coolness and tranquility of which invite to contemplation. The refresh-ing breezes of the Potomac, and the gentle murmuring of its waters against the rocks, the warbling of birds, and the mournful as-pect of the weeping-willows, inspire a thousand various sensations. What a delicious shade-

:"Ducere sol[l]icitae jucunda oblivia vitae"

:The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the [[picturesque]] banks of the Po-tomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the bridge terminates the [[view]]. . . A few feet below the [[Summerhouse|sum-mer-house]] the rocks afford the [[seat]]s, where those who are fond of fishing may indulge in this amusement. From the [[portico]] on the oppo-site [139] side of the house, Georgetown, Calorama, the beautiful [[seat]] of Joel Barlow, Esq. and the adjacent finely-wooded hills, appear a [[vista]]."

*Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the Latrobe home, New Orleans, LA (1951: 180–81)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . the house as far from the river as across Baltimore street, filled between with a '''shrubbery''' consisting of about 4 Myrtles (the small leaf’d) 20 feet high, about, 8 Oleanders still higher, forty rose bushes of an immense size, of different sorts, 4 Monstrous Musk rose bushes, half a doz. large pomegranate trees.”

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a plantation he visited during his trip from Charleston, SC, to Savannah, GA (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or [[piazza]], from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and '''shrubbery''', rich with orange trees, laurels, myrtles, and weeping willows, and here and there a great spreading aloe.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing Marietta, OH (1838: 2:73)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel,'' 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This island was purchased, about thirty-five years ago, by an Irish gentleman, named Herman Blennerhassett, whose name the island has since borne. This gentleman took his beautiful and attached wife to his new property, and their united tastes made it such an abode as was never before and has never since been seen in the United States. '''Shrubberies''', [[conservatories]], and gardens ornamented the island, and within doors there was a fine library, philosophical apparatus, and music-room.”

*Lester, N., November 30, 1837, describing the Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (LHA Research #231)
:“The General has a very fine garden; I culled some choice seeds which I will divide with you the first opportunity. The garden is tastefully laid off in [[plat]]s, ornamented with various kinds of flowers and '''shrubbery'''. The tomb of his lamented lady is in one corner of the garden, but a short distant from his dwelling. It is surrounded by rose bushes, and the weeping willow, and covered by a plain [[summer-house]].”

*Kemble, Fanny, January 1839, describing her husband’s plantations on Butler Island, GA (1984: 56)<ref>Frances Anne Kemble, ''Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839'', ed. John A. Scott (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWZQAT2D/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As I skirted one of these [[thicket]]s today, I stood still to admire the beauty of the '''shrubbery'''. Every shade of green, every variety of form, every degree of varnish, and all in full leaf and beauty in the very depth of winter. The stunted dark-colored oak; the Magnolia bay. . . which grows to a very great size; the wild myrtle, a beautiful and profuse shrub, rising to a height of six, eight, and ten feet, and branching on all sides in luxuriant tufted fullness; most beautiful of all, that pride of the South, the Magnolia ''grandiflora'', whose lustrous dark green perfect foliage would alone render it an object of admiration, without the queenly blossom whose color, size, and perfume are unrivaled in the whole vegetable kingdom.”

[[File:1118.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, W. H. Bartlett, “Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.]]
*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Undercliff, seat of Gen. George P. Morris, near Cold Spring, NY (1840: 233)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (London: G. Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FB4EQ56M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In front, a circle of greensward is refreshed by a [[fountain]] in the centre, gushing from a Grecian [[vase]], and encircled by ornamental '''shrubbery'''; from thence a gravelled [[walk]] winds down a gentle declivity to a second plateau, and again descends to the entrance of the carriage road, which leads upwards along the left slope of the hill, through a noble forest, the growth of many years, until suddenly emerging from its sombre shades, the visitor beholds the mansion before him in the bright blaze of day.” [Fig. 4]

*Anonymous, June 1840, “Notices of Greenhouses and Hot-houses, in and near Philadelphia,” describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 201)<ref>Anonymous, “Notices of Greenhouses and Hot-houses, in and near Philadelphia,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 6 (June 1840): 201–3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A352BDPC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''shrubbery''', for want of attention, had sprung into all sorts of shapes, and bore evident marks of the rude hands of the rabble who passed them by in the season of bloom.”

*B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 17)<ref>B. P., “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 10, no. 1 (January 1844): 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W3UKEX82/q/Progress%20of%20Horticulture%20in%20Rochester view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Flower garden]]s and '''shrubberies''' are no longer objects of amazement; [[avenue]]s of forest trees are not uncommon sights in the vicinity of dwellings; in fact the general neatness that pervades this beautiful section of country cannot fail to suggest to the traveller the steady march of taste and refinement, and the progress, though slow, of that art that transforms the wildest forest into a very Eden.”

*Perkins, John, December 14, 1845, describing his nursery in New Jersey (Peabody Essex Institute, Phillips Library, Lee Family Papers, MS 129, box 1, folder 5)
:“I am a nurseryman In New Jersey. . . I have a large collection of fruit trees on hand. . . Besides '''shrubery''' & ornamental trees of different varieties.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Passing under neat and tasteful [[Arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
:“THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]]. . .
:“The whole garden is surrounded and shut out from the [[lawn]], by a belt of '''shrubbery''', and above and behind this, rises, like a noble framework, the background of trees of the [[lawn]] and the [[Wilderness]]. If there is any prettier [[flower-garden]] scene than this ensemble in the country, we have not yet had the good fortune to behold it.”

*Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (''Journal of Medicine'' 10: 60)
:“The farm contains about fifty-five acres, and is bounded, on its western side, by the Blooming-dale road. About thirty acres of it is under high cultivation, portions being devoted to grass, vegetables, and ornamental '''shrubbery'''.”

*Town Council of the Borough of West Chester, March 13, 1848, resolution in memory of [[Humphry Marshall]], Marshallton, West Chester, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 492)<ref>William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Whereas it has been deemed expedient and proper to improve the public [[Square]], on which the upper reservoir connected with the Waterworks of the borough is situated, by laying out the same in suitable [[walk]]s, and introducing various ornamental trees and '''shrubbery'''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (1849; repr., 1991: 443)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Those who have seen the '''shrubbery''' at ''[[Hyde Park]]'', the residence of the late [[Dr. Hosack]], which borders the [[walk]] leading from the mansion to the [[hot-house]]s, will be able to recall a fine example of this mode of mingling woody and herbaceous plants. The belts or [[border]]s occupied by the [[shrubbery]] and [[flower-garden]] there, are perhaps from 25 to 35 feet in width, completely filled with a collection of shrubs and herbaceous plants; the smaller of the latter being quite near the walk; these succeeded by taller species receding from the front of the [[border]], then follow shrubs of moderate size, advancing in height until the background of the whole is a rich mass of tall shrubs and trees of moderate size. The effect of this belt on so large a scale, in high keeping, is remarkably striking and elegant.”

*Gordon, Alexander, June 1849, “Gardens and Gardening in Louisiana,” describing the residence of Mr. Valcouraam, near New Orleans, LA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 15: 247–48)<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Remarks on Gardens and Gardening in Louisiana,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 15, no. 6 (June 1849): 245–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HNZQV4FE/q/gardens%20and%20gardening view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For instance, within a few minutes walk from where I now write, I could find magnificent [[grove]]s of magnolias (now in full bloom,) with an abundance of choice trees and shrubs. All that would be required to form the scene into a perfect ''facsimile'' of an English '''shrubbery''' would be to introduce [[walk]]s, and judiciously thin out and regulate the mass.”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the [[Square]], however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and '''shrubbery'''. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbour]]s, [[parterre]]s, and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the [[Square]] a place of delightful resort.”

===Citations===
*Whately, Thomas, 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 29–30)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But there are besides, sometimes in trees, and commonly in shrubs, still more minute varieties. . . But all these inferior varieties are below our notice in the consideration of great effects: they are of consequence only where the [[plantation]] is near to the sight; where it skirts a home scene, or [[border]]s the side of a [[walk]]: and in a '''shrubbery''', which in its nature is little, both in style and in extent, they should be anxiously sought for.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:113–14)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A ''regularity'' in planting '''shrubs''' is not necessary as to lines, but is rather to be avoided, except just in the front, where there should always be some low ones, and a border for ''flowers'', chiefly of the ''spring'', as summer ones are apt to be drawn up weak, if the '''shrubbery''' [[walk]]s are not very wide. The flowers should be of the lowest growth, and rather bulbous rooted. . . In open '''shrubberies''' an edging of ''strawberries'' is proper, and the hautboy preferable.”

*Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 144–45)<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have recommended the practice of intermixing fruit-trees in '''shrubberies''' and [[plantation]]s of this kind to several gentlemen, who have adopted it with success. While the fruit-trees are in flower, they are a great ornament to the '''shrubberies'''; and in summer and autumn the different colours of the fruit have a beautiful appearance. Add to this the advantage of a plentiful supply of fruit for the table, and for making cider and perry; and if some cherries are interspersed among them, they will be food for birds, and be the means of preventing them from destroying your finer fruit in the orchard or garden.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:256, 280)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . '', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[WOOD]]S, [[Grove]]s, and extensive [[Thicket]]s, are more particularly adapted to the sides of hills, and elevated situations: detached Masses, Groups, and Single Trees, to the lower grounds. . . The '''Shrubery''' [''sic''] depends more on the given accompaniments, than on its own natural situation. . .
:“IF the house be stately, and the adjacent country rich and highly cultivated, a '''shrubery''' [''sic''] may intervene, in which Art may shew her utmost skill.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 108)<ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year, and Copious Instructions for the Cultivation of Flower Gardens, Vineyards, Nurseries, Hop Yards, Green Houses and Hot Houses'' (Washington, DC: Printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Plant roses, honeysuckles, jasmins, lilacs, double hawthorn, cherry blossom, and other hardy shrubs, when the weather is mild.—In forming a '''shrubbery''', plant the lowest shrubs in front of [[clump]]s, and the tallest most backward, three to six feet apart, according to the bulk the shrubs grow. They will thus appear to most advantage.”

*[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 55, 62)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For instance, a grand and spacious open [[lawn]], of grass-ground, is generally first presented immediately to the front of the mansion, or main habitation. . . widening gradually outwards, and having each side embellished with plantations of '''shrubbery''', [[clump]]s, [[thicket]]s, &c. . . . and in the interior divisions of the ground, serpentine winding [[walk]]s, and elegant grass openings, ranged various ways, all bordered with '''shrubberies''', and other tree and shrub plantations, flower compartments, &c. disposed in a variety of different rural forms, in easy bendings, concaves, and straight ranges, occasionally; with intervening breaks or opens of grass-ground; both to promote rural diversity, and for communication and [[prospect]] to the different divisions. . .
:“All the [[plantation]] compartments of '''shrubbery''', [[wilderness]], &c. should be planted with some considerable variety of different sorts of trees, shrubs, and flowers, artfully disposed in varied arrangements; the tallest behind, the lowest forward, and the different sorts so intermixed, as to display a beautiful diversity of foliage and flowers, disposing the more curious kinds contiguous to the principal [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s. . .
:“In planting the several '''shrubbery''' [[clump]]s, &c. some may be entirely of trees; but the greater part an assemblage of trees and shrubs together; some entirely of the low shrub kind, in different situations, between, and in front of the larger growths; likewise should intersperse most of the '''shrubbery''' and [[wilderness]] compartments, with a variety of hardy herbaceous flowery plants of different growths, having also here and there [[clump]]s entirely of herbaceous perennials: the distribution or arrangement of the [[clump]]s, and other divisions of the different kinds, both trees, shrubs, and flowers, should be so diversified, as to exhibit a proper contrast, and a curious variation of the general scene.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 337–38)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The lines of distinction between the [[Flower Garden]], the '''Shrubbery''', and the [[Pleasure Ground]], can neither be positively marked, nor constantly observed, in treating the subjects which may seem to fall under one of these heads more properly than under either of the others. The flowering shrubs connect the two former. For instance, can there be such an exact partition between the [[Flower Garden]] and the '''Shrubbery''', as would destroy their communication, while the plant which bears the beautiful rose belongs, in a catalogue of names, to the latter department? Or can we prevent the [[Pleasure Ground]] from running into the [[Flower Garden]] and '''Shrubbery''', so as scarcely to know where one begins and the other ends, as long as a [[Pleasure Ground]], with the most happy diversity of [[lawn]]s, [[wood]], and water, would be incomplete without flowers and shrubs?
:“The substantial difference between the two former [ [[Flower Garden]] and '''Shrubbery''' ], lies in the proportion in which the two classes of plants are cultivated: hence, where a great preponderance of plants without woody stems display their bloom, the characteristics of a [[Flower Garden]] seem obvious enough: if another spot is almost covered with [[clump]]s of shrubs, and merely dotted with a few creeping flowers, it will be termed, without hesitation, a '''Shrubbery'''.”

*Nicol, Walter, 1823, ''The Villa-Garden Directory'' (1823: 3–4)<ref>Walter Nicol, ''The Villa-Garden Directory, or Monthly Index of Word, to Be Done in Town and Villa Gardens, Shrubberies and Parterres'' (Edinburgh: Archibald Constable, 1823), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DF9Z32E5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . care should be taken, in the disposition of the '''shrubberies''', or other [[plantation]]s, to preserve the best [[view]]s. The whole should appear light and airy; nor should the place be ''boxed in'' by high [[wall]]s or [[hedge]]s. . .
:“Next to the error of rearing high [[fence]]s, is that of bounding the whole premises by a close and connected belt of '''shrubbery''', or other [[plantation]]; leaving the house standing in a small open paddock, unadorned by a plant of any kind; the belt being often separated from it by a deep and broad ditch, or [[ha-ha]].”

[[File:1848.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], Shrubbery formed in the geometric style of gardening, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 804, fig. 557.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 802–4, 806–7, 809)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“6130. ''By a '''shrubbery''', or shrub-garden'', we understand a scene for the display of shrubs valued for their beauty or fragrance, combining such trees as are considered chiefly ornamental, and some herbaceous flowers. The form or plan of the ''modern '''shrubbery''''' is generally a winding border, or strip of irregular width, accompanied by a [[walk]], near to which it commences with the herbaceous plants and lowest shrubs, and as it falls back, the shrubs rise in gradation and terminate in the ornamental trees, also similarly graduated. Sometimes a border of '''shrubbery''' accompanies the [[walk]] on both sides; at other times only one side, while the other side is, in some cases, a border for culinary vegetables surrounding the [[kitchen-garden]], but most generally it is an accompanying breadth of turf, varied by occasional groups of trees and plants, or decorations, and with the [[border]], forms what is called [[pleasure-ground]].
:“6131. ''The sort of '''shrubbery''' formed under the [[geometric style]] of gardening''. . . was more compact; it was called a bosque, [[thicket]] or [[wood]], and contained various compartments of turf or gravel branching from the [[walk]]s, and very generally a [[labyrinth]]. The species of shrubs in those times being very limited, the object was more walks for recreation, shelter, shade, and verdure, than a display of flowering shrubs. . . [Fig. 5]
:“6132. ''In respect to situation'', it is essential that the '''shrubbery''' should commence either immediately at the house, or be joined to it by the [[flower-garden]]; a secondary requisite is, that however far, or in whatever direction it be continued, the [[walk]] be so contrived as to prevent the necessity of going to and returning from the principal points to which it leads over the same ground. . .
:“6138. ''On planting the '''shrubbery''''' the same general remarks, submitted as introductory to ''planting the flower-garden'', are applicable; and shrubs may be arranged in as many different manners as flowers. Trees, however, are permanent and conspicuous objects, and consequently produce an effect during winter, when the greater number of herbaceous plants are scarcely visible. This is more especially the case with that class called evergreens, which, according as they are employed or omitted, produce the greatest difference in the winter aspect of the '''shrubbery'''. We shall here describe four leading modes for the arrangement of the '''shrubbery''', distinguishing them by the names of the mingled or common, the select or grouped manner, and the systematic or methodical style of planting. Before proceeding farther it is requisite to observe, that the proportion of evergreen trees to deciduous trees in cultivation in this country, is as 1 to 12; of evergreen shrubs to deciduous shrubs, exclusive of climbers and creepers but including roses, as 4 to 8; that the time of the flowering of trees and shrubs is from March to August inclusive, and that the colors of the flowers are the same as in herbaceous plants. These data will serve as guides for the selection of species and varieties for the different modes of arrangement, but more especially for the mingled manner. . .
[[File:1353.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], “The select or grouped manner of planting a shrubbery,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), p. 806, fig. 559.]]
:“6141. ''The select or grouped manner'' of planting a '''shrubbery'''. . . is analogous to the select manner of planting a [[flower-garden]]. Here one genus, species, or even variety, is planted by itself in considerable numbers, so as to produce a powerful effect. Thus the pine tribe, as trees, may be alone planted in one part of the '''shrubbery''', and the holly, in its numerous varieties, as shrubs. After an extent of several yards, or hundreds of yards, have been occupied with these two genera, a third and fourth, say the evergreen fir tribe and the yew, may succeed, being gradually blended with them, and so on. A similar grouping is observed in the herbaceous plants inserted in the front of the [[plantation]]; and the arrangement of the whole as to height, is the same as in the mingled '''shrubbery'''. . . [Fig. 6]
[[File:1847.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[J. C. Loudon]], Ground-plan for “systematic or methodical planting in shrubberies,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), p. 807, fig. 560. The shrubbery is indicated at ''k'' in the upper left quadrant. ]]
:“6144. ''Systematic or methodical planting in '''shrubberies''''' consists, as in flower-planting, in adopting the Linnaean or Jussieuean arrangement as a foundation, and combining at the same time a due attention to gradation of heights. . . But much the most interesting mode of arrangement would be that of Jussieu, by which a small villa of two or three acres might be raised, as far as gardening is concerned, to the ne plus ultra of interest and beauty. To aid in the formation of such scenes the tables . . . exhibiting the genera contained in each Linnaean or Jussieuean order, and also the number of species distributed according to their places in the garden, will be found of the greatest use. [Fig. 7]
:“6156. ''Decorations in '''shrubberies'''''. Those of the '''shrubbery''' should in general be of a more useful and imposing character than such as are adopted in the [[flower-garden]]. The [[green-house]] and aviary are sometimes introduced, but not, as we think, with propriety, owing to the unsuitableness of the scene for the requisite culture and attention. Open and covered seats are necessary, or, at least, useful decorations, and may occur here and there in the course of the [[walk]], in various styles of decoration, from the rough bench to the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] hut. . . and Grecian [[temple]]. . . Great care, however, must be taken not to crowd these nor any other species of decorations. Buildings being more conspicuous than either [[statue]]s, [[urn]]s, or inscriptions, require to be introduced more sparingly, and with greater caution. In garden or ornamented scenery they should seldom obtrude themselves by their magnitude or glaring color; and rarely be erected but for some obvious purpose of utility.
:“6157. . . Light bowers formed of lattice-work, and covered with climbers, are in general most suitable to parterres; plain covered seats suit the general [[walk]]s of the '''shrubbery'''.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''SHRUB’BERY''', ''n''. Shrubs in general.
:“2. A [[plantation]] of '''shrubs'''.”

*Teschemacher, James E., May 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 160–61)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): 157–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZA92W46U/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[walk]] might be continued in a serpentine direction on to the vegetable garden behind the house (the entrance to which ought to be concealed by leading round a [[clump]] of thick '''shrubbery'''), first branching off to the [[flower garden]] immediately at the back of the house; which besides roses may be partly devoted to [[bed]]s of tulips, ranunculus, anemone, &c. . . .
:“The entrance on the left will be observed to lead to the stables, partly concealed by trees and '''shrubbery'''; this [[avenue]] also leads to the vegetable garden and would be used for carting manure, coals, wood, &c., the windows of the kitchens facing that way.”

*Teschemacher, James E., June 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 229–30)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (June 1, 1835): 228–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EZCPG4DN/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . If the '''shrubbery''' constitute the boundary of the premises it would be well to raise the earth at the back about two or three feet higher than the front— at every twenty feet a tree may be planted, such as Catalpa syringifolia, Laburnum, Liriodendron, (tulip tree), Larch, silver leaved Sycamore, purple Beech, Ailanthus, Elegnus, Moose wood, &c. Between these trees place the lofty shrubs, as red and white lilac, dog wood, syringa, smoke tree (Rhus continus), snow ball tree and many others; below these place small shrubs as Symphroia racemosa, varius spireas, particularly spirea bella sorbifolia, laevigata, Rhodora canadensis, swamp honey suckle, (azalea), altheas, mezereon, corchorus, calycanthus, Amorpha fruticosa, Potentilla fruticosa, Tartarean honey suckle, and the common Dutch honey suckle, which if kept low by the knife will be bushy and almost always in flower: in front of these may be placed the low herbaceous flowering plants as, paeonies, red, white and blush, pinks, merocallis, low Phloxes, convallaria majalis (lily of the valley), and other by far to numerous to mention. In planting such a '''shrubbery''' great attention must be paid not to crowd the plants too much, as in a few years they will much impede each other’s growth and altogether destroy the beauty. . . The best finish for the [[border]] of such a '''shrubbery''' is a verge of fine grass not less than eight inches in width, which must be kept frequently mown and neatly edged. At intervals of ten or fifteen feet a tree rose of about five or six feet high is extremely ornamental. If the '''shrubbery''' cross the end of the [[flower garden]], with the [[view]] of concealing the vegetable garden, then trees are not requisite, but simply low shrubs. Three or four years will probably elapse before the '''shrubbery''' will be sufficiently thick for the purpose intended; in the mean time the large gaps between the shrubs which would otherwise have a naked appearance, may be filled with lofty herbaceous and biennial flowers. I know of none more appropriate or beautiful than the red and white foxglove, Solomon’s seal, (Convallaria racemosa, multiflora, latifolia,) Aster, novae angliae and others, Cimicifuga, Helianthus multiflorus, the late phloxes, &c. always supposing these not to be allowed to spread so far as to injure the shrubs. . .

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 409, 412)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Suppose the area or garden space to be small, one great object would be to shut out by '''shrubbery''' the boundaries, so that the small extent might not appear, to fill every angle and corner with the Lilac or other large and spreading plant, and to take every advantage of the adjoining land. Thus imagine the neighboring piece to be grass; by means of a very open or of a [[sunk fence]] and a grass [[plat]] the grass on both lands would appear to combine and present an extensive expanse of green, or if wood adjoins, then by judicious transplantation an uninterrupted line of [[copse]] would be formed, on which the eye would rest with pleasure. The invisible [[fence]]s commonly used in England, might here be of great service, they are made of thick iron wire, about four feet high, with thin iron posts at distances of eight or ten feet, painted black, so that they form no impediment to such combinations of [[prospect]] with contiguous properties. The same may be done where a rivulet or a piece of water exists near, observing always that such innocent appropriations of our neighbor’s property is much better enjoyed when only caught at glimpses and between intervals of '''shrubbery'''. . .
:“There is also some management necessary in working up such landscapes with an artist’s eye, by opening vistas through [[plantation]]s, concealing barns and outbuildings or [[kitchen garden]]s by judicious management of [[clump]]s of trees, or permitting small glimpses of the [[flower garden]] by gaps in the '''shrubberies'''—an ornamental roof of a greenhouse partly concealed by foliage is an elegant object.” [[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 147–49)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck and Company, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''shrubbery''' is so nearly allied to the [[flower garden]] that in a work professedly treating of the latter, a particular notice of the former subject is required. Indeed, it is rarely that the flower garden has a good and natural appearance without the presence of the '''shrubbery''', either as forming an outline on the margin, or occupying a prominent situation at one end for the convenience of a shady retreat or other useful purpose. . .
:“I recommend that '''shrubbery''' be more frequently planted on the margin of [[lawn]]s, the outsides of the [[flower garden]], and indeed in all kinds of foregrounds and side entrances to residences of almost any denomination. To residences on the main road and in the immediate vicinity of cities, '''shrubbery''' can with every propriety be introduced on the side wings of the [[lawn]] and carriage roads: and in many cases if a belt or [[border]] of some seven or eight feet wide of '''shrubbery''' be planted in front next to the road that passes such places, it would add much to the beauty and value of the property. . . There can be no objection, however, to a few ornamental trees being planted in front of such houses or even mingled with the '''shrubbery''', and particularly if so managed as to form a ''screen or outline'' to protect the building from the cold winds, when trees so situated serve the double purpose of shelter and ornament.
:“In planting shrubs of every denomination, the general rule must be to place the plants so that their habit and appearance will be really ornamental and at the same time subserve (or at least seem to) some useful end: for instance, the taller kinds, as the ''Lilac'', ''Snowball'', and the like, are the most proper to cover board [[fence]]s, and the back part of '''shrubberies'''; the more dwarf kinds, as the ''Double Almond'', ''Roses'', ''Mezeron'' and so on, for the front or facing. There is also some taste required in mixing the varieties of foliage and habits of the different kinds to be planted, which can only be acquired by a due observance of shrubs when in full foliage. The planting should be so managed that when grown up the outline is natural, that is to say, not too formal; but here and there a little broken by some tall shrub growing above the rest.
:“In the front of such plantations a part of the ground should be planted with herbaceous and other kinds of plants, which when nicely mingled with the shrubs form a pretty contrast in the flowering season. Indeed the margin of the '''shrubbery''' is the only situation where such plants will flourish and show to good advantage, besides giving a fine flourish to the whole.”

*[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 12, 20)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The outer margin of the [flower] garden should be planted with the largest trees and shrubs: the interior arrangement may be in detached groups of '''shrubbery''' and [[parterre]]s.
:“If '''shrubberies''' were made to a great extent, the scenery would be much more varied and characteristic by grouping judiciously than by indiscriminately planting.
:“However, in small [[flower garden]]s and '''shrubberies''', the latter has to be adopted. In such places, tall growing kinds should never be introduced, unless merely as a screen from some disagreeable object, for they crowd and confuse the whole. The dwarf and more bushy sorts should be placed nearest to the eye, in order that they may conceal the naked stems of the others. Generally when shrubs are planted, they are small; therefore, to have a good effect from the beginning, they should be planted closer than they are intended to stand. When they have grown a few years, and interfere with each other, they can be lifted, and such as have died, or become sickly, replaced, and the remainder can be planted in some other direction. Keep them always distinct, one from another, in order that they may be the better shown off. But, if it is not desired that they should be thicker planted than it is intended to let them remain, the small growing kinds may be six or eight feet apart; the larger, or taller sorts, ten to twenty feet, according to the condition of the soil.
:“Thick masses of '''shrubbery''', called [[thicket]]s, are sometimes wanted. In these there should be plenty of evergreens. A mass of deciduous shrubs has no imposing effect during winter.”

*Barber, John Warner, 1844, describing the village of Roxbury in ''Historical collections, being a general collection of interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c.'' (1844: 483)<ref>John Warner Barber, ''Historical collections, being a general collection of interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c., relating to the history and antiquities of every town in Massachusetts, with geographical descriptions'', (1844): 483, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/F53ITP6J view on Zotero].</ref>
:"The numerous genteel residences and cottages, which are mostly built on wood and painted white, contrast strongly with the evergreens and '''shrubbery''', by which most of them are surrounded; and during the summer months, the appearance of this place is highly beautiful."

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 543)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''SHRUBBERY''' is a garden, or portion of a garden, devoted to the cultivation of shrubs. It is not necessary, as Mr. Glenny observes, ‘That there should be any flowers or borders to constitute a '''shrubbery''', but there should be great taste in forming [[clump]]s, and grouping the various foliages and styles of growth. The groundwork in such a garden consists of gravel [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]. If flowers be intermixed, or, which is very generally adopted, there be a space left all round the [[clump]]s to grow flowers in, it becomes a dressed or [[pleasure ground]], rather than a '''shrubbery'''.—Though any part of a ground in which shrubs form the principal feature, is still called a '''shrubbery'''.’— ''Gard. and Prac. Flor''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 444)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . . still another most delightful scene is reserved, a so-called Rococo garden. . . A garden, laid out in this manner, demands much cleverness and skill in the gardener. . . Around it the most charming landscape open to the [[view]], gently swelling hills, interspersed with pretty village, gardens and grounds. In the plan of the garden, ''a'' and ''b'' are massed of '''shrubs'''; ''c'', circular [[bed]]s, separated by a border or belt of turf, ''e'', from the serpentine [[bed]], ''d''. The whole of this running pattern is surrounded by a border of turf, ''f''; ''g'' and ''h'' are gravel [[walk]]s; i, [[bed]]s, with pedestal and [[statue]] in the centre; ''k'', small oval [[bed]]s, separated from the [[bed]], ''l'', by a border or turf; ''m, n, o, p'', irregular arabesque [[bed]], set in turf."

[[File:0959.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.]]
[[File:0771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Frances Palmer]], “Ground Plot of Brier Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2.]]
*Thomas, John J., April 1848, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden” (''Cultivator'' 5: 114)<ref>John J. Thomas, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden,” ''Cultivator, a Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRVBXUHR/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“With a wish however, to encourage a more graceful, pleasing, and [[picturesque]] mode of laying out even the small [[flower garden]] in connexion with the '''shrubbery''', we have given the above plan, which nearly explains itself.” [Fig. 8]

*Ranlett, William H., 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:5, 33)<ref name="Ranlett">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[border]]s [of the proposed cottage grounds, Design I] are filled with a variety of '''shrubbery''', producing a succession of flowers through the season, and a variety of delicate fruit trees are arranged in such order as to ornament the place nearly or quite as much as the standard shrubs, that produce only flowers.” [Fig. 9]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 442–45)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''''shrubbery''''' is so generally situated in the neighborhood of the [[flower-garden]] and the house, that we shall here offer a few remarks on its arrangement and distribution.
:“A collection of flowering shrubs is so ornamental, that to a greater or less extent it is to be found in almost every residence of the most moderate size: the manner in which the shrubs are disposed, must necessarily depend in a great degree upon the size of the grounds, the use or enjoyment to be derived from them, and the prevailing character of the scenery.
:“It is evident, on a moment’s reflection, that shrubs being intrinsically more ornamental than trees, on account of the beauty and abundance of their flowers, they will generally be placed near and about the house, in order that their gay blossoms and fine fragrance may be more constantly enjoyed, than if they were scattered indiscriminately over the grounds.
:“Where a place is limited in size, and the whole lawn and plantations partake of the ''[[pleasure-ground]]'' character, shrubs of all descriptions may be grouped with good effect, in the same manner as trees, throughout the grounds; the finer and rare specics [''sic''] being disposed about the dwelling, and the more hardy and common sorts along the [[walk]]s, and in groups, in different situations near the eye.
:“When, however, the residence is of a larger size, and the grounds have a [[park]]-like extent and character, the introduction of shrubs might interfere with the noble and dignified expression of lofty full grown trees, except perhaps they were planted here and there, among large groups, as ''underwood''. . . When this is the case, however, a portion near the house is divided from the [[park]] (by a wire [[fence]] or some inconspicuous barrier) for [''sic''] the [[pleasure-ground]], where the shrubs are disposed in belts, groups, etc., as in the first case alluded to.
:“There are two methods of grouping shrubs upon lawns which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and ''[[picturesque]]'' scenery.
[[File:0391.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, “The Irregular Flower-garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), p. 428, fig. 76. This plan shows belts of shrubs arranged in arabesque beds.]]
:“In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the plantations of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of shrubs may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . In this case, the shrubs alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the beds; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled.” [Fig. 10]

*New York State Lunatic Asylum Trustees, 1851, describing the ideal grounds for a lunatic asylum (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 53)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The salutary influence on the insane mind of highly cultivated [[lawn]]s—pleasant [[walk]]s amid shade trees, '''shrubbery''', and [[fountain]]s, beguiling the long hours of their [''sic''] tedious confinement—giving pleasure, content, and health, by their beauty and variety, are fully appreciated by us.”

*Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr. 1976: 2:39, 78)<ref name="Ranlett"></ref>
:“The windows, the door, and the chimney; the absence of a [[piazza]], the lack of all ornamentation, of vines and '''shrubbery''' [of a house recently erected in the suburbs of NY], bespeak a degree of ignorance of the means of enjoyment, of niggardliness and contracted [[view]]s, that ere long will be looked upon with incredulity. . .
:“City Houses, being seen in long rows, and rarely disconnected from other buildings, do not exhibit their defects so palpably as villas, which stand apart by themselves, and unless particularly concealed by '''shrubbery''', expose their nakedness and defects to all observers.”

*L., R. B., June 1851, “On Artificial Rockeries” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 279)<ref>R. B. L., “On Artificial Rockeries,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 6 (June 1851): 276–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K4A8SS87/q/on%20artificial%20rockeries view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It may likewise be observed that rockeries should always be in detached groups, and whether large or small, should never present straight lines or flat surfaces. . . it should always be rather cool, and if possible, shut in by itself by '''shrubbery''', and if possible, also, should be accompanied by a [[jet d’eau]] or [[basin]] of water, or both.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793. The three [[square]] privies are surrounded by the '''shrubbery'''.

File:0100_detail.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe [detail], 1793.

File:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA.

File:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

File:0166.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “. . . oval [[bed]]s of flowering '''shrubs'''.”

File:1270.jpg|Solomon Drowne, ''[[Botanic Garden]], 1818'', 1818. “'''Shrubbery'''” is marked in the hemicycle plat.

File:1221.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Plan of wings and courtyards, South Carolina Insane Asylum, 1821.

File:1848.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], '''Shrubbery''' formed in the [[geometric style]] of gardening, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 804, fig. 557.

File:1353.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The select or grouped manner of planting a '''shrubbery''',” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 806, fig. 559.

File:1847.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Ground-plan for “systematic or methodical planting in '''shrubberies''',” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 807, fig. 560. The shrubbery is indicated at ''k'' in the upper left quadrant.

File:1354.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Rough bench in [[Rustic_style|rustic]] hut decorated in '''shrubberies''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 809, fig. 561.

File:1355.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Grecian [[temple]],” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 809, fig. 562.

File:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of [[Parmentier’s_Horticultural_and_Botanical_Garden|Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanical Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

File:1145.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of Laurel Hill [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]],” in ''Statues of Old Mortality and His Pony, and of Sir Walter Scott'' (1839). "11, '''Shrubbery'''."

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. ". . .rich profusion of '''shrubbery''' near the house. . ."

File:1503.jpg|Anonymous, "The Rococo Garden of Baron Hügel, near Vienna," Horticulturist, vol. 1, no. 10 (April 1847), pl. opp. p. 441. "''a'' and ''b'' are massed of '''shrubs'''."

File:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The '''Shrubbery''' and [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in the ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.

File:0775.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of a cottage, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 23. "Ground [[Plot/Plat|plot]]. . . in the [[Modern style/Natural style|natural style]] with [[hedge]] and '''shrub''' [[border]]s."

File:1253.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.

File:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. "H" marks "a fruit '''shrubbery'''".
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

File:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''[[View]] of Baltimore from Howard [[Park]]'', c. 1796.

File:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

File:0051.jpg|William Strickland, “[[The Woodlands]],” 1809, in ''Casket'' 5, no. 10 (October 1830): pl. opp. 432.

File:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from ''A Map of the City of Washington'', 1818.

File:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''[[View]] of the West Front of [[Monticello]] and Garden'', 1825.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners’ Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830–40.

File:1100.jpg|Robert Walter Weir, “Lunatic Asylum, New York,” Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, in ''New York Mirror'' (February 1, 1834): opp. 241.

File:1101.jpg|Anonymous, “Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane,” ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 6.

File:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, “A [[Greenhouse|green-house]] constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157. On the left, a '''shrubbery''' conceals the entrance to the stables.

File:1033.jpg|Anonymous, “Forest [[Pond]],” in ''The [[Picturesque]] Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), 171.

File:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The [[Seat]] of General George P. Morris),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.

File:1039.jpg|Anonymous, The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]], in Joseph Breck, ''The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]]: or, Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (1841), frontispiece.

File:1303.jpg|John Warner Barber, "North-western [[view]] in the central part of the Village of Roxbury," in ''Historical Collections, Being a general collection of interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c.,'' (1844), 483.

File:1146.jpg|John T. Hammond (engraver), ''Plan of the Laurel Hill [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], near Philadelphia'' [detail], c. 1845.

File:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells, attr., ''Roseland Cottage'', c. 1846.

File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, “A [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Alcove]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.

File:0369.jpg|Anonymous, “Mrs. Camac’s Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. between 58 and 59, fig. 13.

File:0364.jpg|Anonymous, “Belmont Place, near Boston, the [[seat]] of J. P. Cushing, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 54, fig. 10.

File:0367.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esp.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 57.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Modern_style|natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25.

File:0391.jpg|Anonymous, “The Irregular [[Flower_garden|Flower-garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 428, fig. 76. This plan shows belts of '''shrubs''' arranged in arabesque [[bed]]s.

File:0771.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of Brier Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2.

File:0773.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of Anglo-Italian Villa, New York, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 8.

File:0774.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]]s for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

File:0776.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “A [[plot]] of village property 724 feet by 488,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1165.jpg|William Williams, ''Deborah Hall'', 1766.

File:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of [[Monticello]] Mountain, before May 1768.

File:0256.jpg|The Beardsley Limner, ''Mrs. Hezekiah Beardsley (Elizabeth Davis)'', c. 1788—90.

File:0243.jpg|Ludwig Gottfried von Redeken, ''A [[View]] of SALEM in N. Carolina—1787'', 1787.

File:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, ''A [[View]] of the present [[Seat]] of his Excel. the Vice President of the United States'', 1790.

File:0058.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795—99.

File:0510.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''A [[View]] in Charleston taken from Savage’s Green'', 1796.

File:0257.jpg|Richard Brunton, attr., ''Portrait of Deborah Richmond'', 1797.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box [[Grove]]'', c. 1800.

File:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

File:0312.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Hampton, the [[Seat]] of Gen.l Cha.s Ridgely, Maryland,” in ''The country [[seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 19.

File:0119.jpg|Anonymous, ''Making Hay'', c. 1810.

File:0006.jpg|Harriet De (?), ''The Duck [[Pond]]'', c. 1820.

File:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

File:0521.jpg|William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public [[Square]], Philadelphia'', 1824.

File:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J. D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825—30.

File:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the [[Botanic Garden]] of the State of New York,” in [[David Hosack]], ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

File:0347.jpg|Anonymous, ''Girl in Red with Flowers and a Distelfink'', c. 1830.

File:0464.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

File:1173.jpg|Anonymous, The Diploma for the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, c. 1836, in ''Yearbook of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society'' (1956), frontispiece.

File:0419.jpg|John La Tourette, “University of the State of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.,” detail from ''Map of the State of Alabama'', c. 1837.

File:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington, from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

File:0524.jpg|Anonymous, Palladian Villa Style Building in Formal Landscape, c. 1840—50.

File:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''[[Picturesque]] [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

File:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the [[National_Mall|Mall]], Washington, D.C.'', 1841.

File:1966.jpg|Edward William Mumford, ''Clarke’s Hall & Dock Creek'', c. 1844.

File:0448.jpg|Anonymous, ''Brother and Sister'', c. 1845.

File:1102.jpg|F. F. Judd (artist), E. B. and E. C. Kellogg (lithographers), “Retreat for the Insane, Hartford, Connecticut,” in ''Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Officers of the Retreat for the Insane at Hartford, Connecticut'' (1846), 314.

File:0753.jpg|John Notman, “Plan of Grounds, Fieldwood, near Princeton,” October 19, 1846.

File:0110.jpg|Joseph Goldsborough Bruff (artist), Edward Weber & Co. (lithographer), ''Elements of National Thrift and Empire'', c. 1847.

File:2292.jpg|Weingärtner & Sarony, “Smithsonian Institution, from the North East,” in Robert Dale Owen, ''Hints on Public Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. 108.

File:0614.jpg|T. Illman after J. Davis, ''Hancock House Boston'', c. 1850.

File:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

File:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Green

2021-03-31T14:14:23Z

A-Whitlock:

See also: [[Bowling green]], [[Common]], [[Lawn]], [[Plot]], [[Square]]

==History==
[[File:0881_detail.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, ''Plan de la ville et environs de Williamsburg en Virginie, America'' [detail], 1782. The tree-lined green runs north to south, right of center.]]
The term green in American landscape design was used to describe two types of landscape features. The first was level [[plat]]s or [[lawn]]s, often the setting for garden buildings such as the [[summerhouse]] described in 1762 at [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], Judge [[William Peters|William Peters's]] estate near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, or other garden features, such as the [[basin]] at Crowfield, William Middleton’s [[plantation]] near Charleston, South Carolina, reported by [[Eliza Lucas Pinckney]] in 1743. These [[lawn]]s sometimes had utilitarian functions, as with the “bleaching green” that Walter Elder described in 1849 for whitening laundry in the sunshine ([[#Elder|view text]]). The usage of the term to describe a level [[lawn]] may have been related to “greensward” (used rarely but synonymously with [[lawn]]) or [[bowling green]], although these connections are not articulated in any of the treatises or descriptions (see [[Bowling green]] and [[Lawn]]).

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0324.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, William Russell Birch, “Back of the State House, Philadelphia,” 1800.]]
The second and more frequent use of the term referred to open public spaces, generally centrally located in towns or villages and particularly characteristic of New England settlements, such as that described by John Warner Barber (1844) at Taunton, Massachusetts ([[#Barber|view text]]). For a detailed discussion of the variety of New England settlement patterns, and the history of open spaces in town planning, see [[Common]]. Like [[common]]s and [[square]]s, greens were admired for their spaciousness within the close confines of a town, as conveyed by the descriptions of Newcastle, Delaware, in 1727 and New Haven, Connecticut, in 1750. Town greens also provided open space for communal gatherings such as military exercises, markets, or special ceremonial occasions such as the Cherokee dance performance on the green of the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, Virginia [Fig. 1], or the Marquis de Lafayette’s procession in Newark, New Jersey, in 1824. Greens set the stage for the kind of social promenading and recreation depicted in William Russell Birch's illustration of the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia [Fig. 2]. In addition to serving multiple purposes as a communal space, the green was often a setting for prominent public buildings: meetinghouses, watch houses, and government buildings. Greens were also used for the purpose of [[burying ground]]s, as at New Haven, and Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. These public greens were landscaped with grass, walkways or paths, and shade trees, often planted around the perimeter or alongside the [[walk]]s. The level of ornamentation ranged from the simple tree plantings, as depicted in Barber’s view of Newark [Fig. 3], to more elaborate plantings, such as the rows of elms and poplars and gravel [[walk]]s described by William Dickinson Martin in 1809 in Philadelphia ([[#Martin|view text]]). Chronologically, these designs register an increasing use of ornamentation, particularly in New England in the second quarter of the 19th century, reflecting the prosperity and development of the village commercial centers.

[[File:0664.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, John Warner Barber, “The Lower Green, or Military Common, Newark, N.J.,” in ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey'' (1844), pl. opp. 176.]]
[[File:1010.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, James Wadsworth, ''Plan of the City of New Haven'', 1748.]]
New Haven Green, one of the best-known and documented examples of this feature in the United States, provides an interesting case study of communal space in the history of American landscape design.<ref>The New Haven Green is discussed at greater length in Rollin G. Osterweis, ''The New Haven Green and the American Bicentennial'' (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1976), 9–56, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X35I7B2Z view on Zotero].</ref> The nine-square plan was laid out in 1638 by London merchant Theophilus Eaton.<ref>Anthony Garvan has linked the design of New Haven to two town-planning traditions: the English garrison town plans in Ireland and the Continent (such as Londonderry and Calais) and the classical principles of Vitruvius. See Anthony Garvan, ''Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial Connecticut'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1951), 44–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TFGB9MHA/ view on Zotero].</ref> As the 1748 plan [Fig. 4] indicates, the outer [[square]]s were divided into lots. The central [[square]], however, was kept intact and used for a variety of purposes and public buildings at different points in time. In 1639, it was the scene of a public display of the decapitated head of a Native American accused of murdering English settlers,<ref>Records of the Colony and Plantation of New Haven, 1638–49, quoted in Osterweis 1976, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/X35I7B2Z view on Zotero].</ref> and in 1645 it was the gathering place for the Artillery Company. Between 1638 and 1665 it was the location of the watch house, the prison house, and a schoolhouse. A meetinghouse was authorized on the site in 1639, one of a series whose successor may be seen on the 1748 map. The various civic uses of the central space are reflected in its numerous early appellations. The first reference to the space as a “markett place” occurred in 1639, but it was not until 1759 that the term “green” first appeared in print in an advertisement in the ''Connecticut Gazette''. These two designations were used interchangeably until 1784 when the officials of the newly incorporated city began to use the more cosmopolitan sounding “Public Square” and “Great Square.” According to recent scholarship, the term “green” continued to be used popularly in New Haven, but it was not until after the Civil War that the “New Haven Green” became the clear title of the city’s central space.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Ross, George, March 1, 1727, describing Newcastle, DE (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“In the middle of the Town lies a spacious '''green''' in form of a [[square]], in a corner whereof stood formerly a Fort &c.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], May 1743, describing Crowfield, [[plantation]] of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, The ''Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . as you draw nearer [the house] new beauties discover themselves. . . a spacious [[basin|bason]] in the midst of a large '''green''' presents itself as you enter the [[gate]] that leads to the house.”

[[File:0100.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793]]
*Birket, James, October 9, 1750, describing Yale College, New Haven, CT (1916: 36)<ref>James Birket, ''Some Cursory Remarks (Made by James Birket in His Voyage to North America 1750–1751'') (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q6SNP8A/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“YALE COLLEDGE [''sic'']. . . A new one [structure] of Brick which Seems to be About 3 foot Above the Ground & And will front towards a large Spacious '''green''' in the Middle of the town.” [Fig. 5]

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Callender 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a broad [[walk]] of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro’ a broad gravel [[walk]], to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a '''grean'''. . .”

*Anonymous, June 12, 1777, describing the peace talks with Cherokee nation in Williamsburg, VA (''Maryland Gazette'')
:“After the talk was concluded, they [the members of the Cherokee nation] favoured the public with a dance on the '''green''' in front of the palace, where a considerable number of spectators, both male and female, were agreeably entertained.”

*Strickland, William, November 2, 1794, describing Weathersfield, MA (1971: 198)<ref name="Strickland">William Strickland, ''Journal of a Tour in the United States of America, 1794–1795'', ed. J. E. Strickland (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DR8FH6KF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This is one of the neatest towns I have seen since I enterd the New-England States where all the towns are neat: it consists of many good houses detached from each other, or scatterd along a wide street, or rather along the edge of a '''Green''' of excellent turf, on a sandy soil keeping itself continually dry and firm.”

*[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1796, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1821: 1:190–91)<ref>Timothy Dwight, ''Travels in New England and New York'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Timothy Dwight, 1821), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KHT2AUCG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Indubitable proofs of the enterprise of the inhabitants are seen in the Institutions already mentioned. . . Of these, levelling and enclosing the '''green''', accomplished by subscription, at an expense of more than two thousand dollars, and the establishment of a new public [[cemetery]], accomplished at a much greater expense, are particularly creditable to their spirit.”

*Strickland, William, September 24, 1796, describing Newark, NJ (1971: 67)<ref name="Strickland"></ref>
:“This town strikingly resembles many of the neat villages in the southern counties of England, consisting of a mixture of stone, brick, and weatherboarded houses, many of them handsome and eligant, and all bearing the appearance of comfort and neatness, scatterd on the edge of an open '''green''', spotted here and there with a large Hickory, or Black-wallnut-tree, with a little garden in front of each; It is not easy to meet with a more pleasing scene.”

*<div id="Martin"></div>Martin, William Dickinson, May 20, 1809, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation),
:“The [[State House Yard|State House]]. . . is a large building on the south side of Chestnut Street. . . Attached to the State House, is a large '''green''' occupying a whole [[square]] to Walnut Street. [[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]] This is a neat place, ornamented with rows of Elms & Poplars: as also having handsome gravel [[walk]]s, one of which extends thro' the Centre with grass [[plot]]s on each side. The whole is enclosed in high brick [[wall]]s.” [[#Martin_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0663.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, John Warner Barber, “College of New Jersey, Princeton,” in ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey'' (1844), pl. opp. 266.]]
*Martin, William Dickinson, May 21, 1809, describing Princeton, NJ (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“In front of it [the College] is a very handsome '''green''' [[square]] of about four Acres, enclosed in a railing, & produces very fine herbage. It is attached to the College as a place of recreation & amusement for the students.” [Fig. 6]

*Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Sandy Hill, NY (1824: 136–39)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This pretty and flourishing village is regularly laid out, and composed of neat and handsome houses, many of which surround a beautiful central '''green'''. . .
:“Sandy Hill. . . is an incorporated village, exhibiting a great appearance of neatness and comfort. It is said to be very healthy. I observed the citizens busied in sweeping their public '''green''' with brooms, and in cleaning their streets—a commendable example for other villages; it is done here by a kind of common law.”

*Forman, Martha Ogle, September 1, 1824, describing the entrance of the Marquis de Lafayette into Newark, NJ (1976: 187)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The entrance of La Fayette into Newark was very interesting, he was ushered in by the firing of Cannon and ringing of bells. They had erected on the '''green''' a number of [[arch]]es representing the different states, all wreathed with Laurels and the effect was very beautiful.”

*Douglass, Frederick, 1825, describing [[Wye House]], estate of Col. Edward Lloyd, Talbot County, MD (1855; repr., 1987: 46)<ref>Frederick Douglass, ''My Bondage and My Freedom'', ed. William L. Andrews (1855; repr., Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q764CVCK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There was a windmill (always a commanding object to a child’s eye) on Long Point—a tract of land dividing Miles river from the Wye—a mile or more from my old master’s house. There was a creek to swim in, at the bottom of an open flat space, of twenty acres or more, called 'the Long '''Green''''—a very beautiful play-ground for the children.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1838, describing Fort Hill, Boston, MA (1838: 24)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: George W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“After the [[Boston Common|Common]], we ought to mention the '''green''' upon Fort Hill, which serves the appropriate purpose of a play-ground for one of our public schools—such an one as every school ought to have access to.”

[[File:1117.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, W. H. Bartlett, “The Gothic Church. (New Haven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 2, pl. 6.]]
*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1840; repr., 1971: 219)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (1840; repr., Barre, MA: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the centre of New Haven were originally laid out two open [[square]]s, divided by a street kept sacred from private buildings. The upper '''green''' is a beautiful [[slope]], edged with the long line of the college edifices. Between the two [[square]]s stand three churches, at equal distances; two of the common order of architecture for places of public worship in this country (immense brick buildings, with tall white spires); and a third, which is presented in the drawing, a Gothic episcopal church, of singular purity and beauty. Behind and before it, spread away the verdant carpets of the two enclosed ‘'''greens'''’; above its turret and windows hang the drooping fans of elms, half disclosing and half concealing its pointed architecture; and to its door, from every direction, tend aisles of lofty trees, overhanging the paths with shadow, as if the first thought of the primitive settlers had been to create visible [[avenue]]s to the house of God.” [Fig. 7]

*Trego, Charles, 1843, describing Chambersburg, PA (1843: 249)<ref>Charles B. Trego, ''A Geography of Pennsylvania'' (Philadelphia: Edward C. Biddle, 1843), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HC6JKU7N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Presbyterian church is much admired on account of its beautiful situation in a retired quiet spot, enveloped with trees and surrounded by a delightful '''green''', at the west end of which is the [[burying ground]] of the congregation, and adjoining it, an ancient [[burying ground]] of the Indians.”

[[File:1435.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), “Central Part of Taunton, Mass.,” in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp 141.]]
*<div id="Barber"></div>Barber, John Warner, 1844, describing Taunton, MA (caption for pl. opp. 141, 143)<ref>John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections, Being a General Collection of Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical Sketches, Anecdotes, &c., Relating to the History and Antiquities of Every Town in Massachusetts, with Geographical Descriptions'' (Worcester, MA: Warren Lazell, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F53ITP6J view on Zotero].</ref>
:"The above is an eastern [[view]] of Taunton '''Green''', with some of the surrounding buildings. The Court-House is seen on the left, and one of the Congregational churches on the right. . .
:“The center of the main village is ornamented with an enclosed '''green''' with shade-trees, on one side of which is situated the court-house and other handsome buildings.” [Fig. 8] [[#Barber_cite|back up to History]]

*Tuthill, Louisa C. (Louisa Caroline), 1848, describing New Haven Green, New Haven, CT (1848: 319)<ref>Louisa C. Tuthill, ''History of Architecture, from the Earliest Times. . .'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1848), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4ACTS7DK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The New Haven '''Green''' has been justly celebrated as one of the most beautiful public [[square]]s in this country. Its elms are remarkably fine; it has recently been enclosed with a light and tasteful iron railing, which adds much to its beauty.”

*<div id="Elder"></div> Elder, Walter, 1849, describing Albany, NY (1849: 227)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“When in the service of Edward C. Delavan, Esq., (Champion of temperance,) we had that unique cottage at the corner of his noted [[flower garden]] in Albany, N.Y. It had three rooms on the first floor, and a good garret, and was finely shaded with a grape-vine [[arbor|arbour]], which stretched over it; a neat bleaching '''green''' behind it, and a pump and well of ‘pure cold water’ for our private use.” [[#Elder_cite|back up to History]]

===Citations===
*Johnson, Samuel, 1755, ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755: 1:n.p.)<ref>Samuel Johnson, ''A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words Are Deduced from the Originals and Illustrated in the Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GREEN'''. ''n.s.''. . .
:“2. A grassy plain.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 1:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''GREEN''', ''n''. The color of growing plants. . .
:“2. A grassy plain or [[plat]]; a piece of ground covered with verdant herbage.
:“O’er the smooth enameled '''''green'''''. ''Milton''.”

*Thomas, John J., April 1848, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden” (''Cultivator'' 5: 114)<ref>John J. Thomas, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden,” ''Cultivator, a Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRVBXUHR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is merely necessary to remark, that the boundary of the grounds is composed chiefly of trees and [[shrub]]s, the more central portion being devoted to flowers. The latter is a very smooth and closely shaven '''green''', around which the [[walk]] passes, the [[bed]]s being cut into the turf and raised scarcely above the surface.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0510.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''A [[View]] in Charleston taken from Savage’s '''Green''''', 1796.

Image:1153.jpg|J. G. Hales, ''Plan of Mansion House, Garden &c. in Portsmouth, Belonging to James Rundlet Esqr., 1812''. "''1. Mansion House, '''Green''' &c.''"

Image:1741.jpg|Peter Aaron van Dorn, ''Map of City of Jackson'', Mississippi, 1822. "College '''Green''',” "Capital '''Green''',” and "Court '''Green'''" at the top of the plan.

Image:1435.jpg|John Warner Barber (artist), S. E. Brown (engraver), “Central Part of Taunton, Mass.,” in John Warner Barber, ''Historical Collections'' (1844), pl. opp 141.

Image:1269.jpg|Solomon Drowne, Detailed plan of a [[botanic garden]] at Brown University, n.d. '''Green''' is inscribed at the bottom of the plan.
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1010.jpg|James Wadsworth, ''Plan of the City of New Haven'', 1748.

Image:0881.jpg|Anonymous, ''Plan de la ville et environs de Williamsburg en Virginie, America'', 1782.

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793

Image:0324.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Back of the State House, Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0882.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (copy after Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), after 1800.

Image:1998.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia (Unknown Draftsman’s Plan), c. 1800.

Image:0407.jpg|Amos Doolittle, ''A [[View]] of the Buildings of Yale College at New Haven'', 1807.

Image:0816.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Yale College. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 1, pl. 35.

Image:1117.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “The Gothic Church. (Newhaven),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'', 2 vols. (1840), vol. 2, pl. 6.

Image:0664.jpg|John Warner Barber, “The Lower '''Green''', or Military [[Common]], Newark, N.J.,” in ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey'' (1844), pl. opp. 176.

Image:0663.jpg|John Warner Barber, “College of New Jersey, Princeton,” in ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey'' (1844), pl. opp. 266.

Image:1997.jpg|Robert A. Lively, Plan of Williamsburg, Virginia, after Benjamin Bucktrout’s plan, 1867.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1303.jpg|John Warner Barber, "North-western [[view]] in the central part of the Village of Roxbury," in ''Historical Collections, Being a general collection of interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c. . . .'', (1844), p. 483.

Image:0982.jpg|L. S. Punderson, ''Public [[Square]], New Haven, Ct.'', 1862.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Public Spaces]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

File:0100.jpg

2021-03-31T14:13:23Z

A-Whitlock:

John Trumbull, Plan for Old Brick Rowe, 1793, ink and watercolor. Manuscripts and Archives Department, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

File:2294.jpg

2021-03-26T14:57:10Z

A-Whitlock:

Andrea Soldi, ''James Gibbs, 1682 - 1754. Architect'', c. 1750, oil on canvas, 111.00 x 87.50 cm. PG 1373, Presented by the Art Fund (London Scot Bequest) 1938, National Galleries of Scotland, Scottish National Portrait Gallery.

James Gibbs

2021-03-26T14:56:26Z

A-Whitlock:

'''James Gibbs''' (December 23, 1682–August 5, 1754) was a Scottish architect who trained in Rome and practiced mainly in England, developing a highly individual synthesis of the Italian Baroque and English Palladian styles. He is generally regarded as one of the most influential architects in 18th-century England, but his ''Book of Architecture'' (1728) was an influential source of designs for buildings and garden architecture in America as well.

==History==
[[File:1992.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Fig. 1, James Gibbs, “Two Uprights of another Pavillion built at Hackwood,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 73.]]
While still in his teens, Gibbs embarked on a tour of continental Europe, where he devoted several years to the study of architecture. He later wrote that he was “highly pleased with the fine Buildings, pictures, and [[Statue]]s he saw in the great towns” of Italy, but that Rome “surpassed all the rest in Magnificence and grandeur.”<ref>Terry Friedman, ''James Gibbs'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), 5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TB3TGAU view on Zotero].</ref> In 1705 Gibbs became a pupil of the important Roman Baroque architect Carlo Fontana (1638–1714), thus becoming the first British architect to receive professional training abroad. From Fontana, Gibbs absorbed a high regard for classicism and the antique, as well as a life-long interest in contemporary Roman architecture. After returning to Britain in 1708, Gibbs worked on a number of churches, chapels, and country houses before receiving the highly prestigious appointment in 1720 to rebuild the parish church of St. Martin-in-the-Fields in London. He consequently became, in the words of Horace Walpole, “the architect most in vogue” and his work inspired countless imitators.<ref>Friedman 1984, 4, 6, 13, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TB3TGAU view on Zotero].</ref> Also in 1720 Gibbs submitted his first drawings for the Radcliffe Library at Oxford (1739–49), the building that would become the crowning achievement of his later career and the subject of a large folio volume of his designs, ''Bibliotheca Radcliviana'' (1747).

In 1726 Gibbs succeeded Sir John Vanbrugh (c. 1664–1726) as Viscount Cobham’s architect at the magnificent gardens at Stowe in Buckinghamshire. Collaborating with the landscape architects Charles Bridgeman (1690–1738) and Lancelot “Capability” Brown (1716–1783), Gibbs designed and erected ornamental [[pavilion]]s and [[temple]]s in an eclectic array of styles—neoclassical, Gothic, and [[rustic style|rustic]]—during the periods 1726–28 and 1739–49.<ref>Michael Gibbon, “Stowe, Buckinghamshire: The House and Garden Buildings and Their Designers,” ''Architectural History'' 20 (1977): 35, 41, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQ2ET6M6 view on Zotero].</ref> Gibbs went on to work for several other aristocratic patrons for whom he designed country estates as well as a great variety of garden features, often modeled on classical precedents. For example, at Hackwood, the [[seat]] of the Duke of Bolton, he erected a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[pavilion]] [Fig. 1] as a complement to an ornamental [[pond]], and a round [[temple]] with a cupola and Doric peristyle [Fig. 2] as the crowning element of a semicircular rise of [[lawn]] bounded by elm trees to simulate the shape of an amphitheater.<ref>William White, ''History, Gazetteer and Directory of the County of Hampshire'', 2nd ed. (Sheffield: William White, 1878), 127, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9VKK5F7E view on Zotero].</ref> Keeping pace with the growing taste for Palladian style, Gibbs carved out a role for himself as an innovator in the design of English classical villas.<ref>Friedman 1984, 103–200, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TB3TGAU view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1718.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, James Gibbs, “A Circular Building in the Form of a Temple,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 72.]]
The exhaustive knowledge of architecture that Gibbs had acquired in Rome was unusual and highly valued among architects of his generation. He extended his influence by publishing ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (1728), profusely illustrated with 150 engraved plates containing 380 of his drawings, perspectives, and blueprints for unexecuted as well as completed work. In the introduction, Gibbs wrote:

<blockquote>Such a work as this would be of use to such Gentlemen as might be concerned in Building, especially in remote parts of the country, where little or no assistance for Designs can be procured. Such may be here furnished with Draughts of useful and convenient Buildings and proper Ornaments; which may be executed by any Workman who understands Lines, either as here Design’d, or with some Alteration, which may be easily done by a person of Judgment.<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'', 2nd ed. (London: W. Innys and R. Manby, 1739), i, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z8U3MQ7H view on Zotero].</ref></blockquote>

Indeed ''A Book of Architecture'' was among the most widely used architectural books of the 18th century and, together with Gibbs’s subsequent ''Rules for Drawing the Several Parts of Architecture'' (1732), served as a pattern book for architects, students, scholars, and builders, not only in Great Britain but as far afield as the United States and the West Indies. Both books were listed in the sale catalogues of American booksellers as early as 1760.<ref>James Gibbs, ''Rules for Drawing the Several Parts of Architecture'', 3rd ed. (London: W. Innys and J. Richardson, J. and P. Knapton, R. Manby, and H.S. Cox, 1753), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/444CR3IZ view on Zotero]; Friedman 1984, 257, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TB3TGAU view on Zotero]; Janice G. Schimmelman, ''Architectural Books in Early America: Architectural Treatises and Building Handbooks Available in American Libraries and Bookstores'' (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll, 1999), 31–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNESNDH9 view on Zotero]; Helen Park, ''A List of Architectural Books Available in America Before the Revolution'' (Los Angeles: Hennessey & Ingalls, 1973), 54–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TCRBFMTW view on Zotero].</ref> In an advertisement published in the ''Maryland Gazette'' in 1751, the Virginia-born architect John Ariss (1725–1799) boasted of his ability to undertake buildings “of the Modern order of Gibbs’ Architect.”<ref>James D. Kornwolf and Georgiana Wallis Kornwolf, ''Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America'', 3 vols. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 3:1557, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6DRUS9ED view on Zotero].</ref> Both ''A Book of Architecture'' and ''Rules for Drawing the Several Parts of Architecture'' inspired [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson's]] early ideas for [[Monticello]] and were among the volumes from his personal collection that he sold to the United States government following the burning of the first Library of Congress in 1814.<ref>Gene Waddell, “The First Monticello,” ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'', 46 (1987): 9–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R9EMJR9N view on Zotero]; Fiske Kimbell, ''Thomas Jefferson, Architect'' (New York: Da Capo, 1968), 22, 25–26, 122–23, 127, 129, 134, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HT89Q5TG view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
* Gibbs, James, 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1739: xviii–xxv)<ref name="Gibbs_1728">Gibbs 1739, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z8U3MQ7H view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Plate LXVII. The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in form of a [[Temple]], made for a Person of Quality, and propos’d to have been placed in the Center of four [[Walk]]s; so that a Portico might front each [[Walk]]. Here is a large Octagonal Room of 22 feet and 26 feet high, adorn’d with Niches and crown’d with a Cupola. All the Ornaments of the Inside are to be of Plaister; and the Outside of Stone. . . .
:“Plate LXX. A Pavillion design’d for Sir ''John Curzon'' for his Seat near ''Derby''. It is a Cube of 20 feet, adorn’d with three Venetian Windows, circular Niches for Busto’s [''sic''], and an Entablature supported by [[rustic style|Rustick]] Coines. There were two of them to have been built opposite to one another, on each side of a [[Vista]] proposed to be cut through a [[Wood/Woods|Wood]], and to be terminated with an [[Obelisk]] upon a Hill fronting the House; the execution of which was prevented by Sir ''John''’s Death. . . .
:“Plate LXXII. A circular Building in the form of a [[Temple]], 20 feet in Diameter, having a Peristylium round it of the Dorick Order, and adorn’d with a Cupola; erected in his Grace the Duke of ''Bolton’s'' Garden at ''Hackwood'', upon the upper ground of an Amphitheatre, back’d with high Trees that render the [[Prospect]] of the Building very agreeable.
:“Plate LXXIII. Two Uprights of another [[Pavilion|Pavillion]] built at ''Hackwood''. The [[rustic style|Rustick]] Front looks upon a fine piece of Water, and the other on a beautiful [[Parterre]]. . . .
:“Plate LXXIX. Four [[summerhouse|Summer-houses]] in form of [[Temple]]s, Design’d for several persons. . . .
:“Plate LXXXVI. Three Draughts of [[Obelisk|Obelisques]], more ornamental than the former: They keep the same Proportion with them; only that upon the left hand has four times the thickness of the [[Obelisk|Obelisque]] at bottom to the height of its Pedestal, because of the Ornaments upon it the top part may be made in the manner here drawn, or with other Ornaments at discretion. The Antients [''sic''] never placed their [[Obelisk|Obelisques]] upon moulded Bases; but ''Dominico Fontana'' and others have placed them upon Bases, which, in my opinion, is a great addition to their beauty, however that may be done or not at pleasure.
:“Plate LXXXVII. Three Designs for [[Column]]s, proper for publick Places or private Gardens; ''viz''. a plain Dorick [[Column]] upon its Pedestal with a [[Vase]] a top, a fluted [[Column]] properly adorn’d, and a Rustick frosted [[Column]], with a Figure a-top, as I have made them for several Gentlemen. The Proportions of them are mark’d upon an upright Line, divided into so many Diameters of the [[Column]] for the Height. . . .
:“Plate CXXXVIII. Three Designs for [[Vase]]s, done for the Right Honourable the Earl of Oxford. There are two [[Vase]]s well executed in Portland Stone according to the middle Draught, which are set upon two large Peers on each side of the principal [[Walk]] in the Garden at ''Wimpole'' in ''Cambridgeshire''.
:“Plate CXXXIX, CXL, CXLI, CXLII, CXLIII, CXLIV. Fifty four Draughts of [[Vase]]s, &c. in the Antique manner, made for several persons at different times. Many of them have been executed both in Marble and Metal.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2294.jpg|Andrea Soldi, ''James Gibbs, 1682 - 1754. Architect'', c. 1750

Image:1715.jpg|James Gibbs, “The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in the form of a [[Temple]],” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 67.

Image:1716.jpg|James Gibbs, “Two other [[Pavilion]]s propos’d for the same place [Bowling-Green at Down Hall in Essex],” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 69.

Image:1717.jpg|James Gibbs, “A [[Pavilion]] design’d for Sir John Curzon for his [[seat]] near Derby,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 70.

Image:1718.jpg|James Gibbs, “A Circular Building in the Form of a [[Temple]],” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 72.

Image:1992.jpg|James Gibbs, “Two Uprights of another [[Pavilion|Pavillion]] [''sic''] built at Hackwood,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 73.

Image:1719.jpg|James Gibbs, “The Plan, Upright and Section of a [[Pavilion|Pavillion]] [''sic''] for the Right Honorable the Lord Viscount Cobham in his Garden at Stowe in Buckinghamshire,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 75.

Image:1720.jpg|James Gibbs, “Another Design for two [[Pavilion|Pavillion]] [''sic''] at Stowe,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 76.

Image:1721.jpg|James Gibbs, Four of “Eight [[Square]] [[Pavilion|Pavillion]] [''sic''] for my Lord Cobham and others,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 77.

Image:1744.jpg|James Gibbs, “Four [[Summerhouse|Summer-houses]] in form of [[Temple]]s,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 79.

Image:1722.jpg|James Gibbs, “Two [[Seat]]s for the ends of [[Walk]]s,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 82.

Image:1723.jpg|James Gibbs, “Two other [[Seat]]s for the same purpose [for the ends of [[walk]]s],” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 83.

Image:1724.jpg|James Gibbs, “Three Draughts of [[Obelisk|Obelisques]],” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 86.

Image:1725.jpg|James Gibbs, “Three Designs for [[Column]]s,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 87.

Image:1726.jpg|James Gibbs, “Six Draughts of Peers for [[Gate]]s,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 88.

Image:1727.jpg|James Gibbs, “Three Designs for [[Vase]]s,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 138.

Image:1728.jpg|James Gibbs, Nine of “Fifty four Draughts of [[Vase]]s,” in ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728), pl. 139.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n83196755.html Library of Congress Authority File]

[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10604?docPos=3 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]

[http://www.stmartin-in-the-fields.org/about/history/ St. Martin-in-the-Fields website]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Gibbs, James]]

File:2294.jpg

2021-03-26T14:54:17Z

A-Whitlock:

Robert Mills

2021-03-26T14:35:26Z

A-Whitlock:

'''Robert Mills''' (August 12, 1781–March 3, 1855) was an American engineer and architect best known for designing the [[Washington Monument (Washington, DC)|Washington Monument]] in Washington, DC. He was responsible for some of America’s earliest commemorative monuments, as well many public buildings in the nation’s capital and elsewhere. His blend of Palladian, Georgian, and Greek Revival styles contributed to the development of a distinctive Federal mode of architecture.

==History==
[[File:0830.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Robert Mills, Details of the Washington Monument for Mr. Daugherty, Superintendent of the Work, Washington, DC, October 24, 1848.]]
In approximately 1800, Mills left his native Charleston, South Carolina, to work under the architect James Hoban (c. 1758–1831) on the President’s House in the city of Washington. There, Mills became acquainted with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who lent him European books on architecture and in 1803 recommended him for a place in the office of [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], who was then designing a [[canal]] in the vicinity of the future [[National Mall]] while also overseeing work at the President’s House and the U.S. Capitol.<ref>John M. Bryan, ed. ''Robert Mills, Architect'' (Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects Press, 1989), 1–8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NQCC9937 view on Zotero]; John M. Bryan, ''Robert Mills: America’s First Architect'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 2001), 6–35, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P55UM5XC view on Zotero]; Rhodri Windsor Liscombe, ''Altogether American : Robert Mills, Architect and Engineer, 1781–1855'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 3–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NGNZ65WN view on Zotero].</ref> Both [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe's]] civil engineering work and his modern interpretation of ancient Greek and Roman architecture had lasting effects on Mills’s career.

In 1814 Mills won an important competition to design the [[Washington Monument (Baltimore)|Washington Monument]] in Baltimore, Maryland, which was to be the first public monument dedicated to the memory of George Washington. In advancing his candidacy, Mills had emphasized his American birth and education, noting that his architectural training had been “altogether American and unmixed with European habits" ([[#Mills_birth|view citation]]).<ref>William D. Hoyt Jr., “Robert Mills and the Washington Monument in Baltimore [Part One],” '' Maryland Historical Magazine'' 34 (1939): 153, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DC2JN4I5 view on Zotero]; J. Jefferson Miller, “The Designs for the Washington Monument in Baltimore, ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 23, no. 1 (March 1964): 23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5VX37FEW view on Zotero]; Bryan 2001, 112, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P55UM5XC view on Zotero].</ref> Mills’s knowledge of ancient and modern European art and architecture was actually quite extensive, and he drew freely on Old World prototypes in designing his landmark American monument, which ultimately took the form of a colossal Doric [[column]] on a cubic base surmounted by a [[statue]] of Washington [Fig. 1].<ref>Pamela Scott, “Robert Mills and American Monuments,” in ''Robert Mills, Architect,'' ed. John M. Bryan (Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects Press, 1989), 146–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P55UM5XC view on Zotero].</ref>

The Baltimore commission created opportunities to work on a number of smaller monuments. Mills designed an Egyptian Revival [[obelisk]] for the Aquilla Randall Monument (1816–17) in Baltimore and he repeated the [[obelisk]] form in subsequent commemorative projects, including the De Kalb (1824–27) and Maxcy Monuments (1824–27) in South Carolina,<ref>Scott 1989, 153–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P55UM5XC view on Zotero]; Bryan 2001, 139–42, 201–2, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P55UM5XC view on Zotero].</ref> as well as a drawing he submitted in 1825 for the competition to design the [[Bunker Hill Monument]] in Charleston, Massachusetts. Mills’s series of memorial monuments culminated in the most ambitious public monument to honor of Washington, the [[Washington Monument (Washington, DC)|Washington Monument]] on the [[National Mall]] in Washington, DC. Mills had proposed a variety of architectural projects in the President’s memory following his move to Washington in 1830, but it was not until 1845 that he secured the commission, and the monument was not completed until 30 years after his death.<ref>Bryan 2001, 220, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P55UM5XC view on Zotero]; Scott 1989, 157–158 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E2TP47UJ view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:0433.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Robert Mills, ''Plan of the Washington [[Canal]]'', 1831.]]
From early in his career, Mills had tailored many of his architectural and civil engineering projects to address the need for public recreation, urban green space, and landscape improvement. While serving as president of the Baltimore Water Company (1816–17), he devised a plan for improving the city’s waterways that included tree-lined [[promenade]]s (with “romantic scenery and [[waterfall]]s") for public recreation.<ref>Bryan 2001, 136, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P55UM5XC view on Zotero].</ref> The recommendations Mills made for developing [[canal]]s in South Carolina in the early 1820s included lengthy discussions of the [[canal]]s’ impact on daily life.<ref>Bryan 2001, 151–154, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P55UM5XC view on Zotero].</ref> In 1831, commissioned to redesign the Washington [[canal]] [Fig. 2], he expanded his purview to include the entire [[National Mall|Mall]], which he accommodated to a grid plan—a scheme he revised ten years later when he designed a [[botanic garden|Botanic Garden]] and the Smithsonian Institution building on the [[National Mall|Mall]].<ref>Pamela Scott, “‘This Vast Empire’: The Iconography of the Mall, 1791–1848,” in ''The Mall in Washington'', ed. Richard Longstreth, Studies in the History of Art, Center for Advanced Studies in the Visual Arts, Symposium Papers, XIV (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1991), 47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4WS8QU7 view on Zotero].</ref> Mills’s meticulously detailed 1841 plans conceived of the [[National Mall]] as a didactic and also recreational space in which specimen plantings were laid out in an assemblage of gardens of contrasting styles, interlinked above ground by pleasantly meandering paths and underground by pipes providing water for irrigation and ornamental [[fountain]]s. Mills’s designs for the [[National Mall]] have been interpreted as “part of an ambition to create a city-wide ‘museum’ of architecture and taste in Washington.”<ref>Therese O’Malley, “‘Your Garden Must Be a Museum to You’: Early American Botanic Gardens,” ''Huntington Library Quarterly'' 59, no. 2/3 (1996): 226; see also 222–25, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GD2JQTRB view on Zotero]; Scott 1991, 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/P55UM5XC view on Zotero].</ref> The [[National Mall]] was just one of several architectural and engineering projects that Mills undertook in the nation’s capital, the number and variety of which conferred on him the status of “unofficial federal architect.”<ref>Liscombe 1994, 163, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NGNZ65WN view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
* Mills, Robert, c. 1804, describing the [[National Mall]] (quoted in Gallagher 1935: 1927)<ref name="Gallagher_1935">H. M. Pierce Gallagher, ''Robert Mills, Architect of the Washington Monument, 1781–1855'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1935), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GC3NPRZJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It is a most commanding and beautiful [[prospect]], variegated with [[wood]]s, cleared land, gentle [[mount]]s and vales, and the waters of the Potomac and Tiber Rivers in the distant [[view]]; while there is revealed a glimpse of the navy yard where eight frigates of the United States Navy lie in mooring.”

*Mills, Robert, November 1813, initial proposal for the [[Washington Monument (Baltimore, MD)]] (quoted in Hoyt 1939: 145–46)<ref name="Hoyt_1939">Hoyt 1939, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DC2JN4I5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To the memory of General Washington, to be erected in the city of Baltimore, of octagonal form from the base to the top. . . .
:“From the base upwards to the first offset of the [[column]] eight feet, to be wrought at each angle the half of an octagonal [[pillar]], cut diagonally nine inches diameter & both at the base and eight feet distant at the offset to be formed from angle to angle a cornice in the Tuscan order. . . .
:“The space or [[yard]] contiguous to the base of the [[column]] to be of diagonal 42 2/3 feet diameter, corresponding with the angles of the monument. . . .
:“On the East, West, North and South of the monument to be placed two [[gate]] posts with a [[gate]]. Over the [[gateway|gate way]] to be suspended an elegant [[arch]], consisting of white marble, the two ends resting on the to posts of each [[gate]], bearing over the centre of each [[gate]] on the front of the [[arch]] the arms of the United States. All around the [[yard]], which incloses the monument, to be formed a gravel [[walk]], eleven feet in width, surrounded by an open [[fence]] of wooden posts and &railing, painted white with vacant spaces for entrance, opposite the [[gate]]s.”

*<div id="Mills_birth"></div>Mills, Robert, 1814, in the accompanying letter to his proposal for the [[Washington Monument (Baltimore, MD)]] (quoted in Hoyt 1939: 153)<ref name="Hoyt_1939"></ref>

:“Being an American by Birth and having also the honor of being the first American who has passed through a regular course of Study of Architecture in his own Country, it is natural for me to feel much Solicitude to aspire to the honor of raising a Monument to the memory of our illustrious Countryman. The Education I have received being all together American and unmixed with European habits, I can safely present the design submitted as American founded upon those general principles prefaced in the description contained in the Book of Designs.” [[#Mills_birth_cite|back up to History]]

*Mills, Robert, 1814, formal statement of his plan for the [[Washington Monument (Baltimore, MD)]] (quoted in Hoyt 1939: 154–55)<ref name="Hoyt_1939"></ref>

:“In laying the designs herewith submitted, before you, I would beg leave to make a few remarks upon ''Monuments'' in general, before I proceed to describe the one I have the honor now to present.
:“The ''character'' that ought to designate all ''Monuments'' should be, solidity, simplicity, and that degree of cheerfulness which should tempt the contemplation of the mind. . . Monuments ''isolated'', or in the open air, should be ''towering'', and commanding in their elevation, especially when they are encircled by a City, otherwise its ''popular'' intention is frustrated. . . Permit me now to draw your attention to the ''description'' of the design in question:—The ''Mass'', presents the appearance of a ''Greek'' [[Column]], elevated on a grand ''pedestal''; the [[column]] assumes the ''doric'' proportions, which possess solidity, and simplicity of character, emblematic of that of the illustrious ''personage'' to whose memory it is dedicated, and harmonising with the spirit of our Government. . .
:“Arrived at the ''platform'' which crowns this pedestal, and which is inclosed by a balustrade, we see the commencement of the ''great [[Column]]''. The diameter of this is more than 20 feet and its elevation above 120 ft. divided in its heigh by Six iron railed ''galleries'', which encircle it like bands, presenting ''[[promenade]]s'' to accommodate the reading of those ''historical'' inscriptions recorded on the shaft of the ''[[column]]''.”

*Mills, Robert, March 20, 1825, in a letter to the Monument Commission, describing plans for the [[Bunker Hill Monument]], Boston (quoted in Gallagher 1935: 204–6)<ref name="Gallagher_1935"></ref>

:“I have the honor to submit for your consideration and approval, a design for the Monument you propose erecting on the spot, where the Brave General Warren and his worthy associates fell; to commemorate their valor, and the gratitude of their Country. . .
:“In the design for the Monument which I now have the honor to lay before you, I would recommend the adoption of the ''[[obelisk]]'' form, in preference to the ''[[Column]]''—the detail I have affixed to this species of [[pillar]], will be found to give it a peculiarly interesting character, embracing originality of effect with simplicity of design, economy in execution, great solidity and capacity for decoration, reaching to the highest degree of splendor consistant with good taste. . .
:“The ''[[obelisk]]'' form is, for monuments, of greater antiquity than the [[Column]] as appears from history, being used as early as the days of Ramises King of Egypt in the time of the Trojan War—Kercher reckons up 14 [[obelisk]] that were celebrated above the rest, namely, that of Alexandria; that of the Barberins; those of Constantinople; of the Mons Esquilinus; of the Campus Flaminius; of Florence; of Heliopolis; of Ludorisco; of St. Makut, of the Medici of the vatican; of M. Coelius, and that of Pamphila. The highest on record mentioned, is that erected by Ptolemy Philadelphus in memory of Arsinoe.
:“The ''[[obelisk]]'' form is peculiarly adapted to commemorate ''great transactions'' from its lofty character, great strength, and furnishing a fine surface for inscriptions—There is a degree of lightness and beauty in it that affords a finer relief to the eye than can be obtained in the regular proportioned [[Column]].
:“Our monument includes a square of 24 feet at the base above the zocle or plinth, and is 15 feet square at the top—Its total elevation is 220 feet above the pavement—The shaft is divided into four great compartments for inscriptive, and other decorations, which come more immediately under the eye by means of oversailing platforms, enclosed by balastrades, supported as it were by winged globes (symbols of immortality peculiarly of a monumental Character).
:“A series of shields band round the foot of the shaft, representing the 13 States, which form'd the Federal union, as principal, having their arms sculptured on their face—A star, on a plain tablet in connection with the former, represents each the other states which now constitute our Union—the whole surmounted by spears and wreathes.
:“A flight of stone steps, or a rising platform, surround the base, from whence the lower inscriptions are read—
:“This is inclosed by a rich bronzed palisade—The entrance into the monument is from this platform, when a flight of stone steps, winding round a [[pillar]], ascends to the top, and communicates with the several platforms. Between the galleries, on each face of the [[pillar]], a wreath, hung on a speer, encircles the letter W, which is otherwise decorated and constitute apertures for lighting the interior of the Monument—over the Last wreath, and near the apex of the [[obelisk]], a great star is placed, emblematic of the glory to which the name of Warren has risen—A tripod crowns the whole and forms the surmounting of the Monument—This tripod is the classic emblem of immortality.”

*Mills, Robert, July 1, 1832, in a letter to Richard Walleck, describing Charlestown, MA (quoted in Gallagher 1935: 102)<ref name="Gallagher_1935"></ref>

:“When the [[Bunker Hill Monument]] Committee advertised for designs for the Monument, I took a good deal of pains to study one which should do honor to the memory of those worthies it was intended to commemorate, and prove an ornament to the city it was to overlook. I went into some detail on the subject of monuments generally and in sending them two designs, recommended in strong terms the adoption of the [[Obelisk]] design, not only from its combining simplicity and economy with grandeur, but as there was already a [[column]] of massy proportions erected in Baltimore, we ought not, therefore, to repeat this figure, but construct one of equally imposing figure.”

*Mills, Robert, 1836, arguing to increase the area around the [[Washington Monument (Baltimore, MD)]] (quoted in Lavoie 2005: 28)<ref>Catherine C. Lavoie, ''Washington Monument, Mount Vernon Place,'' Historic American Buildings Survey. Baltimore, MD, 2005, 13–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZPR3HPVW view on Zotero].</ref>

:“It would be a pity to have the space about the Mont [monument] cramped, after making the sacrifices that have been made—ample room here will be found not only ornamental but useful for many purposes, for the parade of troops, for great public meetings, etc.”

[[File:1835.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, Robert Mills, ''Sketch of the Washington Nat’l. Monumt.'', 1845.]]
*Mills, Robert, c. 1838, description of his design of the [[Washington Monument (Washington, DC)]] (quoted in Harvey 1903: 26–28)<ref>Frederick L. Harvey, ''History of the Washington Monument and Washington National Monument Society'' (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1903), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/975T9R2S view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“DESCRIPTION OF THE DESIGN OF THE [[Washington Monument (Washington, D.C.)|WASHINGTON NATIONAL MONUMENT]], TO BE ERECTED AT THE SEAT OF THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN HONOR OF ‘THE FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY,’ AND THE WORTHY COMPATRIOTS OF THE REVOLUTION.
:“This design embraces the idea of a grand circular colonnaded building, 250 feet in diameter and 100 feet high, from which springs a [[obelisk]] shaft 70 feet at the base and 500 feet high, making a total elevation of 600 feet.
:“This vast rotunda, forming the grand base of the Monument, is surrounded by 30 [[column]]s of massive proportions, being 12 feet in diameter and 45 feet high, elevated upon a lofty base or stylobate of 20 feet elevation and 300 feet square, surmounted by an entablature 20 feet high, and crowned by a massive balustrade 15 feet in height.
:“The [[terrace]] outside of the colonnade is 25 feet wide, and the pronaos or [[walk]] within the colonnade, including the [[column]] space, 25 feet. The [[walk]]s enclosing the cella, or gallery within, are fretted with 30 massive antæ (pilasters) 10 feet wide, 45 feet high, and 7-1/2 feet projection, answering to the [[column]]s in front, surmounted by their appropriate architrave. The deep recesses formed by the projection of the antæ provide suitable niches for the reception of [[statue]]s.
:“A tetrastyle [[portico]] (4 [[column]]s in front) in triple rows of the same proportions and order with the [[column]]s of the colonnade, distinguishes the entrance to the Monument, and serves as a pedestal for the triumphal car and [[statue]] of the illustrious Chief; the steps of this [[portico]] are flanked by massive blockings, surmounted by appropriate figures and trophies.
:“Over each [[column]], in the great frieze of the entablatures around the entire building, are sculptured escutcheons (coats of arms of each State in the Union), surrounded by bronze civic wreaths, banded together by festoons of oak leaves, &c., all of which spring (each way) from the centre of the [[portico]], where the coat of arms of the United States are emblazoned.
:“The [[statue]]s surrounding the rotunda outside, under the colonnade, are all elevated upon pedestals, and will be those of the glorious signers of the Declaration of Independence.
:“Ascending the [[portico]] outside to the [[terrace]] level a lofty vomitoria (door way) 30 feet high leads into the cella (rotundo gallery) 50 feet wide, 500 feet in circumference and 60 feet high, with a colossal [[pillar]] in the centre 70 feet in diameter, around which the gallery sweeps. This [[pillar]] forms the foundation of the [[obelisk]] [[column]] above.
:“Both sides of the gallery are divided into spaces by pilasters, elevated on a continued zocle or base 5 feet high, forming an order with its entablature 40 feet high, crowned by a vaulted ceiling 20 feet high, divided by radiating archevaults, corresponding with the relative positions of the opposing pilasters, and enclosing deep sunken coffers enriched with paintings.
:“The spaces between the pilasters are sunk into niches for the reception of the [[statue]]s of the fathers of the Revolution, contemporary with the immortal Washington; over which are large tablets to receive the National Paintings commemorative of the battle and other scenes of that memorable period. Opposite to the entrance of this gallery, at the extremity of the great circular wall, is the grand niche for the reception of the [[statue]] of the‘'Father of his Country’—elevated on its appropriate pedestal, and designated as ''principal'' in the group by its colossal proportions.
:“This spacious Gallery and Rotunda, which properly may be denominated the ‘National Pantheon,’ is lighted in four grand divisions from above, and by its circular form presents each subject decorating it walls in an interesting point of view and with proper effect, as the curiosity is kept up every moment, from the whole room not being presented to the eye at one glance, as in the case of a straight gallery.
:“Entering the centre pier through an arched way, you pass into a spacious circular area, and ascend with an easy grade, by a railway, to the grand [[terrace]], 75 feet above the base of the Monument. This [[terrace]] is 700 feet in circumference, 180 feet wide, enclosed by a colonnaded balustrade, 15 feet high with its base and capping. The circuit of this grand [[terrace]] is studded with small [[temple]]-formed structures, constituting the cupolas of the lanterns, lighting the Pantheon gallery below; by means of these little [[temple]]s, from a gallery within, a bird’s eye [[view]] is had of the [[statue]]s, &c., below.
:“Through the base of the great circle of the balustrade are four apertures at the four cardinal points, leading ''outside'' of the balustrade, upon the top of the main cornice, where a gallery 6 feet wide and 750 feet in circumference encircles the whole, enclosed by an ornamental guard, forming the crowning member on the top of the tholus of the main cornice of the grand colonnade. Within the thickness of this wall, staircases descend to a lower gallery over the plafond of the proanos of the colonnade lighted from above. This gallery, which extends all round the colonnade, is 20 feet wide—divided into rooms for the records of the monument, works of art, or studios for artists engaged in the service of the Monument. Two other ways communicate with this gallery from below.
:“In the centre of the grand [[terrace]] above described, rises the lofty [[obelisk]] shaft of the Monument, 50 feet square at the base, and 500 feet high, diminishing as it rises to its apex, where it is 40 feet square; at the foot of this shaft and on each face project four massive zocles 25 feet high, supporting so many colossal symbolic tripods of victory 20 feet high, surmounted by fascial columns with their symbols of authority. These zocle faces are embellished with inscriptions, which are continued around the entire base of the shaft, and occupy the surface of that part of the shaft between the tripods. On each face of the shaft above this is sculptured the four leading events in General Washington’s eventful career, ''in basso relievo'', and above this the shaft is perfectly plain to within 50 feet of its summit, where a simple star is placed, emblematic of the glory which the name of WASHINGTON has attained.
:“To ascend to the summit of the [[column]], the same facilities as below are provided within the shaft, by an easy graded gallery, which may be traversed by a railway, terminating in a circular observatory 20 feet in diameter, around which at the top is a look-out gallery, which opens a [[prospect]] all around the horizon.” [Fig. 3]
[[File:0033.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, Robert Mills, ''Plan of the Mall'', Washington, D.C., 1841.]]

* Mills, Robert, c. 1841, in a letter to Robert Dale Owen, describing the proposed Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref name="Scott_1990">Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Three spacious [[avenue]]s (of the city) center within these grounds, which at some future day when improved will form three interesting [[vista]]s.”
[[File:0034.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Robert Mills, Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.]]
[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert Mills, ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]

* Mills, Robert, February 23?, 1841, in a letter to Joel R. Poinsett, describing his design for the [[National Mall]], Washington, DC (Scott, ed., 1990: n.p.)<ref name="Scott_1990"></ref>

:“Agreeably to your requisition to prepare a plan of improvement to that part of the [[National Mall|Mall]] lying between 7th and 12th Street West for a [[botanic garden]] . . . I have the honor to submit the following Report. . .
:“Drawing No. 1 presents a general plan of the entire [[National Mall|Mall]], including that annexed to the President’s house, with the particular improvement proposed of that part intended for the Institution and its objects. . . [Fig. 4]
:“The relative position of the Capitol, President’s House, and other public buildings are laid down, as also the position of the proposed buildings for the Institution; the adjacent streets and [[avenue]]s are also shown, with the line of the [[Canal]] which courses through the City, at the foot of the Capitol hill to the Eastern Branch near the Navy Yard, thus making of the south western section, a complete island. . .
:“The principle upon which this plan is founded is two fold, one is to provide suitable space for a [[Botanic garden]], the other to provide locations for subjects allied to agriculture, the propagation of useful and ornamental trees native and foreign, the provision of sites for the erection of suitable buildings to accommodate the various subjects to be lectured on and taught in the Institution. . .
:“The [[Botanic garden]] is laid out in the centre fronting and opening to the south. On each side of this the grounds are laid out in serpentine [[walk]]s and in [[picturesque]] divisions forming [[plat]]s for grouping the various trees to be introduced and creating shady [[walk]]s for those visiting the establishments. . . [Fig. 5]
:“A range of trees is proposed to surround three sides of the [[square]] which is intended to be laid open by an iron or other railing, the north side to be enclosed with a high brick [[wall]] to serve as a shelter and to secure the various [[hothouse|hot houses]] and other buildings of inferior character.”
:“The main building for the Institution is located about 300 feet south of the [[wall]] fronting the [[Botanic garden]], from which it is separated by a circular road, in the centre of which is a [[fountain]] of water from the [[basin]] of which pipes are led underground thro’ the [[walk]]s of the garden, for irrigating the same at pleasure, the [[fountain]]s may be supplied from the [[canal]] flowing near the north [[wall]] of inclosure. . . [Fig. 6]
:“By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, [[picturesque]] [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and other such objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1219.jpg|Robert Mills, Design for the Joseph Hand Villa, 1807.

Image:0829.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Elevation of the Principal Fronts'', Washington Monument, Baltimore, 1814.

Image:1220.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Principal Front of the Lunatic Asylum Columbia South Carolina'', c. 1820.

Image:1221.jpg|Robert Mills, Plan of wings and courtyards, South Carolina Insane Asylum, 1821.

Image:0433.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Plan of the Washington Canal'', 1831.

Image:0831.jpg|Robert Mills, Sketch for a Monument to President Andrew Jackson, c. 1835–40.

Image:1226.jpg|Robert Mills, Sketch for a Monument to President Andrew Jackson, c. 1835–40.

Image:0033.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Plan of the [[Mall]]'', Washington, DC, 1841.

Image:0034.jpg|Robert Mills, Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:0032.jpg|Robert Mills, ''[[Picturesque]] [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:1059.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Elevation of the South Front'' and ''Plan of the First Floor'', National Institute, February 1841.

Image:1835.jpg|Robert Mills, ''Sketch of the Washington Nat’l. Monumt.'', 1845.

Image:0830.jpg|Robert Mills, Details of the Washington Monument for Mr. Daugherty, Superintendent of the Work, Washington, DC, October 24, 1848.

Image:2187.jpg|Jesse H. Whitehurst, Robert and Eliza Barnwell Smith Mills, c. 1851

Image:2293.jpg|“Robert Mills,” in Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', vol. 4 (1907), p. 134.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n50033256.html Library of Congress Authority File]

[http://www.anb.org/articles/17/17-00590.html American National Biography Online]

[https://www.philadelphiabuildings.org/pab/app/ar_display.cfm/27071 Philadelphia Buildings and Architects]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: People|Mills, Robert]]

File:2293.jpg

2021-03-26T14:34:50Z

A-Whitlock:

“Robert Mills,” in Louise Pecquet du Bellet, ''Some Prominent Virginia Families'', vol. 4 (1907), p. 134.

File:2293.jpg

2021-03-26T14:34:23Z

A-Whitlock:

Walk

2021-03-26T14:15:43Z

A-Whitlock:

==History==
[[File:0226.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles Fraser, ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The Seat of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.]]
As an integral element of circulation routes through the designed landscape, walk is one of the most common terms in American garden descriptions. Walks were highly varied in their composition, arrangement, and plantings. While widths varied, a narrow walk limited to foot traffic was often called a path, while a broad, straight walk lined with trees was often called an [[avenue]]. Walks were configured in numerous ways and composed of different materials such as brick, shell, gravel, packed dirt, tan (or tan bark), and turf. From most images of walks it is difficult to discern their composition, but contrary to brick paving, which was popular only in colonial revival gardens, textual references appear to indicate that gravel was a surface commonly used. William Forsyth in his 1802 treatise recommended sand or sea-coal ashes on a foundation of brick rubble or gravel for building a walk in a [[kitchen garden]]. He noted the ease of maintenance of such surfaces, which were weeded simply by raking ([[#Forsyth|view text]]). It is interesting to note that despite changing trends in garden styles, treatises remained remarkably consistent in their advice and instruction. Entire passages were frequently borrowed or adapted from earlier publications.

[[File:0647.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.]]
[[File:1192.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Anonymous, Garden plan, 18th century.]]
[[File:0091.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Thomas Jefferson]], General ideas for the improvement of [[Monticello]] [detail], c. 1804. The description notes “Walks in this style wind-ing up the mountain.”]]
Walks were planted in a variety of ways. They could have [[border]]s of low [[shrubbery]] or plants, as in a painting by Charles Fraser [Fig. 1], or be lined with [[pot]]s or [[statue]]s, as at [[Vauxhall Garden]] in New York in 1816. Lombardy poplars and other tall, straight trees accentuated the linearity of axial walks and the formality of urban [[avenue]]s, including Pennsylvania Ave. in Washington, DC [Fig. 2]. Such spreading shade trees as elm, myrtle, and live oak formed arching canopies over walks, an effect that John James in his 1712 translation of A.-J. Dézallier d’Argenville called “Close” walks ([[#d'Argenville|view text]]). Although this term does not appear to be used in America, the technique, which framed [[view]]s and invited cooling strolls, was described at sites such as [[Boston Common]].

While their form varied widely, walks served essentially the same functions: to provide passage and to direct movement through the garden; to focus a viewer’s gaze toward an object, building, or [[prospect]]; and to structure and divide the garden. In colonial gardens, the walk was often the principal structuring element of the space, dividing a small garden adjacent to a structure into regular geometric shapes, such as the walks depicted in an unidentified late 18th-century garden [Fig. 3]. In more naturalistic and [[picturesque]] designs that became popular in the 19th century, walks created routes by which visitors were led to carefully sited garden structures or to crafted [[vista]]s, as described in [[Thomas Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson’s]] c. 1804 plan for his mountaintop landscape [Fig. 4] or [[A. J. Downing|A. J. Downing’s]] 1849 plan for a country [[seat]]. In addition, walks offered a means to organize the visual logic of a site by directing a visitor’s gaze to distant [[view]]s or focal points within the garden, such as [[obelisk]]s, [[pavilion]]s, [[gate]]s, or [[seat]]s. Walks could also create the illusion of distance if their designers manipulated their dimensions and layout. This resulted in an impression of greater depth, a particularly useful effect in smaller urban lots. The dimensions of walks were determined by the scale of their settings and their use. Forsyth (1802), for instance, recommended that walks be wide enough to admit a cart in [[kitchen garden]]s, and Joseph Breck (1851) cautioned designers to leave enough room for persons to “walk comfortably in a social manner” ([[#Breck|view text]]).

[[File:0404.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.]]
[[File:0254.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Reuben Moulthrop, ''Mrs. Daniel Truman and Child,'' c. 1798–1810.]]
[[File:2256.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.]]
In pictorial representations, walks served many of these same functions. In a perspective view of a building’s front façade, the viewer is often encouraged to focus upon the main entrance located at the terminus of a central walk or [[avenue]] [Fig. 5]. In the backgrounds of portraits, particularly those from the second half of the 18th century, artists often depicted glimpses through a window of their sitters' gardens, in which walks were presented in perspective with converging sides to suggest the illusion of depth [Fig. 6]. In aerial views, walks were often the principle means of indicating the location and existence of a garden, since plants, changing topography, and surface treatments were less easily rendered in plan. In other images, the walk invites the viewer to dwell upon a destination, such as a garden [[seat]] or viewing point, or to venture further into the unseen garden, as in John Trumbull’s 1792 plan for Yale College [[[#Fig_8|See Fig. 8]]]. In all of these types of images, tracing the line of the walk conveys a sense of movement through the landscape, much as a visitor might have experienced surprising “discoveries” of [[view]]s.

In addition to being a common feature in early American gardens, walks were also the setting for much recorded activity. William Byrd II in his diary (1732) frequently mentioned his own perambulations in the garden, either alone or with gentlemen guests after he had entertained them with a meal ([[#Byrd|view text]]). [[Charles Willson Peale]] described strolling through the gardens of Annapolis, Maryland, in language that echoes published accounts of British and European tours.<ref>Elizabeth Kryder-Reid, “The Archaeology of Vision in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Gardens,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 14, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 42–54, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IJX4M93V view on Zotero.] </ref> Walks were social venues in public landscape designs such as [[Boston Common]], the [[State House Yard]] in Philadelphia, a levee in New Orleans, the Battery Park in New York, Fairmount Park in Philadelphia [Fig. 7], and the [[avenue]]s of Washington, DC. They were places to see and be seen, and images of them in the second quarter of the 19th century portray their rising popularity as [[promenade]]s for the general populace. Numerous descriptions and treatises of this period also praised the health-giving properties of these walks and the virtues of fresh air and exercise, particularly for the infirm, mentally ill, and urban poor.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Smith, John, 1629, describing the Charles River in Massachusetts (quoted in Miller and Johnson 1963: 2:399)<ref>Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson, ''The Puritans'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9XGR26VH view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“in the maine you may shape your [[Orchard]]s, Vineyards, Pastures, Gardens, '''Walkes''', [[Park]]es, and Corne fields out of the whole peece as you please into such [[plot]]s, one adjoyning to another, leaving every of them invironed with two, three, foure, or six, or so many rowes of well growne trees as you will, ready growne to your hands, to defend them from ill weather.”

*Penn, William, March 19, 1685, in a letter to James Harrison, regarding Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 59)<ref name="Thomforde">Charles Thomforde, “William Penn’s Estate at Pennsbury and the Plants of Its Kitchen Garden” (MS thesis, Public Horticulture Administration, University of Delaware, 1986), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MSV2MR5T/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“If Ralph this fall, could gett twenty yound populars, about 18 inch round beheaded, to twenty foot, to plant in a '''walk''' below ye Steps to ye water It were not emiss. perhaps to 15 foot long for a Round head, may do as well, plant ym in ye 8 mo. [October] is well.”

*Penn, William, October 15, 1685, describing Pennsbury Manor, country estate of William Penn, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Thomforde 1986: 54)<ref name="Thomforde"></ref>
:“I desire a. . . handsome '''walk''' to ye house of Gravel, or paved wth pitt stones—smooth stones.”

*Jones, Hugh, 1724, describing the Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:48)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“. . . stands the Palace or Governor’s House, a magnificent structure built at the publick Expense, finished and beautified with [[Gate]]s, fine Gardens, Offices, '''Walks''', a fine [[Canal]], [[Orchard]]s, and with a great number of the best arms nicely posited by the ingenious Contrivance of the accomplished Colonel Spotswood.”

*<div id="Byrd"></div>Byrd, William, II, September 28, 1732, describing the estate of Gov. Alexander Spotswood, near Germanna, VA (1970: 357–58, 360)<ref>William Byrd, ''The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover in Virginia, Esqr.'', ed. by John Spencer Bassett (New York: B. Franklin, 1970), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3VVVZ9XQ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After Breakfast the Colo. and I left the Ladys to their Domestick Affairs, and took a turn in the Garden, which has nothing beautiful but 3 [[Terrace]] '''Walks''' that fall in [[Slope]]s one below another. . .

:“The afternoon was devoted to the ladys, who shew’d me one of their most beautiful '''Walks'''. They conducted me thro’ a Shady Lane to the Landing, and by the way made me drink some very fine Water that issued from a Marble [[Fountain]], and ran incessantly.” [[#Byrd_cite|back up to History]]

*Anonymous, February 2, 1734, describing property for sale in Charleston, SC (''South Carolina Gazette'')
:“To Be Let or Sold. . . On the island is a New Dwelling House &c. built on a high Bluff, which commands an entire [[prospect]] of the Harbour, from the Barr to the Town. A delightful [[Wilderness]] with shady '''Walks''' and [[arbor|Arbours]], cool in the hottest Seasons. A piece of Garden-ground, where all the best kinds of Fruits and Kitchen Greens are produced, and planted with Orange-, Apple-, Peach-, Nectarine-, and Plumb-trees, capable of being made a very good Vineyard.”

*[[Eliza Lucas Pinckney|Pinckney, Eliza Lucas]], c. May 1743, describing Crowfield, plantation of William Middleton, vicinity of Charleston, SC (1972: 61)<ref>Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ''The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762'', ed. by Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EBQQ2RAU view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“From the back door is a spacious '''walk''' a thousand foot long; each side of which nearest the house is a grass [[plat]] ennamiled in a Serpenting manner with flowers.”

*Moore, Francis, 1744, describing the [[Trustees’_Garden|Trustees' Garden]], Savannah, GA (quoted in Marye and Marye 1933: 15)<ref>Florence Marye (Nisbet) and Philip Thornton Marye, ''Garden History of Georgia, 1733–1933'', ed. by Hattie C. Rainwater and Loraine M. Cooney (Atlanta, GA: Peachtree Garden Club, 1933), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GNC4U42D view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The Garden is laid out with Cross-'''walks''' planted with Orange-trees, but the last Winter a good deal of Snow having fallen, had killed those upon the Top of the Hill down to their Roots, but they being cut down, sprouted again, as I saw when I returned to Savannah.”

*Stiles, Ezra, September 30, 1754, describing [[Springettsbury]], near Philadelphia, PA (''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 16: 375)
:“passing a a long spacious '''walk''', set on each side with trees, on the summit of a gradual ascent, we saw the proprietor’s house, & walkt in the gardens, where besides the beautiful '''walk''', ornamented with evergreens, we saw fruit trees. . . [with] oranges, limes, lemons, citrons. . . Spruce [[hedge]]s cut into beautiful figures, &c., all forming the most agreeable variety, & even regular confusion & disorder.”

*[[Hannah Callender Sansom|Sansom, Hannah Callender]], June 30, 1762, diary entry describing [[Belmont (Philadelphia)|Belmont]], estate of [[William Peters]], near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Sansom 2010: 183)<ref name="Callender 2010">Hannah Callender Sansom, ''The Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution'', ed. Susan E. Klepp and Karin Wulf (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/33F7ZBKJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a broad '''walk''' of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the hous opening opposite admitt a [[prospect]] [of] the length of the garden thro' a broad gravel '''walk''', to a large hansome [[Summerhouse|summer house]] in a [[green|grean]]. . .”

*Grant, Anne, 1769, describing Oswego, NY (1809: 236)<ref>Anne MacVicar Grant, ''Memoirs of an American Lady: With Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America as They Existed Prior to the Revolution'' (New York: S. Campbell, 1809), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Z7JD6GEV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“A [[summerhouse|summer house]] in a tree, a fish-[[pond]], and a gravel-'''walk''', were finished before the end of May.”

*Eddis, William, October 1, 1769, describing the Governor’s House, Annapolis, MD (1792: 117)<ref>William Eddis, ''Letters from America: Historical and Descriptive; Compromising Occurances from 1769 to 1777 Inclusive'' (London: Printed for the author, 1792), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZMDDRPFN view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The garden is not extensive, but it is disposed to the utmost advantage; the centre '''walk''' is terminated by a small green [[mount]], close to which the Severn approaches; this elevation commands an extensive [[view]] of the bay, and the adjacent country.”

*Fithian, Philip Vickers, March 18, 1774, describing Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County, VA (1943: 109)<ref>Philip Vickers Fithian, ''Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian, 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion'', ed. by Hunter D. Farish (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, 1943), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XJX4WV8F/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The Area of the Triangle made by the Wash-House, Stable, & School-House is perfectly levil, & designed for a [[bowling green|bowling-Green]], laid out in rectangular '''Walks''' which are paved with Brick, & covered over with burnt Oyster-Shells.”

*Adams, John, February 23, 1777, describing Mount Clare, plantation of Charles and Margaret Tilghman Carroll, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 139)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989), 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“There is a most beautiful '''walk''' from the house down to the water; there is a descent not far from the house; you have a fine garden then you descend a few steps and have another fine garden; you go down a few more and have another.”

*Hazard, Ebenezer, May 31, 1777, describing the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA (quoted in Shelley 1954: 405)<ref>Fred Shelley, “The Journal of Ebenezer Hazard in Virginia, 1777,” ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 62 (1954): 400–23, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q8VUV2A3 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At this Front of the College is a large Court Yard, ornamented with Gravel '''Walks''', Trees cut into different Forms, & Grass.”

*Rush, Dr. Benjamin, July 15, 1782, describing the country seat of John Dickinsen, near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Caemmerer 1950: 87)<ref>H. Paul Caemmerer, ''The Life of Pierre-Charles L’Enfant, Planner of the City Beautiful, The City of Washington'' (Washington, DC: National Republic Publishing Company, 1950), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PHWTAERT view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The ground contiguous to this shed was cut into beautiful '''walks''' and divided with cedar and pine branches into artificial [[grove]]s. The whole, both the buildings and '''walks''', were accommodated with [[seat]]s.”

*Washington, George, February 28, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Johnson 1953: 99–100)<ref>Gerald W. Johnson, ''Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine'' (New York: Random House, 1953), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F2JS5DHZ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“My Gardens have gravel '''walks''' (as you possibly may recollect) in the usual Style, but if a better composition has been discovered for these, I should gladly adopt it. the matter however which I wish principally to be informed in, is, whether your '''walks''' are designed for Carriages, and if so, how they are prepared, to resist the impression of the Wheels. I am making a serpentine road to my door, and have doubts. . . whether any thing short of solid pavement will answer.”

*Washington, George, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:96, 97)<ref>Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', 6 vols. (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“[February 28] Planted all the Mulberry trees, Maple trees, & Black gums in my Serpentine '''walks''' and the Poplars on the right '''walk'''—the Sap of which and the Mulberry appeared to be moving. Also planted 4 trees from H. Hole the name unknown but of a brittle wood which has the smell of Mulberry. . .

:“[March 2]. . . Planted the remainder of the Ash Trees—in the Serpentine '''walks'''—the remainder of the fringe trees in the Shrubberies—all the black haws—all the large berried thorns with a small berried one in the middle of each [[clump]]—6 small berried thorns with a large one in the middle of each [[clump]]—all the swamp red berry bushes & one [[clump]] of locust trees.”

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 2, 1787, describing Middletown, CT (1987: 215–16)<ref name="Cutler 87">William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“At the northern end of the city is a '''walk''' of two rows of buttonwood trees, from the front [[gate]] of a gentleman’s house down to a summer-house on the bank of the river, by far the most beautiful I ever saw. He permits the people of the city to improve it as a [[mall]].”

*[[Manasseh_Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], July 13, 1787, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1987: 1:263)<ref name="Cutler 87"></ref>
:“The numerous '''walks''' are well graveled and rolled hard; they are all in a serpentine direction, which heightens the beauty, and affords constant variety. That painful sameness, commonly to be met with in garden-[[alley]]s, and others works of this kind, is happily avoided here, for there are no two parts of the [[Mall]] that are alike. Hogarth’s ‘Line of Beauty’ is here completely verified. The public are indebted to the fertile fancy and taste of [[Samuel Vaughan|Mr. Sam’l Vaughan, Esq.]], for the elegance of this plan. It was laid out and executed under his direction about three years ago.”

*Enys, Lt. John, December 2, 1787, describing the mall in Boston, MA (Cometti, ed., 1976: 202)<ref>Elizabeth Cometti, ''The American Journals of Lt. John Enys'' (Syracuse, NY: Adirondack Museum and Syracuse University Press, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3MFFCCFE view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After Dinner we took a '''walk''' on the [[Mall]] as it is called which is a very excellent: Gravel '''walk''' about half a Mile in Lenth with Trees on each side which is kept in very good order and is by far the best thing of the kind I have yet seen in america.”

*Morse, Jedidiah, 1789, describing the [[State House Yard]], Philadelphia, PA (1789: 331)
:“The state house [[yard]], is a neat, elegant and spacious public '''walk''', ornamented with rows of trees; but a high brick [[wall]], which encloses it, limits the [[prospect]].”

*Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], June 24, 1790, “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania” (''Massachusetts Magazine'' 3: 414)<ref>Constantia [Judith Sargent Murray], “Description of Gray’s Gardens, Pennsylvania,” ''The Massachusetts Magazine, or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 7, no. 3 (July 1791): 413–17, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/IAJKF9C4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The serpentine gravel '''walks''', which are irregularly regular, seem to point different ways; they however terminate in one object.”

*[[L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles]], June 22, 1791, describing Washington, DC (quoted in Reps 1967: 17)<ref>John W. Reps, Monumental Washington, The Planning and Development of the Capital Center (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DQCIQTFZ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“I placed the three grand Departments of State contigous to the principle Palace and on the way leading to the Congressional House the gardens of the one together with the [[park]] and other improvement on the dependency are connected with the publique '''walk''' and [[avenue]] to the Congress house in a manner as most [must] form a whole as grand as it will be agreeable and convenient to the whole city which form [from] The distribution of the local [locale] will have an early access to this place of general resort and all along side of which may be placed play houses, room of assembly, accademies and all such sort of places as may be attractive to the learned and afford diversion to the idle.”

<div id="Fig_8"></div>[[File:0100.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, John Trumbull, Master Plan for Yale College, 1792. [[#Fig_8_cite|back up to History]]]]
*Trumbull, John, 1792, describing Yale College, New Haven, CT (Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Picture Collection, 48A-46, box 1, folder 2)
:“The [[Temple]]s of Cloacina (which it is too much the custom of New England to place conspicuously,) I would wish to have concealed as much as possible, by planting a variety of Shrubs, such as Laburnums, Lilacs, Roses, Snowballs, Laurels. &c, &c—a gravel '''walk''' should lead thro [sic] the [[Shrubbery]] to those buildings. . .

:“The yellow is intended to express the gravel '''walks'''—& the green the grass and planting. . .

:“The Eating Hall should likewise be hidden as much as the space will admit with similar shrubs. . .

:“The ground in front of the Buildings to be divided by two broad '''walks''' leading up to the Chapel and Lecture Rooms, and the sides of the '''walks''' to be planted with Elms or other Forest Trees. . .

:“Behind the buildings, the '''walks''' may be irregular and winding, beginning behind the two Chapels, and corresponding to the two broad ones in their front.” [Fig. 8]

*Drayton, John, 1793, describing the Battery Park, New York, NY (quoted in Deák 1988: 1:130)<ref name="Deák">Gloria Gilda Deák, ''Picturing America, 1497–1899: Prints, Maps, and Drawings Bearing on the New World Discoveries and on the Development of the Territory That Is Now the United States'', 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4A6QNFNX view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“After passing these islands [Governor’s, etc.], we came opposite the battery; which is at the extreme point of the town. . . It has no merlons, or embrasuers; but the guns. . . are placed upon carriages on a stone platform ''en barbette'', some few feet above the level of the water. Between the guns, and the water is a public '''walk'''; made by a gentle decline from the platform: and going round the ground upon which the battery is placed. Some little distance behind the guns, two rows of elm trees are planted; which in a short time will afford an agreeable shade.”

*[[Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], July 19, 1796, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1977: 165)<ref>
Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. by Edward C. Carter II, 2 vols. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The ground on the West front is laid out in a level [[lawn]] bounded on each side with a wide but extremely formal serpentine '''walk''', shaded by weeping Willows.”

*Brooks, Joshua, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], plantation of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Riley 1989: 18)<ref>John P. Riley, ''The Icehouses and Their Operations at Mount Vernon'' (Mount Vernon, VA: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76PVTIZM view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At the back of the house is a covered staircase to the kitchen or cellar. Here many male and female negroes were at work digging and carrying away the ground to make a level grass plot with a gravel '''walk''' around it, at one end of which is an ice house.”

*Ogden, John Cosens, 1800, describing Bethlehem, PA (1800: 14 and 18)<ref>John C. Ogden, ''An Excursion into Bethlehem & Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the Year 1799'' (Philadelphia: Charles Cist, 1800), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/U5CTTBGB view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“In the rear of this [girl’s school], is another small enclosure, which forms a broad grass '''walk''' and is skirted on each side by [[bed]]s devoted to flowers, which the girls cultivate, as their own. . .

:“Among the varied enjoyments of this settlement [Bethlehem], is a pleasant '''walk''' on the banks of the river Lehigh. Nature has furnished a shade, by means of the trees, which grow near the margin. But, this is improved by a row of locust trees between them and the road or '''walk'''.”

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the [[Hermitage]], seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 126)<ref>John Flowers, ‘People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited’, ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (1983), 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“These [gardens] were extensive and beautifully laid out. There was [''sic''] [[alcove]]s and [[summer house]]s at the termination of each '''walk''', [[seat]]s under trees in the more shady recesses of the Big Garden, as it was called, in distinction from the [[flower garden]] in front of the house.”

*Pintard, John, 1801, describing New Orleans, LA (quoted in Sterling 1951: 231)<ref>David Lee Sterling, “New Orleans, 1801: An Account by John Pintard,” ''Louisiana Historical Quarterly'' 34 (1951): 217–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8A58JVVT view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The only public '''walk''' is the leveé, which is externally thronged with all sorts & conditions of people. It is far from an eligible [[promenade]] for the ladies—who are obliged to frequent it for exercise—It is about 8 feet wide, the [[slope]] towards the river presents all the shipping of the harbour with their usual concomitants of noisey [''sic''] drunken labourers & sailors.”

*Anonymous, 1801, describing in the ''Supplement to the Warner & Hanna Directory'' Chatsworth’s Gardens, Baltimore, MD (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“CHATSWORTH’S GARDENS, Situated in a westerly direction, about half a mile from town, at the intersection of Green and Saratoga streets. The present proprietor, Mr. Mang, has been but a short time there—the arrangement of these Gardens are said to be extremely neat, such as forming pleasant [[summer house]], serpentine '''walks''', shady [[grove]]s, and every other rural appearance, which may give a pleasing relaxation to the leisure hours of the industrious citizen.”

*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], July 1806, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, VA (1944: 323)<ref>
Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. by Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The hill is generally too steep for direct ascent, but we make level '''walks''' successively along it’s side, which in it’s upper part encircle the hill & intersect these again by others of easy ascent in various parts.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 55)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Garden consists of a large verdant [[lawn]] surrounded by a belt of '''walk''', & [[shrubbery]] for some distance. The outer side of the '''walk''' is adorned here & there, by scattered forest trees, thick & thin. It is bounded, partly as is described—partly by the [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] & a creek exhibiting a Mill & where it is scarcely noticed, by a common post & rail. The '''walk''' is said to be a mile long—perhaps it is something less. One is led into the garden from the [[portico]], to the east or lefthand. or from the [[park]], by a small [[gate]] contiguous to the house, traversing this '''walk''', one sees many beauties of the landscape—also a fine [[statue]], symbol of Winter, & age,—& a spacious [[conservatory|Conservatory]] about 200 yards to the West of the Mansion.”

*Anonymous, January 2, 1808, describing in the ''Washington Expositor'' the [[National Mall]], Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 99–100)<ref name ="O'Malley 1989">Therese O’Malley, “Art and Science in American Landscape Architecture: The National Mall, Washington, DC, 1791–1852” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TQVME883 view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“At present these large appropriations afford an increase to the pasturage of the city, more beneficial to the poor citizens, than their culture in the ordinary courses. . . by laying off those in their occupancy so as to afford ample '''walks''' open at seasonable hours and under proper regulations to the public, it will give to the city, much earlier than there is otherwise reasonable cause to hope for, agreeable [[promenade]]s, as conducive to the health of the inhabitants, as to the beauty of the places.”

*Graydon, Alexander, 1811, describing the garden of Israel Pemberton, Philadelphia, PA (1811: 34–35)<ref>Alexander Graydon, ''Memoirs of a Life Chiefly Passed in Pennsylvania within the Last Sixty Years'' (Harrisburg, PA: John Wyeth, 1811), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SIZFRZVI/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“. . . laid out in the old fashioned style of uniformity, with '''walks''' and allies nodding to their brothers, and decorated with a number of evergreens, carefully clipped into pyramidal and conical forms.”

*Gerry, Elbridge, Jr., July 1813, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1927: 180)<ref>Elbridge Gerry Jr., ''The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr.'' (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8P4QSRIF view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“Lengthways of the house, and thro’ the hall, is a '''walk''', which extends on a [[terrace]] at each end for some way.”

*Ripley, Samuel, 1815, describing Gore Place, summer home of Christopher and Rebecca Gore, Waltham, MA (1815: 272–73)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January) (1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The house is a spacious and noble building. . . It is situated in the centre of pleasant grounds, tastefully laid out, surrounded by a '''walk''' of a mile in circuit, intersected by several other '''walks''', on all of which are growing trees and [[shrubbery]] of various kinds.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing [[Vauxhall Garden]], New York, NY (1816: 2:61)<ref name="Lambert">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“The [[Vauxhall_Garden|Vauxhall garden]] is situated in the Bowery Road about two miles from the City Hall. It is a neat [[plantation]], with gravel '''walks''' adorned with shrubs, trees, busts, and [[statue]]s.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Savannah, GA (1816: 2:265–66)<ref name="Lambert"></ref>
:“This range of buildings extends nearly three quarters of a mile along the town; and opposite to it is a beautiful '''walk''' or [[mall]], planted with a double row of trees, the same as those at Charleston— (''Melia Azedarach'', or Pride of India). . .

:“About the centre of the '''walk''', and just on the verge of the cliff, stands the Exchange, a large brick building, which contains some public offices; and an assembly-room, where a concert and ball are held once a fortnight during the winter.”

*[[Charles Willson Peale|Peale, Charles Willson]], August 14, 1816, in a letter to his son, Rembrandt Peale, describing his painting of [[Belfield]], estate of Charles Willson Peale, Germantown, PA (Miller et al. 1991: 3:435)<ref>Lillian B. Miller, et al., ''The Selected Papers of Charles Willson Peale and His Family'' vol. 3, ''The Belfield Farm Years, 1810–1820'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IZAKPCBG view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“I have been so long neglecting the [[view]] I am about in the Garden that the Tree’s & Shrubery have grown so high that I cannot represent them truely without almost hiding the '''walks''', therefore I shall prefer leaving out many of them—and also make others smaller.”

*[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe, Benjamin Henry]], February 20, 1819, describing the Montgomery House, New Orleans, LA (1951: 43–45)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. by Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/ view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“Close to the river, & separated only by the levee & road, is the old fashioned, but otherwise handsome, garden & house of Mr. Montgomery. The garden, which I think covers not less than 4 acres, is laid out in [[square]] '''walks''' & flower [[bed]]s in the old [[French style]]. It is entirely enclosed by a thick [[hedge]] of orange trees, which have been suffered to run up to 15 or 16 feet high on the flanks & rear, but which are shorn down to the highth [''sic''] of 4 or 5 feet along the road. The '''Walks''' are bordered by very large myrtles cut into the shape of large hay cocks, about 8 feet high & as much in diameter. There are so many of them, and they are so exactly equal in size & form that the effect is curious if not elegant.”

*Forman, Martha Ogle, June 13, 1820, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 104)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero.]</ref>
:“My husband had secretly, cut a long and beautiful shady '''walk''', by our spring along the margin of Forman’s Creek to the Irishmen’s dam. It was a most agreeable surprise and highly pleased all our company. The Ivy was in bloom on each side, the '''walk''', which with the Hemlock Spruce gave it a very pretty effect.”

*Bryant, William Cullen, August 25, 1821, describing the Vale, estate of Theodore Lyman, Waltham, MA (1975: 108–9)<ref>William Cullen Bryant, ''The Letters of William Cullen Bryant'', ed. by William Cullen II Bryant and Thomas G. Voss (New York: Fordham University Press, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3X5XUJ6A view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“He took me to the [[seat]] of Mr. Lyman. . . It is a perfect paradise. . . A hard rolled '''walk''', by the side of a brick [[wall]]. . . led us to a [[grove]] of young forest trees on the top of [an] [[eminence]].”

*[[Columbian Institute]], 1823, describing the Columbian Institute, Washington, DC (quoted in O’Malley 1989: 127)<ref name="O'Malley 1989"></ref>

:“Four '''walks''' have been laid out, one on Pennsylvania Avenue, one on Maryland Avenue, one opposite the circular road around the west side of the Capitol, and one in the center of the ground leading to the [[pond]]. The three '''walks''' on the sides of the garden are 20 feet wide, with [[border]]s of 26 feet, in which to plant trees and shrubs; the center '''walk''' or road is 15 feet wide; the whole is well graveled.”

*Kremer, Eliza Vierling, 1824–29, describing the pleasure grounds at Salem Academy, Salem, NC (quoted in Bynum 1979: 29)<ref>Flora Ann L. Bynum, ''Old Salem Garden Guide'' (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TJB9XNMF view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“A large garden, some little distance from the Academy, was during the Summer Season, a place for recreation after school hours. . .

:“The hill-side was laid off in [[terrace]]s and winding '''walks'''.”

*Bacon, Edmund, c. 1825, describing [[Monticello]], plantation of Thomas Jefferson, Charlottesville, V (quoted in Adams 1976: 329)<ref>William Howard Adams, ''The Eye of Thomas Jefferson'' (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IWQT8BPV/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The grounds, around the house were most beautifully ornamented with flowers and [[shrubbery]]. There were '''walks''', and [[border]]s, and flowers, that I have never seen or heard of anywhere else. Some of them were in bloom from early in the spring until late in the winter. A good many of them were foreign. Back of the house was a beautiful [[lawn]] of two or three acres, where his grandchildren used to play a great deal.”

*Hunt, Henry, William Elliot, and William Thornton, 1826, describing a proposed memorial in Washington, DC (U.S. Congress, 19th Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, doc. 123, book 138)

:“Cool and shady '''walks''' will be formed in the neighborhood of the Capitol; the science of Botany encouraged; and a delightful scene from the Capitol created to please the eye of the stranger and citizen.”

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing a country residence near Philadelphia, PA (quoted in Boyd 1929: 439)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929),[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The refreshing shade of the numerous '''walks''', all swept as clean as a parlour floor, add to the charms of this place. Many of these '''walks''' are tastefully ornamented with Orange, Lemon, Shad-dock, Neriums, and other exotics; among which we observed a Myrtle 10 years old, and raised from seed.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Hudson Square, New York, NY (1832: 2:160)<ref name="Trollope">Frances Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5RXDF7G/ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“it will give some idea of the care bestowed on its decoration, to know that the gravel for the '''walks''' was conveyed by barges from Boston, not as ballast, but as freight.”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Hoboken, NJ (1832: 2:167)<ref name="Trollope"></ref>

:“A gentleman who possessed a handsome mansion and grounds there, also possessed the right of ferry, and to render this productive, he has restricted his [[pleasure ground]]s to a few beautiful acres, laying out the remainder simply and tastefully as a public '''walk'''. It is hardly possible to imagine one of greater attraction; a broad belt of light underwood and flowering shrubs, studded at intervals with lofty forest trees, runs for two miles along a cliff which overhangs the matchless Hudson.”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[Dr. David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''The New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/283TSTEV? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“From the house, gravelled '''walks''' diverge and extend in opposite directions nearly half a mile, exhibiting a diversified scenery of hills and dales, now descending a sloping declivity on the verge of a precipice, again ascending to a commanding plain, opening a scene of unrivalled beauty.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:88)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“On a firm, smooth, gravelled '''walk''' elevated about four feet, by a gradual ascent from the street—one side open to the river, and the other lined with the ‘Pride of China,’ or India tree, we pursued our way to Chartres-street, the ‘Broadway’ of New-Orleans.”

*Anonymous, January 1, 1836, “Leaves from My Note Book” (''Horticultural Register'' 2: 32–33)<ref>Anonymous, “Leaves from My Note Book,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 2 (January 1, 1836): 29–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZZDTSVNN/q/leaves%20from%20my%20note%20book view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is one thing about the improvements in New York I very much like, and which, as you are a man of influence, I hope you will endeavor to impress on the Bostonians;—the disposition to ornament the streets with rows of trees, thus giving to them an air of freshness and beauty very much wanting in our large cities and in country towns, for nothing adds more to beauty than rows of trees along the public '''walks''', which may be placed there for a trifling expense.

:“The Battery, St. John’s Park, Washington Square, and many other public '''walks''' exhibit the taste of the New Yorkers in this respect, and their practice of making every open and beautiful piece of ground an object of ornament to the city, and a pleasant resort for the inhabitants, is worthy of observation.”

*Alcott, William A., 1838, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages” (''American Annals of Education'' 8: 337–38)<ref>William A. Alcott, “Embellishment and Improvement of Towns and Villages,” ''American Annals of Education'' 8, no. 8 (August 1838): 337–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/5K3WRQ2I? view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Of our larger cities, even Philadelphia and Boston, we do not hesitate to say that almost every thing, in their structure and condition, is at war with the highest physical and moral well being of their inhabitants. We do not indeed forget their beautiful [[common]]s and [[square]]s and public '''walks'''; but it is impossible for us to believe that a few of these will ever atone for that neglect whose effects stare us in the face, not merely in passing through dirty and filthy [[avenue]]s, but in traversing almost every street, and in turning almost every corner. A single [[common]], beautiful though it may be, as any spot on the earth’s surface, and refreshed though it were by the balmy breezes which ‘blow soft o’er Ceylon’s isle;’ or a few public [[square]]s, remembrances though they be of him whose praises will never cease to be celebrated while the ‘city of brotherly love’ shall remain, will yet never purify the crowded, unventilated cellars and shops—and dwellings, too—of a hundred or a thousand thickly congregated streets. . .”

*Adams, Rev. Nehemiah, 1838, describing Portland, ME ([Adams] 1838: 31)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''The Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities'' (Boston: George W. Light, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/E29QRTC3 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“An equally striking indication of the spirit of improvement peculiar to these times is the public '''walk''' recently laid out in Portland. This '''walk''', consisting of a carriage and foot way, shaded with trees, is nearly two miles in length, extending in an oval form around a hill, on which is the telegraph [[Belvedere/Prospect_tower/Observatory|observatory]], and commanding a [[view]] of the adjacent scenery, which may be classed among the best in the country.”

*Hovey, C. M., November 1839, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” describing Elfin Glen, residence of P. Dodge, Salem, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 404)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notices of Gardens and Horticulture, in Salem, Mass.,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 11 (November 1839): 401–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/25HW5NZ9/q/notices%20of%20gardens%20and%20horticulture view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The cottage stands near the road, and is entered from the west front; on the south end is a [[piazza]]; the drawing-room opens into this, and thence into the garden to an open space, answering somewhat the purpose of a [[terrace]], neatly gravelled; a '''walk''' from thence conducts directly, in a straight line, nearly to the edge of the river, where it terminates in a rustic [[arch]] and [[vase]] on the [[lawn]]; on each side of the '''walk''' there is turf, with circles of flowers at the distance of ten or twelve feet; these are each backed by a line of buckthorn [[hedge]]s, with a [[view]] to screen both the fruit garden on the east, and the vegetable garden on the west, from sight.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Saratoga, NY (quoted in Deák 1988: 1:424)<ref name="Deák"></ref>

:“When the gentleman has swallowed his muriate and four carbonates in proper quantity, a smooth serpentine '''walk''' leads to the summit of a prettily wooded hill, where he may either grind himself round a circular rail-road in a self-moving chair, or ramble off to the shade, for a little meditation.”

*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1840; repr., 1971: 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (1840; repr., Barre, MA: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very [[picturesque]] and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel '''walks''', and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing New York, NY (1841: 1:38–39)<ref name="Buckingham">James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Of the public places for air and exercise with which the Continental cities of Europe are so abundantly and agreeably furnished, and which London, Bath, and some other of the larger cities of England contain, there is a marked deficiency in New-York. Except the Battery, which is agreeable only in summer—the [[Bowling Green]] is a confined space of 200 feet long by 150 broad; the [[Park]], which is a comparatively small spot of land (about ten acres only) in the heart of the city, and quite a public thoroughfare; Hudson Square, the prettiest of the whole, but small, being only about four acres; and the open space within Washington Square, about nine acres, which is not yet furnished with gravel-'''walks''' or shady trees—there is no large place in the nature of a [[park]], or [[public garden]], or public '''walk''', where persons of all classes may take air and exercise. This is a defect which, it is hoped, will ere long be remedied, as there is no country, perhaps, in which it would be more advantageous to the health and pleasure of the community than this to encourage, by every possible means, the use of air and exercise to a much greater extent than either is at present enjoyed.”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing Rochester, NY (2:215)<ref name="Buckingham"></ref>

:“A large piece of ground immediately overlooking the principal Falls of the Genesee, and called the Falls Promenade, is about to be laid out as a public '''walk''' and garden, and will be a fine ornament to the town.”

*Hovey, C. M., September 1841, describing the residence of R. F. Carman, Fort Washington, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 326)<ref>C. M. Hovey, “Notes Made During a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington and intermediate places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 9 (September 1841): 321–27, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/R9KPSMKS/q/notes%20made view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The [[flower garden]] is laid out in angular shaped [[bed]]s of small size, occupying a [[square]] of about one hundred feet, with the '''walks''' edged with box. The only fault we have to find with the plan is the narrowness of the '''walks''', not being above two feet wide, and, consequently, not allowing two to '''walk''' abreast. The same error we saw committed at other places. It should be laid down as a rule, never to make the '''walks''' less than three feet wide, and if three and a half, it will be better.”

*Dickens, Charles, 1842, describing the White House, Washington, DC (1842: 153–54)<ref>Charles Dickens, ''American Notes'' (Paris: Baudry’s European Library, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TTQMJ9AD view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“The President’s mansion is more like an English club-house, both within and without, than any other kind of establishment with which I can compare it. The ornamental ground about it has been laid out in garden '''walks'''; they are pretty, and agreeable to the eye; though they have that uncomfortable air of having been made yesterday, which is far from favourable to the display of such beauties.”

*Kirkbride, Thomas S., 1844, describing the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]], Philadelphia, PA (1851: 24)<ref>
Thomas Story Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for The Insane: For the Years 1846-7-8-9 and 50'' (Philadelphia: Published by order of the Board of Managers, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IS9R2SUW view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“. . . the brick '''walks''', for use when the ground is soft or covered with snow, have been extended; other '''walks''' have been laid out through the different [[grove]]s, and covered with tan, and their extension, now in progress, will give us more than a mile in the men’s division, and nearly as much in that appropriated to the females. These '''walks''' have been so located as to embrace our finest and most diversified [[view]]s, to wind through the [[wood]]s and [[clump]]s of trees which are scattered through the enclosure; and among them, it is hoped, will soon be seen summer-houses, rustic [[seat]]s, and other objects of interest, to tempt the patients voluntarily to prolong their '''walks''', and to spend a greater portion of their time out of the wards, and engaged in some agreeable occupation.”

*Longfellow, Alexander W., January 1844, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were very busy planning the grounds & I laid out a linden [[avenue]] for the Professor’s private '''walk'''. I was often reminded of your fancy for such things. . . The house is to be repaired but not essentially altered, the old out buildings to be removed, trees planted a [[pond]], & [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]], created the [[pond]] is an apology for the [[bridge]].”

[[File:0995.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “The Espalier Walk in the Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): pl. opp. 489.]]
*[[Downing, A. J.]], May 1847, describing Wodenethe, residence of Henry Winthrop Sargent, Dutchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 1: 504)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/BC9R5CZQ/q/wodenethe view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Our FRONTISPIECE gives a glimpse of this ''Vinery'', at the termination of the main '''walk''' of the fruit-garden. This '''walk''' is 428 feet long, and is bordered with an [[espalier]] rail, upon which many of the choicest peaches, grapes, plums, etc., are trained—not from necessity or for greater protection, as in gardens farther north, for all those fruits ripen perfectly on common standards here, but to give an illustration of this more perfect kind of culture, and to obtain fruit of a larger size and higher color than standards usually produce.” [Fig. 9]

*Lyell, Sir Charles, 1849, describing Natchez, MS (1849: 2:153)<ref>Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“Many of the country-houses in the neighborhood are elegant, and some of the gardens belonging to them laid out in the English, others in the [[French style]]. In the latter are seen [[terrace]]s, with [[statue]]s and cut evergreens, straight '''walks''' with [[border]]s of flowers, terminated by [[view]]s into the wild forest, the charms of both being heightened by contrast. Some of the [[hedge]]s are made of that beautiful North American plant, the Gardenia, miscalled in England the Cape jessamine, others of the Cherokee rose, with its bright and shining leaves.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 445)<ref>Londoniensis [pseud.], “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2/q/Notes%20and%20Recollections%20of%20a%20Visit%20to%20the%20Nurseries%20 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In the first place, the [[nursery]] is laid out in angular divisions, diverging from a common centre. These divisions are separated from each other by wide '''walks''' and [[avenue]]s, on each side of which is a [[border]] some eight or nine feet wide. These [[border]]s are planted with specimen trees, inside of which are the [[quarter]]s for the [[nursery]] stock.”

*Dufield, Elizabeth Lewis, May 14, 1851, describing [[Hermitage]], estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #977)

:“The house is situated some distance back from the road, as you approach in front, you pass through a fine iron [[gateway]] and '''walk''' strait until about halfway to the house. The '''walk''' then branches off and forms a circular in front of the residence. There are also small circulars on each side. All of these are laid out in flower and cedars and the balance of the [[yard]] in front is filed up with cedars and forest trees.”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''walks''' will be made in every direction and as some compensation for filling up the beautiful vale south of the Monument a capacious fountain will be placed in the centre of the '''walk''' leading into Bank street, from which [[fountain]] a [[jet d’eau]] will rise, fully thirty feet in height.”

===Citations===

*Parkinson, John, 1629, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., 1975: 5, 537)<ref>John Parkinson, ''Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris'' (1629; repr., Norwood, NJ: W.J. Johnson, 1975), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7G5933QV view on Zotero].</ref>

:“To forme it [the garden] therfore with '''walks''', crosse the middle both waies, and round about it also with [[hedge]]s, with [[square]]s, knots and trayles, or any other worke within the foure [[square]] parts, is according as every mans conceit alloweth of it, and they will be at the charge: For there may be therein '''walkes''' eyther open or close, eyther pub-like or private. . . for the fairer and larger your allies and '''walkes''' be, the more grace your Garden shall have, the lesse harme the herbes and flowers shall receive, by passing by them that grow next unto the allies sides, and the better shall your Weeders cleanse both the [[bed]]s and the allies. . . .

:“Having an [[Orchard]] containing one acre of ground, two, three, or more, or lesse, walled about, you may so order it, by leaving a broad and large '''walke''' betweene the [[wall]] and it. . . and by compassing your [[Orchard]] on the inside with a [[hedge]] (wherein may bee planted all sorts of low shrubs or bushes).”

*<div id="d'Argenville"></div>Dézallier d’Argenville, A.-J., 1712, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening'' (1712; repr., 1969: 40–41),<ref>A.-J. (Antoine Joseph) Dézallier d’Argenville, ''The Theory and Practice of Gardening; Wherein Is Fully Handled All That Relates to Fine Gardens, . . . Containing Divers Plans, and General Dispositions of Gardens; . . . '', trans. by John James (London: Geo. James, 1712; repr., London: Farnborough, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RNT8ZVZ8/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALKS''' in Gardens, like Streets in a Town, serve to communicate between Place and Place, and are as so many Guidances and Means to conduct us throughout a Garden. . .

:“Among the several Sorts of '''Walks''', I shall take Notice of the Close and the Open, the Single and the Double.

:“The Close are those formed by Trees or Palisades, which joining together at Top, shut out even the Sight of the Sky, and by their Obscurity give a Coolness not penetrable by the greatest Heat of the Sun.

:“These '''Walks''' are very delightful in hot Weather, when you may '''walk''' under the Shade of them in the very middle of the Day. . .

:“’Tis a general Rule to keep open the principal '''Walks''', such as those that face a Building, [[Pavilion]], [[Cascade]], or the like; and these likewise should be kept wider than the others, that from the End of the '''Walk''' you may see Part of the Front of a House, or some other handsome Object. . .

:“SINGLE '''Walks''' are those that consist but of two Rows of Trees or Palisades, to distinguish them from double '''Walks''' that have four, which form three [[Alley]]s close together, a large one in the Middle, and two on the Sides that accompany it, and are called Counter-'''walks'''. . .

:“As to the Names and different Figures of '''Walks''', they may all be included in these that follow: The Parallel-'''walk''', the Strait-'''walk''', the Cross-'''walk''', the Winding or Circular-'''walk''', the '''Walk''' returned [[square]], and the Diagonal or Thwart-'''walk''', in respect of that at Right Angles.” [[#d'Argenville_cite|back up to History]]

*Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718; repr., 1982: 3:46)<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation. . . '', 1st ed., 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>

:“And why, is not a level easy '''Walk''' of Gravel or Sand shaded over with Trees, and running thro’ a Corn Field or Pasture Ground, as pleasing as the largest '''Walk''' in the most magnificent Garden one can think of?”

*[[Gibbs, James]], 1728, ''A Book of Architecture'' (1728: xviii)<ref>James Gibbs, ''A Book of Architecture, Containing Designs of Buildings and Ornaments'' (London: Printed for W. Innys et al., 1728), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZGUVPFG8/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The Plan, Upright and Section of a Building of the Dorick Order in form of a [[Temple]], made for a Person of Quality, and propos’d to have been placed in the Center of four '''Walks'''; so that a [[Portico]] might front each '''Walk'''. Here is a large Octagonal Room of 22 feet and 26 feet high, adorn’d with Niches and crown’d with a Cupola. All the Ornaments of the Inside are to be of Plaister; and the Outside of Stone.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728; repr., 1982: 195–201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c.'' (London: A. Bettesworth and J.Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c.''. . .

:“VIII. That shady '''Walks''' be planted from the End-[[View]]s of a House, and terminate in those open [[Grove]]s that enclose the Sides of the plain [[Parterre]], that thereby you may enter into immediate Shade, as soon as out of the House, without being heated by the Scorching Rays of the Sun. . .

:“IX. That all the Trees of your shady '''Walks''' and [[Grove]]s be planted with Sweet-Brier, White Jessemine, and Honey-Suckles, environ’d at Bottom with a small Circle of Dwarf-Stock, Candy-Turf, and Pinks. . .

:“XIV. That the '''Walks''' leading up the [[Slope]] of a [[Mount]], have their Breadth contracted at the Top, full on half Part; and if that contracted Part be enclosed on the Sides with a [[Hedge]] whose Leaves are of a light Green, ’twill seemingly add a great Addition to the Length of the '''Walk''', when view’d from the other End.

:“XV. That all '''Walks''' whose Lengths are short, and lead away from any Point of [[View]], be made narrower at their further Ends than at the hither Part; for by Inclination of their Sides, they appear to be of a much greater Length than they really are; and the further End of every long '''Walk''', [[Avenue]], ''&c''. appears to be much narrower than that End where you stand.

:“And the Reason is, that notwithstanding the Sides of such '''Walks''' are parallel to each other, yet as the Breadth of the further End is seen under a lesser Angle, than the Breadth of that Part where you stand, it will therefore appear as if contracted, altho’ the Sides are actually parallel; for equal Objects always appear under equal Angles, Q. E. D.

:“XVI. That the '''Walks''' of a [[Wilderness]] be never narrower than ten Feet, or wider than twenty five Feet.

:“XVII. That the '''Walks''' of a [[Wilderness]] be so plac’d, as to respect the best [[View]]s of the Country.

:“XVIII. That the Intersections of '''Walks''' be adorn’d with [[Statue]]s, large open Plains, [[Grove]]s, Cones of Fruit, of Ever-Greens, of Flowering Shrubs, of Forest Trees, Basons, [[Fountain]]s, Sun-Dials, and [[Obelisk]]s. . .

:L“XXI. Such '''Walks''' as must terminate within the Garden, are best finish’d with [[Mount]]s, [[Aviary/Bird_cage/Birdhouse|aviary]], [[Grotto]]’s, [[Cascade]]s, Rocks, Ruins, Niches, or Amphitheatres of Ever-Greens, variously mix’d, with circular [[Hedge]]s ascending behind one another, which renders a very graceful Appearance. . .

:“XXIV. [[Canal]]s, Fish-[[Pond]]s, ''&c''. are most beautiful when environ’d with a '''Walk''' of stately Pines, and terminate at each End with a fine [[Grove]] of Forest-Trees, or Ever-Greens. . .

:“XXVI. All Grass-'''Walks''' should be laid with the same Curvature as Gravel-'''Walks''', and particularly in wet and cold Lands; for, by their being made flat or level from Side to Side, they soon settle into Holes in the Middle, by often walking on, and therein retain Wet, ''&c''. which a circular surfaced '''Walk''' resists. The Proportion for the Heights of the Crown, or middle Part of any Grass or Gravel-'''Walk''', is as five is to one, that is, if the '''Walk''' be five Foot in Breadth, the Height of the Middle, above the Level of the Sides, must be one Inch; if ten Foot, two Inches; fifteen Foot, three Inches, ''&c.''. . .

:“XXIX. Little '''Walks''' by purling Streams in [[Meadow]]s, and through Corn-fields, [[Thicket]]s, ''&c''. are delightful Entertainments.

:“XXX. Open [[Lawn]]s should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of [[Avenue]]s to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.

:“The entire Breadth of every [[Avenue]] should be divided into five equal Parts: Of which, the Middle, or grand '''Walk''', must be three Fifths; and the Side, or Counter-'''Walks''' on each Side one Fifth each. But let the Length of [[Avenue]]s fall as it will, you must always observe, that the grand '''Walk''' be never narrower than the Front of the Building.”

*[[Chambers, Ephraim]], 1741–43, ''Cyclopaedia'' (1741–43: 1:n.p.)<ref>Ephraim Chambers, ''Cyclopaedia, or An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. . . ,'' 5th ed., 2 vols. (London: D. Midwinter et al., 1741), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PTXK378N view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[AVENUE]]. . .

:All ''[[avenue]]s'', Mortimer says, should lead to the front of an house, garden-[[gate]], highway-[[gate]], or [[wood]], and terminate in a [[prospect]].—In an ''avenue'' to an house, whatever the length of the '''walk''' is, it ought to be as wide as the whole breadth of the front; and if wider, better. . .

:“[[AVENUE]], in gardening, is a '''walk''', planted on each side with trees, and leading to some place. See [[GROVE]], GLADE. . .

:“GRASS ''[[plot]]s'', and '''''walks''''', make a considerable article in gardening, ''&c''. See '''WALK''', ''&c''.

:“Grass, or ''green-[[plot]]s'' are had either by sowing of hayseed, or laying of turf: for the first, which is the cheapest way, the seed of the finest upland pastures is to be chose, well sifted and cleansed.

:“For the second, the turf should be cut on a down, or [[green]], or [[common]], or sheep-'''walk''', where the ''grass'' is short and fine; if there be any knobs, or roughnesses, the place must be cleansed and rolled after a shower, before it be cut up. The turf is cut in [[square]]s, marked out with lines, raised with a knife, and rolled up; about three inches thick. The [[quarter]]s, or verges are to be prepared with a fine coat of poor earth to lay the turf on; and after laying, the turf must be well watered, rolled, ''&c.''. . .

:“GRAVEL '''''walk''''', in gardening.—To lay, or form a '''walk''' with ''gravel'', all the good soil is to be pared away, below the roots of any grass, or weeds; then the place to be filled two or three inches with coarse gravel unsearsed, laying it highest in the middle; then rolling it. . .

:“Note, the sides next the [[bed]]s should be laid a foot and an half, or two foot with turf, from whence the heat of the sun cannot be reflected as from gravel, to the prejudice of the neighbouring flowers.”

*Miller, Philip, 1754, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; repr., 1969: 1503–4)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1754; New York: Verlag Von J. Cramer, 1969), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/356Q24EP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Gravel-'''walks''' are very necessary near the House; because, being soon dry after Rain, they are proper for walking on, in all Seasons. But then these should be but few, and those ought to be large and magnificient, proportionable to the Grandeur of the House and Garden. The principal of these '''Walks''' should be elevated parallel with the House, so as to form a [[Terrace]]: this should extend itself each way, in proportion to the Width of the Garden; so that from this there may be a Communication with the Sand-'''walks''', without going on the Grass; or there should be Side-'''Walks''' of Gravel to lead to them, that there may be a dry '''Walk''' continued quite through the Gardens. But there is not a more ridiculous Sight, than that of a straight Gravel-'''walk''', leading to the Front of the House, intersecting the Grass, so as to make it appear like the stiff formal Grass [[plot]]s frequently made in little Court-yards by Persons of low Taste.

:“Grass-'''walks''' in a Garden are both ornamental and delightful in Summer-time and dry Weather.”

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. As Also, the Physick Garden, Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard. . . Interspers’d with the History of the Plants, the Characters of Each Genus and the Names of All the Particular Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of All the Terms Used in Botany and Gardening, Etc. '', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The next thing to be observed is to continue a dry '''walk''', which should lead quite round the whole garden, for as Gardens are designed to promote the exercise of walking, the greater the extent of this dry '''walk''', the better it will answer the Intent. . . and such '''walks''', if laid either with Gravel or Sand, may lead through different [[Plantation]]s, gently winding about in an easy natural way, which will be more agreeable than those long strait '''walks''', which are too frequently seen in gardens.”

*Mawe, Thomas, and John Abercrombie, 1778, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist'' (1778: n.p.)<ref>Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie, ''The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or A General Dictionary of Gardening and Botany'' (London: Printed for G. Robinson et al., 1778), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ID3XI7NM view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Sometimes grass-'''walks''' are used, but these are rather improper for general use in Kitchen-gardens, especially in such parts of the garden where wheel-barrows are obliged to come often, which would cut and greatly deface them; besides, they are apt to be wet and disagreeable in all wet weather, and in winter; . . .

:“But when necessary to have the whole space of the Kitchen-garden employed for real use. . . and have a '''walk''' round the garden, not more than a yard wide; allowing the same width for the middle-'''walks''', or so as to admit of wheel-barrows passing to bring in the manure, &c. and may either have a four feet wide [[border]] all round each [[quarter]], next the '''walks''', or not, as you shall think proper; laying the '''walks''' neatly with any gravelly materials, or with coal-ashes, so as to have dry walking, and wheeling with a barrow in all weathers.”

*Sheridan, Thomas, 1789, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language'' (1789: n.p.)<ref>Thomas A. Sheridan, ''A Complete Dictionary of the English Language, Carefully Revised and Corrected by John Andrews. . . ,'' 5th ed. (Philadelphia: William Young, 1789), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5GU4CBQ/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALK''', wa’k. s. . . a length of space, or circuit through which one '''walks'''; an [[avenue]] set with trees; way, road, range, place of wandering.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:33, 55, 124–26)<ref>
Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening, 1st American ed. from the 2nd London ed.'', 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''''walks''''' come next under construction [i.e. after [[wall]]s], and they are to be begun from the best [[wall]]; the [[border]] of which being regularly levelled and settled, the '''walk''' is to be governed by it. . .

:“The ''number'' and ''breadth'' of the '''walks''' must in a measure be determined by the quantity of allotted ground. . . But better be few and wide, than many and contracted. If the garden is small, one good '''walk''' all round is sufficient; and if long and narrow, the cross '''walks''' should not be many: six, or eight feet, is not too wide in a moderate sized garden. . .

:“''Grass plats'' and '''walks''' should be mowed, as often as there is the least hold for the scythe, for they lose much of their beauty, when the grass gets any thing long; leaves should not be suffered to remain on them as it stains the grass. . .

:“About the house some ''shady'' '''walks''' ought always to be provided, by thick planting, if not of trees, yet of flowering shrubs, and ''evergreens'', of which the ''laurel'' will be found most useful. . .

:“The '''''walks''''' should always be wide, some (in general) serpentine, and contrived as much as possible upon a ''level'', as walking up and down hills can hardly be called pleasure. That they may be extensive, they should skirt the grounds and seldom go across them. In small [[pleasure ground]]s the ''edges'' of the '''walks''' should be regularly planted with flowers, and long ones occasionally so, or with the most dwarf shrubs; and neat sheltered compartments of ''flowers'', (every now and then to be met with) have a pretty effect. If the '''walks''' are extended to distant [[plantation]]s of ''forest trees'', every opportunity should be taken, to introduce something of the herbaceous ''flowery'' kind, which will prove the more pleasing, as found in unexpected situations: The outer '''walk''' of [[pleasure ground]]s and [[plantation]]s, should every now and then break into open [[view]]s of the country, and to parts of the internal space, made pleasing, if not striking, by some ornaments of art and nature.”

*<div id="Forsyth"></div>Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 148)<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In laying out the [[quarter]]s, you must be guided in a great measure by the form and size of the garden; but do not lay them out too small, as in that case a great part of the ground will be taken up with '''walks'''. . .

:“The middle '''walks''' should be about seven feet, which is wide enough to admit a cart; and the others about three or four feet broad; with a [[border]] on each side, five or six feet wide, at least, between the '''walk''' and the fruit-trees. '''Walks''' in [[kitchen garden]]s are generally gravelled, and but seldom laid with turf, as the frequent wheeling and treading soon destroys the grass and renders them very unsightly: But a binding sand makes good '''walks''' and they are easily kept; for when moss or weeds begin to grow, they may be cleaned with a horse-hoe. . . by which they will be made always to look neat and clean. I, however, give the preference to sea-coal ashes, which in my opinion make the best '''walks''' for a [[kitchen garden]], and they are easier kept than any other, being firm and dry, and cleaner to '''walk''' on than sand, especially after frost.

:“The bottoms of the '''walks''' should be filled up with brick rubbish, chippings of stones, or gravel and stones; those raked off the [[quarter]]s will do very well, and by using them you will save carriage.

:“If the soil be stiff and wet, or subject to detain the moisture, there must be under ground drains made to carry off the water.” [[#Forsyth_cite|back up to History]]

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 83)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“A gravel '''walk''' is an artificial convenience, and that it should be protected, is one of its first requisites: therefore, so long as good taste and good sense shall coincide, the eye will be pleased where the mind is satisfied.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:260)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise . . .'', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“THE '''WALK''', in extensive grounds, is as necessary as the [[Fence]]. The beauties of the place are disclosed that they may be seen; and it is the office of the '''walk''' to lead the eye from [[view]] to view; in order that, while the tone of health is preserved, by the favourite exercise of nature, the mind may be thrown into unison, by the harmony of the surrounding objects.

:“THE direction of the '''walk''' ought to be guided by the points of [[view]] to which it leads, and the nature of the ground it passes over: it ought to be made subservient to the natural impediments— the Ground, [[Wood]], and Water—which fall in its way, without appearing to have any direction of its own. It can seldom, with propriety, run any distance, in a straight line; a thing which rarely occurs in a ''natural '''walk'''''.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 123)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn">John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year, and Copious Instructions for the Cultivation of Flower Gardens, Vineyards, Nurseries, Hop Yards, Green Houses and Hot Houses'' (Washington, DC: Printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero.]</ref>

:“This [March] is a good time to make grass '''walks'''. First level and roll the ground—then cut sods of equal size and thickness from a pasture, lay them neatly, and roll them well, or sow grass seed very thick, rake it in and roll the ground soon as it is dry.”

*[[M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 59–60, 63)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“As to the distribution of gravel-'''walks'''. . . first a magnificent one, from fifteen to twenty or thirty feet wide, should range immediately close and parallel to the front of the house, and be conducted directly across the [[lawn]] into the nearest side shrubberies; from this main '''walk''', other smaller ones, from five to ten or fifteen feet wide, according to the extent of the ground, should branch off at proper intervals, directed in the serpentine way. . . some leading through the ''outer'' boundary [[plantation]]s, as already hinted. . . others into the internal divisions, and others carried along the boundary [[plantation]] of the main [[lawn]]; all of which '''walks''' being conducted through the different parts, in order to afford the convenience of shade and retirement occasionally, as well as to enjoy the variety of the trees, shrubs, and flowers, variously presenting themselves at different turnings. . .

:“Sometimes, similar to the ancient designs, a spacious gravel '''walk''' is extended in a perpendicular line immediately from the front of the house, dividing the [[lawn]], or extended on both boundaries and in other directions, with a wide [[border]] on each side, either straight or sometimes a little serpentined, and planted with the most curious low flowering shrubs, ever-greens, and herbaceous flowering plants.

:“All these gravel-'''walks''' should be laid with the best gravel, six or eight inches deep, at least; but if more the better. . .

:“As to [[avenue]]s and '''walks''' of trees, they may be formed either entirely of deciduous trees, or of ever-greens; but the deciduous kinds are in most estimation for this purpose: however, [[avenue]]s and grass '''walks''', planted with fine ever-green trees, make a beautiful appearance, and will always command admiration. In both sorts, the trees are most commonly disposed in rows, one on each side of the [[avenue]], though sometimes grand '''walks''' of trees, may be both in single straight lines, and in double rows, to exhibit the greater variety; planting the trees generally, both in [[avenue]]s and '''walks''', at proper distances, to have full scope to branch out regularly around and display their beautiful heads and foliage.”

*Mease, James, c. 1813 (quoted in Gardiner and Hepburn 1818: 149–52)<ref name="Gardiner and Hepburn"></ref>

:“'''Walks''' are either of grass or gravel. The former are best made in March, the latter in April; and the sooner in March the grass ones are commenced the better. . .

:“Grass '''walks''' are troublesome and attended with a constant demand for labour in cutting every new growth of the herbage; besides, in rainy weather, and early in the morning before the dew of the night has been drawn off by the sun, they are damp and productive of colds: yet, where gravel is difficult to be had, they will often be resorted to, and therefore it may be of use to say a few words here upon the manner of making them. . .

:“Gravel '''walks''' however should be preferred, and if possible accomplished. . . The course of the '''walks''' being marked out by stumps and lines, the earth should be dug out of them to the depth of eight inches, and thrown into the middle of the plats to give them a convexity, which is agreeable to the eye. That done, rake the bottom of the '''walk''' quite level, and lay on the gravel so that the '''walks''' shall be at their edges three inches lower than the surface of the plats on either side, as when otherwise they have a mean and flat appearance.

:“If [[edging]]s are to be made to separate the earth from the gravel, especially if of stone, or [[wood]], or box, they should be done first, and they will be a good rule to lay the '''walks''' by.”

*[[Gregory, G.]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, First American, from the second London edition, considerably improved and augmented'', 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M24K832A view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[Vol. 3] [[Wilderness|WILDERNESS]]. . .

:“As to the '''walks''', those that have the appearance of meanders, where the eye cannot discover more than twenty or thirty yards in length, are generally preferable to all others, and these should now and then lead into an open circular piece of grass; in the centre of which may be placed either an [[obelisk]], [[statue]], or [[fountain]]; and, if in the middle of the [[wilderness]] there is contrived a large opening, in the centre of which may be erected a dome or banqueting house, surrounded with a green [[plot]] of grass, it will be of a considerable addition to the beauty of the whole. From the sides of the '''walks''' and openings, the trees should rise gradually one above another to the middle of the [[quarter]]s, where should always be planted the largest-growing trees, so that the heads of all the trees may appear to [[view]], while their stems will be hid from the sight. . .

:“But beside the grand '''walks''' and openings, there should be some smaller '''walks''' through the middle of the [[quarter]]s, where persons may retire for privacy; and by the sides of those private '''walks''' may also be scattered some wood flowers and plants, which, if artfully planted, will have a very good effect.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 463–64)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''The '''Walk'''''.—A common principle is, especially where the field is small, to carry a gravel-'''walk''''''Bold text''' completely round, so near the outward boundary as to leave only an intervening [[border]] for flowers and shrubs. As this method produces the longest tract without sharp returns, and admits many expedients for concealing the opposite boundaries, there seems no reason for departing from it, except to lead the spectator to some object that would otherwise escape him, or to keep some intractable deformity out of sight. . .

:“the '''walk''', by curving round them, will take that variety of direction which essentially conduces to a series of interesting effects; allowing parts without any common relation, independent scenes, and fragments of scenes, to be seen only progressively; and disclosing entire [[prospect]]s at the most advantageous station.”

*Thorburn, Grant, 1817, ''The Gentleman & Gardener’s Kalendar'' (1817: 19 and 33)<ref>Grant Thorburn, ''The Gentleman and Gardener’s Kalender for the Middle States of North America'', 2nd ed. (New York: E. B. Gould, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XKICNPJ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[March] Make new '''walks''' where wanted— clean and roll your gravel and grass '''walks'''. . .

:“This is a good time to make grass '''walks'''. First level and roll the ground—then cut sods of equal size and thickness from a pasture, lay them neatly, and roll them well or sow grass seed very thick, and rake it in and roll the ground as soon as it is dry. Clean grass and gravel '''walks''': the latter may be dug, turning the top to the bottom, which will destroy the weeds and moss, roll them well afterwards. Weed all your flower [[border]]s well, and prepare more for next month.”

*Cobbett, William, 1819, ''The American Gardener'' (1819: 34) <ref>William Cobbett, ''The American Gardener'', 1st ed. (Claremont, NH: Manufacturing Company, 1819), 34, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CBPIU6H view on Zotero].</ref>
:'''''Walks''', Paths, [[Plot/Plat|Plats]], [[Border]]s, and a Hot-[[Bed]] Ground.''
:“58. To render my directions more clear as well as more brief, I have given a plan of my proposed garden, PLATE I . . .
:59. . . . Before, however, I proceed further, let me give my reasons for choosing an ''Oblong [[Square]]'', instead of a ''[[Square]] of equal sides''. It will be seen, that the length of my garden is from East to West. By leaving a greater length in this direction than from North to South three important advantages are secured. ''First'', we get a ''long'' and ''warm'' [[border]] under the ''North [[fence]]'' for the rearing of things early in the spring. ''Second'', we get a ''long'' and ''cool'' [[border]] under the ''South'' [[fence]] for ''shading'', during the great heats. . .

[[File:1350.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, [[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of walks, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1826), 796, fig. 549.]]
*[[Loudon, J. C.]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 796)<ref>
J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“6105. '''''Walks'''''. In most styles of [[parterre]]s these are formed of gravel; but in the modern sort. . . which consist of turf, varied by wavy dug [[bed]]s (1 and 2), and surrounded by [[shrubbery]]. . . [Fig. 10]

:“6106. ''In extensive and irregular [[parterre]]s'', one gravel-'''walk''', accompanied by broad margins of turf, to serve as '''walks''' by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting '''walks''' of the same width, of gravel and smaller '''walks''' for displaying particular details. The main '''walk''', however, ought to be easily distinguishable from the others by its broad margins of fine turf.”

*Prince, William, 1828, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (1828: 87)<ref>William Prince, ''A Short Treatise on Horticulture'' (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I6VKDDB8 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Dwarf Box''.—This is the low growing variety, generally used for [[edging]] of garden '''walks''' and flower [[bed]]s. Its growth is slow, but at very advanced age it attains to a shrub of from six to eight feet high. It is this variety which is so widely spread and well known throughout the country.”

*[[Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero]. </ref>

:“GRAV’EL-'''WALK''', ''n''. A '''walk''' or [[alley]] covered with gravel, which makes a hard and dry bottom; ''used in gardens and [[mall]]s''. . .

:“'''WALK''', ''n''. ''wauk''. The act of walking; the act of moving on the feet with a slow pace.

:“2. The act of walking for air or exercise; as a morning '''''walk'''''; an evening '''''walk'''''. ''Pope''.

:“4. Length of way or circuit through which one walks; or a place for walking; as a long '''''walk''''';a short '''''walk'''''. The gardens of the Tuilerie and of the Luxemburgh are very pleasant '''''walks'''''.

:“5. An [[avenue]] set with trees. ''Milton''.”

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 410–11)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To these remarks for small [[plot]]s of ground, we would add a few common place rules, such as, that straight lines particularly for short distances, unless terminating in bold curves, are not pleasing to the eye; narrow '''walks''', unless winding at short intervals through [[wood]]s, are by no means desirable. . .

:“An [[arbor]] or [[trellis]] covered with the vine, or with a variety of the clematis and climbing roses or other quick growing plants, is a good termination for a '''walk''', which should branch off close round the [[trellis]], to appear as if it led to a continuation elsewhere, at the back a few shrubs might conceal the boundary or [[fence]].”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 128)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A frequent error in landscape gardens, is a multiplicity and confusion of objects. So many things are crowded together, that the spectator does not know to which to direct his attention first. The '''walks''' are often so numerous and so intricate, that they only serve to perplex. This may be easily avoided by adopting as a rule, that there shall be but one principal or leading '''walk''' throughout the whole. It may, by easy curves, be conducted in sight of every material object of [[view]], and return finally to the place of entrance. In this way the same scene need never be exhibited twice. From this main '''walk''' there may be branches, to exhibit different scenes in detail; but it ought to be an invariable rule, that these episodal '''walks''' should never be one half the width of the principal '''walk''', and should always branch off nearly at right angles from it, so that a stranger may never mistake one of them for the main '''walk'''. Where flowers are introduced they should commonly be in [[bed]]s near the '''walk''', while the taller shrubs and trees should be placed back more at a distance.

:“At favorable points, and those only, should the [[view]] be left open for more distant scenes. Sometimes by a judicious arrangement, the same objects seen from different places, may be made to present quite different aspects by appearing to group differently. The '''walk''' should be so directed as not to exhibit these [[view]]s except at the most advantageous points. A bend in a '''walk''' should always exist from some cause either real or apparent.”

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 15)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The '''walks''' [of a [[flower garden]]] should if possible be wide enough for two persons to '''walk''' abreast, in order to give a social effect, which should always be the first consideration in the flower garden.”

*[[Robert_Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 11, 32)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“For perspicuity, admit that the area to be enclosed [for a [[flower garden]]] should be from one to three acres, a circumambient '''walk''' should be traced at some distance within the [[fence]], by which the whole is enclosed; the inferior '''walks''' should partly circumscribe and intersect the general surface in an easy serpentine and sweeping manner, and at such distances as would allow an agreeable [[view]] of the flowers when walking for exercise. '''Walks''' may be in breadth from three to twenty feet, although from four to ten feet is generally adopted. . . covered with gravel, and then firmly rolled with a heavy roller. . .

:“Grass verges for '''walks''' and [[border]]s, although frequently used, are, by no means, desirable, except where variety is required; they are the most laborious to keep in order, and at best are inelegant, and the only object in their favour is, there being everywhere accessible.”

*[[Andrew Gentle|Gentle, Andrew]], 1841, ''Every Man His Own Gardener'' (1841: iii-vii, 34, 68, 76, and 93)<ref> Andrew Gentle, ''Every Man His Own Gardener; Or, a Plain Treatise on the Cultivation of Every Requisite Vegetable in the Kitchen Garden, Alphabetically Arranged. With Directions for the Green & Hothouse, Vineyard, Nursery, &c. Being the Result of Thirty-Five Years’ Practical Experience in This Climate. Intended Principally for the Inexperienced Horticulturist'' (New York: The author, 1841), iii-iv, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/X7253QTQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“CHIVES. ''Allium schoenoprasum''. . .
:“Plant the roots for edging to a [[walk]] or [[border]], two inches deep, and the same distance apart, in the form you wish them to be. 
:“SORREL FRENCH. ''Rumex acetosa''. . .
:“You may have it in a [[bed]] any size, the rows being a foot apart, or for [[edging]] along the side of a [[walk]]. . .
:“THYME. ''Thumus vulgaris''. . .
:“Plant slips in rows four inches apart, for [[edging]]. It does well for a [[walk]] side, or you may make a [[bed]] the same distance, the rows a foot apart. 
:“It [[kitchen garden|[a kitchen garden]]] may be either square or oblong, but is most convenient to work when the sides are straight, with a [[fence]] of moderate height. In laying out, I would prefer a [[border]] all round the width of the [[border]], the main cross [[walk]]s four feet wide, to plant currants, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, four feet apart, or strawberry plants near the farmyard, and convenient for water. . .”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1844, Excerpt from ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1844: 102)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. . . with Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGJXRU9V view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In fig. 25, is shown a small piece of ground, on one side of a cottage, in which a [[picturesque]] character is attempted to be maintained. The [[plantation]]s here, are made mostly with shrubs instead of trees, the latter being only sparingly introduced, for the want of room. In the disposition of these shrubs, however, the same attention to [[picturesque]] effect is paid as we have already pointed out in our remarks on grouping ; and by connecting the [[thicket]]s and groups here and there, so as to conceal one '''walk''' from the other, a surprising variety and effect will frequently be produced, in an exceedingly limited spot."

*[[Loudon, Jane]], 1845, ''Gardening for Ladies'' (1845: 406–9)<ref>Jane Loudon, ''Gardening for Ladies; and Companion to the Flower-Garden'', ed. by A. J. Downing (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3Q5GCH4I view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''WALKS''' may be considered with reference to their direction, their construction, and their management. In a small garden, the direction of the main '''walks''' should generally be governed by the boundary lines; and hence, in a [[plot]] of ground which is [[square]] or oblong, the '''walks''' should be straight and rectangular; the object in such a case being to produce the beauties of regularity and symmetry. On the other hand, when the boundaries of the garden are irregular, the surrounding '''walk''' may be irregular also; the object in this irregularity being to create variety by contrast in the direction. When a garden bounded by straight lines, is so large as to contain an acre or two, and the whole of the interior is to be laid out as a pleasure-ground, then the '''walks''' may be varied in direction; the boundary being concealed by trees and shrubs, or by artificial undulations of the soil. In general, it may be laid down as a principle, that all '''walks''' should be straight when there is no obvious reason why they should be otherwise; and hence, in the case of all winding '''walks''', if there is not a natural and apparently unavoidable reason for their deviating from the straight line, an artificial reason ought to be created. . . All straight '''walks''' should lead to some conspicuous object at the further end of the '''walk''', and facing it, so as to appear to belong to it; and this object should be seen the moment the '''walk''' is entered upon. . . A winding '''walk''', on the contrary, requires no object at the further end to allure the spectator; because every turn has the effect of an object by exciting his curiosity and inducing him to advance to see what is beyond.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 26, 73, 269–70, 620)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. by David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“[[Alley|ALLEYS]] are of two kinds. 1. The narrow '''walks''' which divide the compartments of the [[kitchen garden]]; and 2. Narrow '''walks''' in shrubberies and pleasure-grounds, closely bounded and overshadowed by the shrubs and trees. . .

:“[[AVENUE]]. . . These kind of '''walks''' were formerly much more the fashion than they are at present. . .

:“GRAVEL '''WALKS''', like all other '''''Walks''''', (''vide'',) require a good substratum of drainage, and the facing of about five inches deep of gravel. It must have no stones mixed with it larger than good-sized marbles, and about one-fourth of it must be much smaller. If a portion of clay is by nature or art incorporated with the gravel, is will bind more firmly, and present when rolled a more compact and even surface. . .

:“'''WALKS'''. See ''Gravel''. It may be observed here, that of whatever material a '''walk''' is composed, that it is essential to have it well under-drained, and for this purpose an understratum of flints or brick-bats, twelve inches deep, is not too much. '''Walks''' so founded, are never wet or soft. Coal ashes, or which is still better, fresh tan, makes a pleasant winter '''walk''', particularly on tenacious soils, as it never adheres to the shoes, either during rain or after frost; half an inch I think is sufficient. It likewise makes a soft and pleasant summer '''walk''', and from its loose nature, is readily cleared from weeds. If not wanted during summer, it may readily be swept clean off after a few dry days. It is invaluable for covering '''walks''' or footpaths in the [[kitchen garden]], when there is much wheeling of manure or soil. . . —''Gard. Chron''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 444)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . . still another most delightful scene is reserved, a so-called Rococo garden. . . A garden, laid out in this manner, demands much cleverness and skill in the gardener. . . Around it the most charming landscape open to the [[view]], gently swelling hills, interspersed with pretty village, gardens and grounds. In the plan of the garden, ''a'' and ''b'' are massed of [[shrub]]s; ''c'', circular [[bed]]s, separated by a border or belt of turf, ''e'', from the serpentine [[bed]], ''d''. The whole of this running pattern is surrounded by a border of turf, ''f''; ''g'' and ''h'' are gravel '''walks'''; i, beds, with pedestal and [[statue]] in the centre; ''k'', small oval [[bed]]s, separated from the [[bed]], ''l'', by a border or turf; ''m, n, o, p'', irregular arabesque [[bed]], set in turf."

[[File:0996.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.]]
*[[Downing, A. J.]], May 1848, “Design for a Small Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 503–4)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Small Flower Garden,” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TGACWM8A/q/small%20flower view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The following little plan of a [[flower garden]], of this kind, on a small scale, is adopted from one of the designs of our late friend, Mr. LOUDON. It is supposed to be formed in a [[plot]] of smooth level [[lawn]], and to be surrounded by a boundary '''walk''', which may, or may not, be backed by a belt of evergreens and flowering shrubs. In the former case, it would make a complete little scene by itself in a portion of the garden or grounds.” [Fig. 11]

*Elliott, Charles Wyllys, October 1848, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life''” (''Horticulturist'' 3: 181)<ref> Charles Wyllys Elliott, “Reviews: ''Cottages and Cottage Life'',” ''The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 4 (October 1848): 179–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/GVSJBZIX/q/wyllys view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The ''foot-'''walks''''' should be four or five feet wide, and should, when practicable, lead to some object—a [[view]]—or a [[summer house]]—or a fine tree, and continue on, so that the return may be by another path. If at convenient points, rough [[seat]]s are placed, it adds to their pleasures; for one can rest, if necessary.”

*[[Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 114, 342, 530–31)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th edn (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''''Walks''''' are laid out for purposes similar to [[Drive]]s, but are much more common, and may be introduced into every scene, however limited. They are intended solely for [[promenade]]s or exercise on foot, and should therefore be dry and firm, if possible, at all seasons when it is desirable to use them. Some may be open to the south, sheltered with evergreens, and made dry and hard for a warm [[promenade]] in winter; others formed of closely mown turf, and thickly shaded by a leafy canopy of verdure, for a cool retreat in the midst of summer. Others again may lead to some sequestered spot, and terminate in a secluded rustic [[seat]], or conduct to some shaded dell or rugged [[eminence]], where an extensive [[prospect]] can be enjoyed. Indeed, the genius of the place must suggest the direction, length, and number of the '''walks''' to be laid out, as no fixed rules can be imposed in a subject so everchanging and different. It should, however, never be forgotten, that the '''walk''' ought always to correspond to the scene it traverses, being rough where the latter is wild and [[picturesque]], sometimes scarcely differing from a common footpath, and more polished as the surrounding objects show evidence of culture and high keeping. . .

:“In our remarks on '''walks''' and roads, we omitted to say anything of the best manner of making gravel '''walks'''. . . A very thin coat of gravel will render a '''walk''' superior to a path which consists only of the natural soil, and such surfacing in our dry climate (though it frequently requires renewing), is often sufficient for distant '''walks''', or those little used except in fine weather. But the approach road, and all '''walks''' immediately about the dwelling, should be laid at least a foot thick with gravel, to insure dryness, and a firm footing at all times and seasons. . .

:“Undoubtedly in almost all examples in the [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]] slate-colored gravel. . . is much the most agreeable to the eye, being unobtrusive, just differing sufficiently with soil to be readily recognised as artistical in its effect, while it harmonizes with the color of the ground, and the soft tints of vegetation. A thirst after something new has induced some persons, even in the interior, to substitute, at considerable cost, the white gravel of the sea-shore for the common pit or beach gravel. The change, we think, is, in point of taste, not a happy one. The strong white of this gravel, as the painters would say, disturbs the tone of a simply beautiful landscape, whose prevailing tints are those of the broad [[lawn]] and rich overshadowing trees; and the glare of these snowy white pebbles is not, we confess, so pleasing in our eyes as the cooler and more quiet color of the slate or grey gravel.”

*<div id="Breck"></div>Breck, Joseph, 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 20)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Width of '''Walks'''''.—The main '''walk''', or '''walks''', of a [flower] garden, should be laid out on a liberal scale. Nothing detracts so much from the pleasures of the flower-garden as contracted '''walks'''. When we wish to enjoy the company of a friend, in the flower-garden, it is much more agreeable to have him by our side, arm in arm, than to be under the necessity of making the tour of the garden in Indian file. The main '''walks''' should, therefore, be calculated so as to admit two persons to '''walk''' comfortably in a social manner; and, if wide enough for a little one in addition, so much the better. From five to six feet will not be too wide for the main [[avenue]]. The internal compartments, of course, should have much narrower '''walks''', the width of which must be graduated in a degree by the size of the garden.

:“The '''walks''' of the flower-garden should be constructed of such material as will make firm and dry walking at all seasons of the year.” [[#Breck_cite|back up to History]]

*New York State Lunatic Asylum Trustees, 1851, describing the ideal grounds for a lunatic asylum (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 53)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The salutary influence on the insane mind of highly cultivated lawns—pleasant '''walks''' amid shade trees, [[shrubbery]], and [[fountain]]s, beguiling the long hours of their [sic] tedious confinement—giving pleasure, content, and health, by their beauty and variety, are fully appreciated by us.”

*Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr., 1976: 2:47)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The little cottage. . . was built last year for Augustus W. Clason, Esq. of Westchester. . . The grounds contain fifteen acres, of which five are wooded with a very old growth, and the rest lie in grass. It is intended to throw '''walks''' through the [[lawn]] and adorn their [[border]]s, but not to set apart any one spot for a garden.”

*Jaques, George, February 1851, “Trees in Cities” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 17: 50–52)<ref>George Jaques, “Trees in Cities,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 17, no. 2 (February 1851): 50−52, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/87A6ZJSH/q/trees%20in%20cities view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I propose, at present, to speak first of planting trees upon side-'''walks'''. In American cities, it is customary to construct streets with a wide carriageway in the middle, and a ''walk'' for pedestrians on either side. Trees are usually planted on the line between these foot-'''walks''' and the carriageway. . .

:“Take as an example [[Boston Common]]. Here we have, for the most part, a smooth grass surface, intersected by straight wide gravel-'''walks''', and these lined on each side with trees placed along at equal distances form each other. But suppose no tree or '''walk''' were there, and a ''carte blanche'' were given to any one that he might arrange all things to his own fancy, what would you do, Mr. Editor? Would you plant ''straight'' rows of ''equidistant'' trees there? Probably not. For, although such an arrangement of fruit or shade trees may be in its place very convenient and useful, it can never please the eye which admires the [[picturesque]] beauty of trees growing in groups.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0481.jpg|William Burgis, ''Plan of Boston in New England'', 1728. "Rope '''Walks'''" indicated in the center, above "Fort Hill".

Image:0078.jpg|Anonymous, Plan for a garden, mid-18th century. “[[Ha-Ha/Sunk fence|Ha Ha]] '''Walk''' here” inscribed at center top.

Image:1053.jpg|Batty Langley, “Design of a ''rural Garden'', after the new manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. III, opp. 208. Straight-lined '''walks''' are indicated at R and across the top linking X and X. Meandering '''walks''' begin at the four entrances marked by b.

Image:1382.jpg|Batty Langley, “An Improvement of a beautiful Garden at Twickenham,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IX.

Image:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . ,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI. '''Walks''' are seen leading up to the [[mount]] at F.

Image:1391.jpg|Batty Langley, “Frontispieces of [[Trellis]] Work for the Entrances into [[Temple]]s of [[View]], [[Arbor]]s, Shady [[Walk]]s, &c.,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVIII. Caption for top figure also reads: “An Arbor in a Fortified Island.”

Image:1393.jpg|Batty Langley, “Shady '''walks''' with [[Temple]]s of [[Trellis]] work after the grand manner of Versailles,” and “An [[Avenue]] in Perspective, terminated with the ruins of an ancient Building after the Roman manner,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XXII.

File:1398.jpg|Batty Langley, ''The Design of an Elegant [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] Contain’g ARP 1.2.20. Including Walks'', in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. V.

File:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

File:0993.jpg|Unknown, Map showing the Bowery Lane area of Manhattan, c. 1760. "Rope '''Walk'''" is inscribed at middle right.

Image:0681.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Plan and Elevation of the Present and Intended Buildings of the Georgia Orphan House Academy'' (1768).

Image:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of [[Monticello]] Mountain, before May 1768. '''Walk''' is written at the top left on this plan.

Image:0588.jpg|Joseph F. W. Des Barres, ''A Plan of the Town of Newport in the Province of Rhode Island'' (1780) in ''The Atlantic Neptune, published for the use of the Royal Navy of Great Britain'' (London: 1780–81).

Image:0048.jpg|John Nancarrow, "Plan of the Seat of John Penn, junr Esqr in Blockley Township and County of Philadelphia," c. 1785. The '''walk''' meanders across the grounds from the Mansion House at “a” to the [[Ha-Ha/Sunk_fence|ah-ha]] at “g.”

Image:0071.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan for the City of Washington, March 1791.

Image:0108.jpg|Andrew Ellicott (creator), Samuel Hill (engraver), ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1792. There is a tree lined '''walk''' running east west on the central axis of the Mall in the center of the plan. The word "'''walk'''" is inscribed in the description of the plan on the bottom right.

Image:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Master Plan for Yale College, 1792. ". . .a gravel '''walk''' should lead into the [[shrubbery]]. . ."

Image:0100_detail.jpg|John Trumbull, Master Plan for Yale College [detail], 1792.

image:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA.

Image:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

Image:0091.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General ideas for the improvement of [[Monticello]] [detail], c. 1804. The description notes “'''Walks''' in this style wind-ing up the mountain.”

Image:0166.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “. . . winding '''walk''' surrounding the [[lawn]] before the house.”

Image:1350.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "[[walk|''Walks'']]", in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 796, fig. 549.

Image:1351.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of [[French_style|French]] [[parterre]] of embroidery, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 797, fig. 550.

Image:1352.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], The botanic [[Flower_garden|flower garden]] with a gravel-'''walk''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 801, fig. 553.

Image:1372.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a [[Ferme_ornée/Ornamental_farm|ferme ornée]] with wild and irregular [[hedge]]s, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 1023, fig. 722.

image:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Gardens]] and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

Image:0935.jpg|Alexander Walsh, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''New England Farmer'' 19, no. 39 (March 31, 1841): 308. "A '''walk''' 5 ft. in width, A A, of a semi-elliptical form. . . '''walks''' of 4 ft. width C C C C. . ."

Image:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. “From ''o'' to ''m'', the '''walk'''. . .”

image:1000.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] of the Vinery at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 2 (August 1846): pl. opp. 58.

Image:1503.jpg|Anonymous, "The Rococo Garden of Baron Hügel, near Vienna," Horticulturist, vol. 1, no. 10 (April 1847), pl. opp. p. 441. "''g'' and ''h'' are gravel '''walks'''."

Image:1050.jpg|Richard Dolben, “Plan for Flower Garden,” 1847.

Image:0995.jpg|Anonymous, “The Espalier '''Walk''' in the Fruit Garden at Wodenethe,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 11 (May 1847): pl. opp. 489.

Image:0943.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a small [[Greenhouse|Green-House]]” and “Section of the Same,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (December 1848): 259, figs. 32 and 33.

Image:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country [[Seat]], after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. “. . .Varied '''walks''', concealed from each other”.

Image:0380.jpg|Anonymous, “The Ravine '''Walk''' at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 350, fig. 40.

Image:0391.jpg|Anonymous, “The Irregular Flower-garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 428, fig. 76. “. . . and the '''walks''' ''e''.”

image:0775.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of a cottage, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 23. "Ground [[plot]] showing the location of the house, '''walks''', roads &c. in the [[Modern_style/Natural_style|natural style]] with [[hedge]] and [[shrub]] [[border]]s. "

Image:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. "O" marks "'''walks'''".

Image:0787.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29. "T T, foot '''walks'''. . . "

Image:0790.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Design for a Vinery & [[Greenhouse|Green House]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 43'

Image:0584.jpg|Lewis Miller, Title page, ''Sketchbook of Landscapes in the State of Virginia'' (1853).

Image:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount_Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington'', c. 1859. "13. Plank '''Walk''' to Landing", on lower left, leading to n.8 Tomb.

Image:1097.jpg|Thomas S. Sinclair, “Plan of the [[Pleasure_ground/Pleasure_garden|Pleasure Grounds]] and Farm of the [[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]] at Philadelphia,” in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''American Journal of Insanity'' 4, no. 4 (April 1848): plate opp. 280.

</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1387.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a [[Park]] Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIII.

Image:0285.jpg|Nicholas Garrison, ''A [[View]] of Bethlehem, one of the Brethren’s Principal Settlements, in Pennsylvania, North America'', 1757.

Image:0134.jpg|Christian Remick, ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', c. 1768.

Image:2258.jpg|Sydney L. Smith (engraver) from a watercolor drawing by Christian Remick (c. 1768), ''A Prospective [[View]] of part of the [[Boston Common|Commons]]'', 1902.

Image:0074.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan showing the rectangular flower [[bed]]s and proposed [[temple]]s at the corners of the [[terrace]] walks at [[Monticello]], before August 4, 1772.

Image:0337.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The West Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787—92.

Image:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A [[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1790.

Image:0153.jpg|John Drayton, ''A [[View]] of the Battery and Harbour of New York, and the Ambuscade Frigate'', 1794.

Image:0343.jpg|George Isham Parkyns, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1795.

Image:0031.jpg|Andrew Ellicott, ''Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia'', 1795.

Image:0092.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], “Plan of Spring Roundabout at [[Monticello]],” c. 1804.

Image:0073.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of serpentine [[walk]] and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], May 23, 1808.

Image:0044.jpg|[[Charles Willson Peale]], ''[[View]] of the garden at [[Belfield]]'', 1816.

Image:1037.jpg|William Cobbett, “Plan for a Garden,” in ''The American Gardener'' (1819).

Image:0169.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird’s-eye [[view]] of the University of Virginia, c. 1820.

Image:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820—25.

Image:0647.jpg|Charles W. Burton, ''[[View]] of the Capitol'', 1824.

Image:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

Image:0486.jpg|James Smillie, “Bay & Harbour of New York, From the Battery,” in ''Bourne Views of New York'' (1831), plate 8.

image:1705.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], [[Kitchen garden]], in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1834), 721, fig. 696. “. . .on the north, at the surrounding '''walk''' (c). . .”

Image:1298.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''[[View]] of the Waterworks at Fairmount'', 1835–36.

Image:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836.

Image:1239.jpg|George Washington Sully, ''[[View]] of the New Orleans River Front from Canal Street to the Place d’Armes'', 1836.

Image:0479.jpg|Fitz Hugh Lane after Charles Hubbard, ''The National Lancers with the Reviewing Officers on [[Boston Common]]'', 1837.

Image:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of the Fairmount Water-Works with [[Schuylkill_River|Schuylkill]] in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

Image:1032.jpg|Anonymous, “Consecration Dell,” in ''The [[Picturesque]] Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), 161.

Image:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The [[Seat]] of General George P. Morris),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.

Image:1120.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Fairmount Gardens, with the Schuylkill Bridge. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 24.

Image:1121.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Schuylkill Water-Works. (Philadelphia),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery: or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 37. Steps and '''walks''' leading up to the reservoir seen in the background.

Image:0835.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 6.

Image:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the [[National_Mall|Mall]]'', Washington, DC, 1841.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (recto). Walks are both the straight and winding paths across the property.

Image:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

Image:1861.jpg|Anonymous, ''Grounds of a cottage orneé'', in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening,'' (1844): 102, fig. 25.

Image:1049.jpg|N. Vautin, [[View]] of North Side (Rear) of Longfellow House, June 1845.

Image:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells, attr., ''Roseland Cottage,'' c. 1846. The walk is to the right of the cottage.

Image:0329.jpg|Anonymous (artist), A. Kollner (lithographer), “North West [[View]] of the Mansion of George Washington [[Mount Vernon]],” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on Agriculture from His Excellency George Washington'' (1847), opp. 124.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[Montgomery Place]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.

Image:0358.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Seat]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 157, fig. 26.

Image:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Conservatory]],” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

Image:0487.jpg|William Wade, ''Castle Garden: From the Battery'', 1848. ". . .a public '''walk'''; made by a gentle decline from the platform. . ."

Image:1007.jpg|Anonymous, “A [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Alcove]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.

Image:0996.jpg|Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

Image:0997.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a [[Geometric_style|Geometric]] Flower Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 12 (June 1848): 558, fig. 67.

Image:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

Image:0428.jpg|Edward Weber, ''[[View]] of Washington City and Georgetown'' [detail], 1849.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0355.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Hyde Park]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 45, fig. 1.

Image:0361.jpg|Anonymous, “Beaverwyck, the [[Seat]] of Wm. P. Van Rensselaer, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 7.

Image:0366.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds at Pine Bank,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' , 4th ed. (1849; repr., 1991), pl. opp. 57.

Image:0367.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esq.” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 57.

Image:0370.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Geometric style]], from an old print,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 62, fig. 14.

Image:0771.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of Brier Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2

Image:0773.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of Anglo-Italian Villa, New York, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 8.

Image:0774.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]]s for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

Image:0776.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “A [[plot]] of village property 724 feet by 488,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

Image:0942.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 8 (February 1849): pl. opp. 353.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird’s Eye [[View]] of Boston'', c. 1850.

Image:0492.jpg|Anonymous, ''Saratoga Schottisch'', New York, 1851.

Image:1038.jpg|Frederick Graff, ''Plan of [[Lemon Hill]] and Sedgley Park, Fairmount and Adjoining Property'', October 15, 1851.

Image:0862.jpg|Edward Sachse, ''[[View]] of Washington'', 1852.

</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

Image:0266.jpg|John Durrand, ''Thomas Atkinson'', n.d., a '''walk''' is visible in the background on the right hand side leading to the buildings.

Image:0703.jpg|Lewis Miller, “The Yellow Sulphur Springs, Montgomery County,” n.d.

Image:1191.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of an unidentified garden, 18th century.

Image:0405.jpg|Anonymous, Holly Hill, 18th century.

Image:1192.jpg|Anonymous, Garden plan, 18th century.

Image:0463.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel painting from Morattico Hall, 1715.

Image:0171.jpg|Anonymous, “Isaac Norris: his house at Fairhill,” 1717 (1890).

Image:1377.jpg|Batty Langley, Garden with a [[canal]], in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. IV.

Image:1390.jpg|Batty Langley, “The Design of a [[Fountain]] & [[Cascade/Cataract/Waterfall|Cascade]] after the grand Manner at Versailes,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVII.

Image:0017.jpg|Anonymous, Illustration of Williamsburg buildings, flora and fauna. Modern impression taken from the original 1740s copperplate [Bodleian Plate re-strike].

Image:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A [[prospect]] of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

Image:0003.jpg|William Dering, attr., ''Portrait of George Booth'', 1748-50.

Image:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West [[Prospect]] of Nassau Hall, with a Front View of the Presidents House in New-Jersey'', Princeton College, 1764.

Image:0255.jpg|John Singleton Copley, ''Rebecca Boylston'', 1767.

Image:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

Image:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

Image:0256.jpg|The Beardsley Limner, ''Mrs. Hezekiah Beardsley (Elizabeth Davis)'', c. 1788-90.

Image:0131.jpg|Unknown, ''Overmantel of Rev. Joseph Wheeler House'', c.1787-93.

Image:0265.jpg|James Earl, ''William Henry Capers'', 1788.

Image:0269.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Daniel Boardman'', 1789.

Image:0613.jpg|Samuel Hill, “View of the Seat of His Excellency John Hancock, Esq., Boston,” in ''The Massachusetts Magazine or, Monthly Museum of Knowledge and Rational Entertainment'' 1, no. 7 (July 1789): pl. 7, opp. 394.

Image:0452.jpg|The Denison Limner (Probably Joseph Steward), ''Captain Elisha Denison'', c. 1790.

Image:0278.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Captain John Pratt (1753-1824)'', 1792.

Image:0279.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth'', 1792.

Image:0258.jpg|William Clarke, ''Mrs. Levin Winder (Mary Stoughton Sloss)'', 1793.

Image:0546.jpg|William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793. A walk is seen across the lawn on the right hand side, between the tree and the summerhouse.

Image:0477.jpg|John Scoles, ''Government House'', 1795.

Image:0058.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795-99.

Image:2250_detail1.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:2250_detail2.jpg|Unknown, Kitchen Garden [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:0274.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Houses Fronting New Milford Green'', 1796.

Image:0197.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Rose Hill'', 1798.

Image:0280.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''Townscape of Bennington'', 1798.

Image:0083.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Sedgeley, c. 1799.

Image:0683.jpg|C. Foster, “Western Baptist Theological Institute, at Covington KY, opposite Cincinnati, Ohio,” in Charles Cist, ''Cincinnati in 1841: Its Early Annals and Future Prospects'' (1841), pl. opp. 270.

Image:0324.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Back of the State House, Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0305.jpg|William Russell Birch, “State-House, with a view of Chesnut Street Philadelphia,” 1800.

Image:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box [[Grove]]'', c. 1800.

Image:0226.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The [[Seat]] of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

Image:0732.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Springland'', c. 1800.

Image:0173.jpg|Anonymous, ''Overmantel from the Bannister house'', c. 1800-20.

Image:0296.jpg|Anonymous, ''Townscape, Stonington, Connecticut'', 1800-25.

Image:0155.jpg|John L. Boqueta de Woiseri, ''A [[View]] of New Orleans taken from the [[plantation]] of Marigny'', November 1803.

Image:0207.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Mt. Deposit'', 1803-05.

Image:0254.jpg|Reuben Moulthrop, ''Mrs. Daniel Truman and Child'', c. 1798–1810. A walk is depicted on the right, leading from the house through the garden.

Image:0195.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Bolton, [[view]] from the South'', c. 1805.

Image:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

Image:0742.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Design for a Garden for George Reed, New Castle, Delaware'', c. 1805, in Emily T. Cooperman and Lea Carson Sherk, ''William Birch: Picturing the American Scene'' (2011), 218, fig. 127.

Image:1924.jpg|P. Lodet, ''Clermont, [[Seat]] of the Chancellor Livingston - North River 1807'', 1807.

Image:0731.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''[[View]] from Springland'', c. 1808.

Image:0322.jpg|William Russell Birch, “China Retreat Pennsyl.a the [[Seat]] of M.r Manigault,” 1808, in William Russell Birch and Emily Cooperman, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), 79, pl. 19.

Image:0326.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The [[View]] from Springland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (1808), pl. 2.

Image:1679.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], ''The Moreau House'', July 2, 1809.

Image:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

Image:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “[[View]] of the [[Botanic Garden]] of the State of New York,” in [[David Hosack]], ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

Image:0050.jpg|Hugh Reinagle, ''[[Elgin Botanic Garden|Elgin Garden]] on Fifth Avenue'', c. 1812.

Image:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

Image:0128.jpg|Mary Moulton, Needlework Sampler, 1813, in Sotheby’s New York, ''Important American Schoolgirl Embroideries: The Landmark Collection of Betty Ring'' (January 2012): 27.<ref name="Sothebys"></ref>

Image:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

Image:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady, N.Y.'', 1815.

Image:0902.jpg|George Bridport, Design for Washington Monument, [[Washington_Square_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Washington Square]], Philadelphia, 1816.

Image:0404.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.

Image:0063.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], “Plan of the public [[Square]] in the city of New Orleans, as proposed to be improved. . .” [detail], March 20, 1819.

Image:0416.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée (artist), J. Klein and V. Balch (engravers), “[[View]] of Union College in the City of Schenectady,” c. 1820.

Image:0719.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, “[[Seat]] of Josiah Quincy, Esqr.,” 1822.

Image:0521.jpg|William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public [[Square]], Philadelphia'', 1824.

Image:0053.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Castle Garden, N. York, c. 1825-28.

Image:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J. D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825-30.

Image:1427.jpg|William Guy Wall, ''City Hall'', 1826.

Image:0675.jpg|Anthony Imbert after [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] of the Battery and Castle Garden'', 1826-28.

Image:1280.jpg|John Rubens Smith, ''[East front of the United States Capitol]'', c. 1828.

Image:1281.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West Front of the Capitol, c. 1828.

Image:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.

Image:0757.jpg|Jacob Marling, ''North Carolina State House'', 1830.

Image:1043.jpg|Sidney Mason Stone, ''House for Roger Sherman Baldwin, New Haven, Conn. [exterior elevation]'', c. 1830-40.

Image:1244.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''Unexecuted Design for Cross-Block Terrace Development (perspective)'', c. 1831.

Image:1279.jpg|John Rubens Smith, West front of the United States Capitol with cows in the foreground, c. 1831.

Image:1432.jpg|Milo Osborne, “Deaf and Dumb Asylum,” in Theodore S. Fay, ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs from Accurate, Characteristic, and Picturesque Drawings'' (1831).

Image:0490.jpg|Archibald L. Dick, “Elysian Fields, Hoboken (New York in the distance),” in ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs'' (1831-34).

Image:1433.jpg|James H. Dakin, “La Grange [[Terrace]], La Fayette Place, City of New York,” 1831-34.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, “Entrance to [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0651.jpg|John Warner Barber, “Southeastern [[view]] of Wesleyan University, Middletown,” in ''Connecticut Historical Collections'' (1836), 510.

Image:0424.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Ithiel Town, and James Dakin, ''New York University, Washington Square'', 1833.

Image:1458.jpg|Henry Cheever Pratt, ''The House of Gardiner Greene'', c. 1834.

Image:1434.jpg|Samuel Davenport, ''New York'', c. 1835.

Image:1027.jpg|Anonymous, “View of [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 2, no. 6 (February 1836), 234.

Image:0419.jpg|John La Tourette, “University of the State of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.,” detail from ''Map of the State of Alabama'', c. 1837.

Image:0489.jpg|John William Hill (artist), William James Bennett (engraver), ''New York, from Brooklyn Heights'', 1837.

Image:1142.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Laurel Hill [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], Philadelphia'', 1838.

Image:1283.jpg|William A. Pratt (artist), Charles Fenderich (lithographer), “Elevation of the eastern front of the Capitol of the United States,” c. 1839.

Image:1750.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of a [[Flower Garden]], in ''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6, no. 5 (May 1840): 187, fig. 7.

Image:0113.jpg|Mary Blades, Woodbury, c. 1840, in ''The Magazine Antiques'' 55 (February 1949), 132.

Image:0420.jpg|Anonymous, “Franklin College, in Athens, Georgia,” in ''Gleason’s Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion'' 6, no. 19 (May 13, 1854): 297.

Image:0727.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''Gardens of the Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1840.

Image:0524.jpg|Anonymous, Palladian Villa Style Building in Formal Landscape, c. 1840-50.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''[[Picturesque]] [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] N. W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.

Image:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National Park Service.

Image:0903.jpg|M. Schmitz (artist), Thomas S. Sinclair (lithographer), John B. Colahan (surveyor), ''Map of [[Washington_Square_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Washington Square]], Philadelphia'', 1843.

Image:0663.jpg|John Warner Barber, “College of New Jersey, Princeton,” in ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey'' (1844), pl. opp. 266.

Image:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

Image:1966.jpg|Edward William Mumford, ''Clarke’s Hall & Dock Creek'', c. 1844.

Image:1102.jpg|F. F. Judd (artist), E. B. and E. C. Kellogg (lithographers), “Retreat for the Insane, Hartford, Connecticut,” in ''Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Officers of the Retreat for the Insane at Hartford, Connecticut'' (1846), 314.

Image:0110.jpg|Joseph Goldsborough Bruff (artist), Edward Weber & Co. (lithographer), ''Elements of National Thrift and Empire'', c. 1847.

Image:0660.jpg|William S. Jewett, ''[[Mount]] Washington'', 1847.

Image:0476.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Sarony & Major (printers), ''[[View]] of Union [[Park]], New York, from the head of Broadway'', 1849.

Image:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Shrubbery]] and [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.

Image:0847.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Three figures going up a hill to a gazebo at [[Blithewood]], n.d. (c. 1849).

Image:1943.jpg|Godfrey N. Frankenstein, ''Portrait of "The Old House" residence of John Adams and John Quincy Adams Adams'', 1849.

Image:2292.jpg|Weingärtner & Sarony, “Smithsonian Institution, from the North East,” in Robert Dale Owen, ''Hints on Public Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. 108.

Image:0353.jpg|Anonymous, “Example of the beautiful in Landscape Gardening,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), opp. 273, fig. 15.

Image:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''[[View]] of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.

Image:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, ''[[View]] of Washington'', c. 1850.

Image:1282.jpg|Augustus Köllner, “Capitol (west side),” c. 1850.

Image:1439.jpg|John William Hill (artist), Smith Bros. & Co. (lithographers), ''Charleston, SC'', c. 1850.

Image:1441.jpg|David William Moody, ''Springfield'', c. 1850.

Image:0459.jpg|Jenny Emily Snow, attr., ''Fairmount Park Waterworks'', c. 1850.

Image:1232.jpg|Orsamus Turner, Life Cycle of a Pioneer Woodsman (“Third Sketch of the Pioneer”), in ''Pioneer History of the Holland Purchase'' (1850), opp. 565.

Image:1039.jpg|Anonymous, The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]], in Joseph Breck, ''The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]]: or, Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (1841), frontispiece.

Image:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_garden/Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

Image:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith, Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

Image:0557.jpg|Sarony & Major, ''Iranistan, an Oriental Ville'', 1852—54.

Image:1673.jpg|Anonymous, The Claremont, c. 1855.

Image:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_garden/Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

Image: 2287.jpg|Ernest Crehen, ''Blue Sulphur-Greenbrier, VA'', in John J. Moorman, ''The Virginia Springs of the South and West'', 1859: facing 217.

Image:1009.jpg|Anonymous, ''Homestead of Humphrey H. Nye, New Bedford'', 1860-65.

Image:1022.jpg|David J. Kennedy, after Charles Alexandre Lesueur (c. 1830), ''Residence of Thomas Say, Esqr. (Naturalist) at New Harmony, Indiana'', 1870.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category:Keywords]]
[[Category: Circulation]]

Shrubbery

2021-03-26T14:15:27Z

A-Whitlock:

See also: [[Border]], [[Clump]], [[Espalier]], [[Hedge]], [[Thicket]]

==History==
Generally described as an arrangement of shrubs with the possible inclusion of flowers or trees, the term shrubbery emerged in American usage after 1750, with the fullest descriptions of the feature appearing in the early 19th century. This corresponds with the history of shrubbery in Britain, where in the 18th century it evolved from other related features, such as [[wilderness]], which also employed shrubs, trees, and flowers.<ref>See Mark Laird, ''The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720–1800'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), chaps. 3, 4, 7, and 8, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VHZIWTH3 view on Zotero].</ref> The term “shrubbery” was sometimes used to describe a collection of shrubs (a category of low woody plants with multiple branches). This use of the term is evident in Fanny Kemble’s 1839 account of Butler Island, Georgia. More frequently, however, it indicated a distinct ornamental feature that included not only shrubs but also trees and possibly flowers, and it is this use of the term that this study focuses upon.

Given that [[wilderness]]es, [[grove]]s, [[thicket]]s, and [[clump]]s could all be composed of the same materials as shrubberies, it is not surprising that a certain degree of ambiguity surrounded the term in 18th- and early 19th-century gardening literature. This confusion is exemplified by the elision of the terms “shrubbery” and “bosquet” in 1800 by an observer of Adrian Valeck’s estate in Baltimore. As late as 1841, [[Robert Buist]] conflated these terms in his reference to [[thicket]] as a mass of shrubbery. As John Abercrombie and James Mean noted in 1817, this ambiguity was compounded by the difficulty in determining the boundaries of the [[flower garden]] and the shrubbery since the two features often adjoined each other and employed similar plant materials. For Abercrombie and Mean, shrubbery was characterized by a predominance of shrubs with only a few flowers, a distinction that also made shrubberies different from [[grove]]s.

The key elements that distinguished shrubberies from [[wilderness]]es (both of which utilized shrubs and flowers), were siting, plant arrangement, and treatment of plant material. In general, wildernesses were composed of trees under-planted with shrubs and cut through by [[walk]]s. In contrast, shrubberies featured plants arranged in graduated heights (from lowest to highest) and were intended as frames or [[border]]s to [[walk]]s. Such distinctions help to clarify Alexander Gordon’s 1849 comment that the way to transform “magnificent groves of magnolias” into “a perfect ''facsimile'' of an English shrubbery would be to introduce [[walk]]s, and judiciously thin out and regulate the mass.”

The graduated plantings commonly featured in shrubberies allowed the maximum display of plants, a technique that derived from 18th-century flower [[border]]s and [[wilderness]] fringes. In 1804, for example, Gardiner and Hepburn recommended planting shorter shrubs in front of taller ones, in order to exhibit each “to most advantage.” In 1841, Buist instructed his reader to keep each plant “distinct, one from another, in order that they may be the better shown off.”

Although the term “shrubbery” was often ambiguously used, examples of specific uses abound in American gardening literature, as demonstrated by the case of [[Mount Vernon]]. George Washington planted shrubberies along the serpentine [[walk]]s that outlined the west lawn. These shrubberies not only bordered the [[walk]]s to the north and south, but also connected the wilderness area (adjacent to the western terminus of the lawn) to the house and its outlying structures. This use of shrubberies was consistent with the guidelines set forth by prevailing treatise writers, such as William Marshall, whose ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803) Washington owned. Marshall maintained that shrubberies were more appropriate for establishing connections among garden features than were [[wood]]s, [[grove]]s, or [[thicket]]s, which belonged to the broader landscape of hills and valleys. Similarly, the American garden writer [[Bernard M’Mahon]], in his ''American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806), explicitly stated that shrubberies should be used to frame [[walk]]s or [[lawn]]s. The curving sweeps of Washington’s shrubbery also exemplified the [[Modern_style|modern]] (or natural) style espoused by most late 18th- and early 19th-century treatise writers.

[[File:1270.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Solomon Drowne, ''[[Botanic Garden]], 1818'', 1818. “Shrubbery” is marked in the hemicycle plat.]]
At [[Mount Vernon]], Washington also designated a second area as a shrubbery, as revealed in the instructions he sent in 1776 to his nephew and estate manager Lund Washington. In his letter, the elder Washington recommended that [[grove]]s of trees be planted on each side of the house. He also referred to the southern grove, which was made up of ornamental trees under-planted with “wild flowering shrubs,” as a shrubbery. In its massing of vegetation and distinct shape, this shrubbery harked back to wildernesses. But the varied plant material of the shrubbery—ornamental trees interspersed with evergreens and shrubs—suggested a graduated arrangement in accordance with the directions of contemporary treatises.

Washington’s desire for the “clever kind of Trees” in his shrubbery illustrates the frequent use of shrubbery to draw attention to exotic, rare, or highly ornamental shrubs. Treatise writers underscored how a shrubbery could, in [[Bernard M’Mahon|Bernard M'Mahon's]] words, “display a beautiful diversity of foliage and flowers,” by including a list of recommended trees, shrubs, and herbaceous flowers. The inclusion of a shrubbery in Solomon Drowne’s plan (1818) for a [[botanic garden]] exemplifies this use [Fig. 1]. This notion of a shrubbery was most fully developed by [[J. C. Loudon]] in his theory of the [[gardenesque]], which dictated graduated plantings, arranged from low herbaceous plants to taller ornamental trees, and a distinct separation of each specimen in order to emphasize the “display of shrubs valued for their beauty or fragrance.”

Loudon’s 1826 text also alerts us to the wide range of style terminology used in the early 19th century to describe different methods of arranging and situating the shrubbery, such as “[[Geometric_style|geometric]],” “systematic” (or “methodical”), “Chinese,” “[[gardenesque]],” “mingled,” and “select” (or “grouped”). The latter two styles were the most significant: “mingled” referred to rhythmically mixing species according to blooming schedules within each carefully graduated row, whereas “select” referred to massing by genus, species, or variety with gradual blending from one type to the next. In America, such terms were not always used with great precision. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that references to “mixed” or “mingled” arose much more often in garden literature than in common usage.

<div id="Fig_2"></div>[[File:0938.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, James E. Teschemacher, “A [[Greenhouse|green-house]] constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157. On the left, a shrubbery conceals the entrance to the stables. [[#Fig_2_cite|Back to text]]]]
[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon’s]] commentary also points out the predominant use of shrubberies in order to frame the sides of [[walk]]s, to screen out unpleasant [[view]]s, or to link together visually certain aspects of the pleasure ground or flower garden. The function of screening is clearly illustrated by John Trumbull’s inscription of his landscape plan for Yale College (1792), where he instructed to “conceal as much as possible,” the privies, or, as he called them, “The Temples of Cloacina,” a reference to the ancient sewer in Rome. [[André Parmentier]] placed shrubberies along the [[walk]]s at his [[nursery]], particularly those connecting various ornamental features of the garden, such as the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[arbor]] and the “French saloon.”<ref>Anonymous, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref> These shrubberies also screened out the [[nursery]] [[bed]]s and vineyards.

James E. Teschemacher, writing in the ''Horticultural Register'' in 1835, explained at length the appropriateness of using shrubbery to hide the vegetable or [[kitchen garden]] and to obscure the boundaries of a property, making the grounds appear larger. Teschemacher’s lithograph [Fig. 2] illustrates the use of shrubberies positioned along walks to lead the viewer’s attention away from undesirable working areas, such as the vegetable garden, and toward the more appealing [[flower garden]]. Like his predecessors, mid-19th century garden designer William H. Ranlett positioned shrubberies along [[walk]]s, roads, or around the perimeter of houses, thus ensuring that homes built in an urban or suburban context could enjoy a display of flowering vegetation.

By the 1840s, shrubbery had developed as a distinct garden feature defined by graduated, intermixed vegetation; placement along [[walk]]s, roads, [[flower garden]]s, and [[lawn]]s; and use as a linking and screening device. The latter two characteristics were shared with [[hedge]]s, but hedges were understood to be generally uniform in size and species and densely planted to create an impenetrable barrier. More importantly, unlike the [[hedge]], the formation of the shrubbery was driven by the impulse to display prized plants.

—''Anne L. Helmreich''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], 1771, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (1944: 27)<ref>Thomas Jefferson, ''The Garden Book'', ed. Edwin M. Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8ZA5VRP5/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Open Ground on the West—a '''shrubbery'''
:“Shrubs—(Not exceeding a growth of 10. f.). Alder—Bastard indigo. flowering Amorpha—Barberry—Cassioberry. Cassine.—Chinquapin— Jersey-tea. F. Ceanothus—Dwarf Cherry. F. Cerasus. 5. Clethra—Cockspur hawthorn, or haw. Crataegus. 4. Laurel—Scorpion Sena. Emerus— Hazel.—Althea F.—Callicarpa—Rose—Wild honeysuckle—Sweet-briar—Ivy.
:“Trees.—Lilac—Wild Cherry—Dogwood— Redbud—Horse chestnut—Catalpa—Magnolia— Mulberry—Locust—Honeysuckle—Jessamine— Elder—Poison oak—Haw—Fig.
:“Climbing shrubby plants.—Trumpet flower—Jasmine—Honeysuckle.
:“Evergreens.—Holly—Juniper—Laurel—Magnolia—Yew.
:“Hardy perennial flowers.—Snapdragon— Daisy—Larkspur—Gilliflower—Sunflower— Lily—Mallow—Flower de luce—Everlasting pea—Piony—Poppy—Pasque flower—Goldylock, Trollius=Anemone—Lilly of the Valley— Primrose—Periwinkle—Violet—Flag.—(''Account Book 1771''.)”

*Washington, George, August 19, 1776, in a letter to Lund Washington, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Riley 1989: 7)<ref>John P. Riley, ''The Icehouses and Their Operations at Mount Vernon'' (Mount Vernon, VA: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, 1989), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/76PVTIZM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I mean to have groves of Trees at each end of the dwelling House. . . these Trees to be Planted without any order or regularity (but pretty thick, as they can at any time be thin’d) and to consist that at the North end, of locusts altogether. and that at the South, of all the clever kind of Trees (especially flowering ones) that can be got, such as Crab apple, Poplar, Dogwood, Sasafras, Laurel, Willow (especially yellow and Weeping Willow, twigs of which may be got from Philadelphia) and many others which I do not recollect at present; these to be interspersed here and there with ever greens such as Holly, Pine, and Cedar, also Ivy; to these may be added the Wild flowering Shrubs of the larger kind, such as the fringe Trees and several other kinds that might be mentioned. It will not do to plant the Locust Trees at the North end of the House till the Framing is up. . . But nothing need prevent planting the '''Shrubbery''' at the other end of the House. Whenever these are Planted they should be Inclosd, which may be done in any manner till I return; or rather by such kind of fencing as used to be upon the Ditch running towards Hell hole. . . If I should ever fulfil my Intention it will be to Inclose it properly; the [[Fence]] now described is only to prevent Horses & ca. injuring the young Trees in their growth.”

*Washington, George,1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig 1978: 4:94, 97, 99)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', ed. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[February 22] I also removed from the [[Wood]]s and old fields, several young Trees of Sassafras, Dogwood, & red bud, to the '''Shrubbery''' on the No. Side the grass plat. . .
:“Planted the remainder of the Ash Trees—in the Serpentine [[walk]]s—the remainder of the fringe trees in the '''Shrubberies'''—all the black haws—all the large berried thorns with a small berried one in the middle of each [[clump]]—6 small berried thorns with a large one in the middle of each clump—all the swamp red berry bushes & one [[clump]] of locust trees. . .
:“[March 3] Planted the remainder of the Locusts—Sassafras—small berried thorn & yellow Willow in the '''Shrubberies''', as also the red buds— a honey locust and service tree by the South Garden House. Likewise took up the clump of Lilacs that stood at the Corner of the South Grass [[plat]] & transplanted them to the clusters in the '''Shrubberies''' & standards at the south Garden [[gate]]. The Althea trees were also planted. . .
:“Employed myself the greatest part of the day in pruning and shaping the young plantation of Trees & Shrubs. . .
:“[March 7] Planted all my Cedars, all my Papaw, and two Honey locust Trees in my '''Shrubberies''' and two of the latter in my [[grove]]s—one at each (side) of the House and a large Holly tree on the Point going to the Sein landing.”

[[File:0100.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3, John Trumbull, Master Plan for Yale College, 1792. The three [[square]] privies are surrounded by the shrubbery.]]
*Trumbull, John, 1792, describing Yale College, New Haven, CT (Yale University Library, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Picture Collection, 48A-46, box 1, folder 2)
:“The [[Temple]]s of Cloacina (which it is too much the custom of New England to place conspicuously,) I would wish to have concealed as much as possible, by planting a variety of Shrubs, such as Laburnums, Lilacs, Roses, Snowballs, Laurels. &c, &c—a gravel [[walk]] should lead thro [''sic''] the '''Shrubbery''' to those buildings.
:“The Eating Hall should likewise be hidden as much as the space will admit with similar shrubs.” [Fig. 3]

*Clitherall, Eliza Caroline Burgwin (Caroline Elizabeth Burgwin), active 1801, describing the Hermitage, seat of John Burgwin, Wilmington, NC (quoted in Flowers 1983: 125)<ref>John Flowers, “People and Plants: North Carolina’s Garden History Revisited,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (1983): 117–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FCVW8GHV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Gardens were large, and laid out in the [[English style]]—a Creek wound thro’ the largest, upon its banks grew native '''shrubbery'''.”

*Anonymous, June 14, 1800, describing in the ''Federal Gazette'' the estate of Adrian Valeck, Baltimore, MD (quoted in Sarudy 1989: 136)<ref>Barbara Wells Sarudy, “Eighteenth-Century Gardens of the Chesapeake,” ''Journal of Garden History'' 9 (1989): 104–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PGSNXHMJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A large garden in the highest state of cultivation, laid out in numerous and convenient [[walk]]s and [[square]]s bordered with [[espalier]]s. . . Behind the garden in a grove and '''shrubbery''' or bosquet planted with a great variety of the finest forest trees, oderiferous & other flowering shrubs etc.”

*Hamilton, Alexander, c. 1801–4, describing Hamilton Grange, estate of Alexander Hamilton, New York, NY (quoted in Lockwood 1931: 1:263)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If practicable in time I should be glad some laurel should be planted along the edge of the '''shrubbery''' and round the [[clump]] of trees near the house; also sweet briars and [illegible].
:“A few dogwood trees not large, scattered along the margin of the [[grove]] would be very pleasant, but the fruit trees there must be first removed and advanced in front.”

*Taylor, General James, 1805 [?], describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (quoted in Norton and Schrage-Norton 1985: 148)<ref>John D. Norton and Susanne A. Schrage-Norton, “The Upper Garden at Mount Vernon Estate—Its Past, Present, and Future: A Reflection on 18th Century Gardening. Phase II: The Complete Report” (Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association Library, 1985), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3R9Z6WZT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The flower and '''shrubbery''' gardens on the north side of the [[avenue]] are tastefully laid out in serpentine [[walk]]s and [[square]]s bordered with dwarf box-wood interspersed with handsome flowering shrubs with ornamental trees around the exterior of the inclosure.”

*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 55)<ref> Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Papers, MS 0152, Drayton Hall, SC, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
: “The Garden consists of a large verdant [[lawn]] surrounded by a belt of [[walk]], & '''shrubbery''' for some distance.”

*Ripley, Samuel, 1815, describing Gore Place, summer home of Christopher and Rebecca Gore, Waltham, MA (1815: 273)<ref>Samuel Ripley, “A Topographical and Historical Description of Waltham, in the County of Middlesex, Jan. 1, 1815,” ''Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 3 (January 1815): 261–84, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7INJ3GDV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is situated in the centre of pleasant grounds, tastefully laid out, surrounded by a [[walk]] of a mile in circuit, intersected by several other [[walk]]s, on all of which are growing trees and '''shrubbery''' of various kinds.”

*Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, DC (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, DC: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>

:"ANNALOSTAN ISLAND
: . . . Annalostan Island is evidently of modern formation. . . The highest [[eminence]], on which the house stands, is fifty feet above the level of the river. The common tide rises to the height of three feet. I can never forget how de-lighted I was with my first visit to this island. The amiable ladies whom I had the pleasure to accompany, left their carriage at Georgetown, and we walked to the mansion-house under a delicious shade. The blossoms of the cherry, apple, and peach trees, of the hawthorn and aromatic '''shrubs''', filled the air with their fragrance. . . The house, of a simple and neat form, is situated near that side of the island which commands a [[view]] of the Potomac, the President's House, Capitol, and other buildings. The garden, the sides of which are washed by the waters of the river, is ornamented with a variety of trees and '''shrubs''', and, in the midst, there is a [[lawn]] covered with a beautiful verdure. The [[Summerhouse|summer-house]] is shaded by oak and lin-den-trees, the coolness and tranquility of which invite to contemplation. The refresh-ing breezes of the Potomac, and the gentle murmuring of its waters against the rocks, the warbling of birds, and the mournful as-pect of the weeping-willows, inspire a thousand various sensations. What a delicious shade-

:"Ducere sol[l]icitae jucunda oblivia vitae"

:The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the [[picturesque]] banks of the Po-tomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the bridge terminates the [[view]]. . . A few feet below the [[Summerhouse|sum-mer-house]] the rocks afford the [[seat]]s, where those who are fond of fishing may indulge in this amusement. From the [[portico]] on the oppo-site [139] side of the house, Georgetown, Calorama, the beautiful [[seat]] of Joel Barlow, Esq. and the adjacent finely-wooded hills, appear a [[vista]]."

*Latrobe, Mary Elizabeth, April 18, 1820, describing the Latrobe home, New Orleans, LA (1951: 180–81)<ref>Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/ view on Zotero].</ref>

:“. . . the house as far from the river as across Baltimore street, filled between with a '''shrubbery''' consisting of about 4 Myrtles (the small leaf’d) 20 feet high, about, 8 Oleanders still higher, forty rose bushes of an immense size, of different sorts, 4 Monstrous Musk rose bushes, half a doz. large pomegranate trees.”

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a plantation he visited during his trip from Charleston, SC, to Savannah, GA (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“From the drawing-room, we could walk into a [[verandah]] or [[piazza]], from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and '''shrubbery''', rich with orange trees, laurels, myrtles, and weeping willows, and here and there a great spreading aloe.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing Marietta, OH (1838: 2:73)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel,'' 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This island was purchased, about thirty-five years ago, by an Irish gentleman, named Herman Blennerhassett, whose name the island has since borne. This gentleman took his beautiful and attached wife to his new property, and their united tastes made it such an abode as was never before and has never since been seen in the United States. '''Shrubberies''', [[conservatories]], and gardens ornamented the island, and within doors there was a fine library, philosophical apparatus, and music-room.”

*Lester, N., November 30, 1837, describing the Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (LHA Research #231)
:“The General has a very fine garden; I culled some choice seeds which I will divide with you the first opportunity. The garden is tastefully laid off in [[plat]]s, ornamented with various kinds of flowers and '''shrubbery'''. The tomb of his lamented lady is in one corner of the garden, but a short distant from his dwelling. It is surrounded by rose bushes, and the weeping willow, and covered by a plain [[summer-house]].”

*Kemble, Fanny, January 1839, describing her husband’s plantations on Butler Island, GA (1984: 56)<ref>Frances Anne Kemble, ''Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839'', ed. John A. Scott (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWZQAT2D/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“As I skirted one of these [[thicket]]s today, I stood still to admire the beauty of the '''shrubbery'''. Every shade of green, every variety of form, every degree of varnish, and all in full leaf and beauty in the very depth of winter. The stunted dark-colored oak; the Magnolia bay. . . which grows to a very great size; the wild myrtle, a beautiful and profuse shrub, rising to a height of six, eight, and ten feet, and branching on all sides in luxuriant tufted fullness; most beautiful of all, that pride of the South, the Magnolia ''grandiflora'', whose lustrous dark green perfect foliage would alone render it an object of admiration, without the queenly blossom whose color, size, and perfume are unrivaled in the whole vegetable kingdom.”

[[File:1118.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, W. H. Bartlett, “Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The Seat of General George P. Morris),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.]]
*Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing Undercliff, seat of Gen. George P. Morris, near Cold Spring, NY (1840: 233)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery; Or, Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'' (London: G. Virtue, 1840), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FB4EQ56M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In front, a circle of greensward is refreshed by a [[fountain]] in the centre, gushing from a Grecian [[vase]], and encircled by ornamental '''shrubbery'''; from thence a gravelled [[walk]] winds down a gentle declivity to a second plateau, and again descends to the entrance of the carriage road, which leads upwards along the left slope of the hill, through a noble forest, the growth of many years, until suddenly emerging from its sombre shades, the visitor beholds the mansion before him in the bright blaze of day.” [Fig. 4]

*Anonymous, June 1840, “Notices of Greenhouses and Hot-houses, in and near Philadelphia,” describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of William Hamilton, near Philadelphia, PA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 6: 201)<ref>Anonymous, “Notices of Greenhouses and Hot-houses, in and near Philadelphia,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 6, no. 6 (June 1840): 201–3, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/A352BDPC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''shrubbery''', for want of attention, had sprung into all sorts of shapes, and bore evident marks of the rude hands of the rabble who passed them by in the season of bloom.”

*B., P., January 1844, “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 10: 17)<ref>B. P., “Progress of Horticulture in Rochester, N.Y.,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 10, no. 1 (January 1844): 15–19, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/W3UKEX82/q/Progress%20of%20Horticulture%20in%20Rochester view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Flower garden]]s and '''shrubberies''' are no longer objects of amazement; [[avenue]]s of forest trees are not uncommon sights in the vicinity of dwellings; in fact the general neatness that pervades this beautiful section of country cannot fail to suggest to the traveller the steady march of taste and refinement, and the progress, though slow, of that art that transforms the wildest forest into a very Eden.”

*Perkins, John, December 14, 1845, describing his nursery in New Jersey (Peabody Essex Institute, Phillips Library, Lee Family Papers, MS 129, box 1, folder 5)
:“I am a nurseryman In New Jersey. . . I have a large collection of fruit trees on hand. . . Besides '''shrubery''' & ornamental trees of different varieties.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, describing [[Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (quoted in Haley 1988: 52)<ref>Jacquetta M. Haley, ed., ''Pleasure Grounds: Andrew Jackson Downing and Montgomery Place'' (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Press, 1988), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SSZXJFSC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Passing under neat and tasteful [[Arch|archways]] of wirework, covered with rare climbers, we enter what is properly
:“THE [[FLOWER GARDEN]]. . .
:“The whole garden is surrounded and shut out from the [[lawn]], by a belt of '''shrubbery''', and above and behind this, rises, like a noble framework, the background of trees of the [[lawn]] and the [[Wilderness]]. If there is any prettier [[flower-garden]] scene than this ensemble in the country, we have not yet had the good fortune to behold it.”

*Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (''Journal of Medicine'' 10: 60)
:“The farm contains about fifty-five acres, and is bounded, on its western side, by the Blooming-dale road. About thirty acres of it is under high cultivation, portions being devoted to grass, vegetables, and ornamental '''shrubbery'''.”

*Town Council of the Borough of West Chester, March 13, 1848, resolution in memory of [[Humphry Marshall]], Marshallton, West Chester, PA (quoted in Darlington 1849: 492)<ref>William Darlington, ''Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall: With Notices of Their Botanical Contemporaries'' (Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TKNVQG76 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Whereas it has been deemed expedient and proper to improve the public [[Square]], on which the upper reservoir connected with the Waterworks of the borough is situated, by laying out the same in suitable [[walk]]s, and introducing various ornamental trees and '''shrubbery'''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (1849; repr., 1991: 443)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Those who have seen the '''shrubbery''' at ''[[Hyde Park]]'', the residence of the late [[Dr. Hosack]], which borders the [[walk]] leading from the mansion to the [[hot-house]]s, will be able to recall a fine example of this mode of mingling woody and herbaceous plants. The belts or [[border]]s occupied by the [[shrubbery]] and [[flower-garden]] there, are perhaps from 25 to 35 feet in width, completely filled with a collection of shrubs and herbaceous plants; the smaller of the latter being quite near the walk; these succeeded by taller species receding from the front of the [[border]], then follow shrubs of moderate size, advancing in height until the background of the whole is a rich mass of tall shrubs and trees of moderate size. The effect of this belt on so large a scale, in high keeping, is remarkably striking and elegant.”

*Gordon, Alexander, June 1849, “Gardens and Gardening in Louisiana,” describing the residence of Mr. Valcouraam, near New Orleans, LA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 15: 247–48)<ref>Alexander Gordon, “Remarks on Gardens and Gardening in Louisiana,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 15, no. 6 (June 1849): 245–49, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/HNZQV4FE/q/gardens%20and%20gardening view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For instance, within a few minutes walk from where I now write, I could find magnificent [[grove]]s of magnolias (now in full bloom,) with an abundance of choice trees and shrubs. All that would be required to form the scene into a perfect ''facsimile'' of an English '''shrubbery''' would be to introduce [[walk]]s, and judiciously thin out and regulate the mass.”

*Committee on the Capitol Square, Richmond City Council, July 26, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol Square, Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greiff, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The most beautiful feature of the contemplated alterations of the [[Square]], however, will be found in the arrangement of the trees and '''shrubbery'''. Instead of planting these in parallel rows, like an ordinary [[orchard]] some attention will be paid to [[landscape gardening]]—[[grove]]s, [[arbour]]s, [[parterre]]s, and [[fountain]]s will combine to render the [[Square]] a place of delightful resort.”

===Citations===
*Whately, Thomas, 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 29–30)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But there are besides, sometimes in trees, and commonly in shrubs, still more minute varieties. . . But all these inferior varieties are below our notice in the consideration of great effects: they are of consequence only where the [[plantation]] is near to the sight; where it skirts a home scene, or [[border]]s the side of a [[walk]]: and in a '''shrubbery''', which in its nature is little, both in style and in extent, they should be anxiously sought for.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:113–14)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A ''regularity'' in planting '''shrubs''' is not necessary as to lines, but is rather to be avoided, except just in the front, where there should always be some low ones, and a border for ''flowers'', chiefly of the ''spring'', as summer ones are apt to be drawn up weak, if the '''shrubbery''' [[walk]]s are not very wide. The flowers should be of the lowest growth, and rather bulbous rooted. . . In open '''shrubberies''' an edging of ''strawberries'' is proper, and the hautboy preferable.”

*Forsyth, William, 1802, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (1802: 144–45)<ref>William Forsyth, ''A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees'' (Philadelphia: J. Morgan, 1802), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZSNDFTE9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“I have recommended the practice of intermixing fruit-trees in '''shrubberies''' and [[plantation]]s of this kind to several gentlemen, who have adopted it with success. While the fruit-trees are in flower, they are a great ornament to the '''shrubberies'''; and in summer and autumn the different colours of the fruit have a beautiful appearance. Add to this the advantage of a plentiful supply of fruit for the table, and for making cider and perry; and if some cherries are interspersed among them, they will be food for birds, and be the means of preventing them from destroying your finer fruit in the orchard or garden.”

*Marshall, William, 1803, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament'' (1803: 1:256, 280)<ref>William Marshall, ''On Planting and Rural Ornament: A Practical Treatise. . . '', 2 vols. (London: G. and W. Nicol, G. and J. Robinson, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K48D75JJ/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[WOOD]]S, [[Grove]]s, and extensive [[Thicket]]s, are more particularly adapted to the sides of hills, and elevated situations: detached Masses, Groups, and Single Trees, to the lower grounds. . . The '''Shrubery''' [''sic''] depends more on the given accompaniments, than on its own natural situation. . .
:“IF the house be stately, and the adjacent country rich and highly cultivated, a '''shrubery''' [''sic''] may intervene, in which Art may shew her utmost skill.”

*Gardiner, John, and David Hepburn, 1804, ''The American Gardener'' (1804: 108)<ref>John Gardiner and David Hepburn, ''The American Gardener, Containing Ample Directions for Working a Kitchen Garden Every Month in the Year, and Copious Instructions for the Cultivation of Flower Gardens, Vineyards, Nurseries, Hop Yards, Green Houses and Hot Houses'' (Washington, DC: Printed by Samuel H. Smith, 1804), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GKECKRIQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Plant roses, honeysuckles, jasmins, lilacs, double hawthorn, cherry blossom, and other hardy shrubs, when the weather is mild.—In forming a '''shrubbery''', plant the lowest shrubs in front of [[clump]]s, and the tallest most backward, three to six feet apart, according to the bulk the shrubs grow. They will thus appear to most advantage.”

*[[Bernard M’Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 55, 62)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“For instance, a grand and spacious open [[lawn]], of grass-ground, is generally first presented immediately to the front of the mansion, or main habitation. . . widening gradually outwards, and having each side embellished with plantations of '''shrubbery''', [[clump]]s, [[thicket]]s, &c. . . . and in the interior divisions of the ground, serpentine winding [[walk]]s, and elegant grass openings, ranged various ways, all bordered with '''shrubberies''', and other tree and shrub plantations, flower compartments, &c. disposed in a variety of different rural forms, in easy bendings, concaves, and straight ranges, occasionally; with intervening breaks or opens of grass-ground; both to promote rural diversity, and for communication and [[prospect]] to the different divisions. . .
:“All the [[plantation]] compartments of '''shrubbery''', [[wilderness]], &c. should be planted with some considerable variety of different sorts of trees, shrubs, and flowers, artfully disposed in varied arrangements; the tallest behind, the lowest forward, and the different sorts so intermixed, as to display a beautiful diversity of foliage and flowers, disposing the more curious kinds contiguous to the principal [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]s. . .
:“In planting the several '''shrubbery''' [[clump]]s, &c. some may be entirely of trees; but the greater part an assemblage of trees and shrubs together; some entirely of the low shrub kind, in different situations, between, and in front of the larger growths; likewise should intersperse most of the '''shrubbery''' and [[wilderness]] compartments, with a variety of hardy herbaceous flowery plants of different growths, having also here and there [[clump]]s entirely of herbaceous perennials: the distribution or arrangement of the [[clump]]s, and other divisions of the different kinds, both trees, shrubs, and flowers, should be so diversified, as to exhibit a proper contrast, and a curious variation of the general scene.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 337–38)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The lines of distinction between the [[Flower Garden]], the '''Shrubbery''', and the [[Pleasure Ground]], can neither be positively marked, nor constantly observed, in treating the subjects which may seem to fall under one of these heads more properly than under either of the others. The flowering shrubs connect the two former. For instance, can there be such an exact partition between the [[Flower Garden]] and the '''Shrubbery''', as would destroy their communication, while the plant which bears the beautiful rose belongs, in a catalogue of names, to the latter department? Or can we prevent the [[Pleasure Ground]] from running into the [[Flower Garden]] and '''Shrubbery''', so as scarcely to know where one begins and the other ends, as long as a [[Pleasure Ground]], with the most happy diversity of [[lawn]]s, [[wood]], and water, would be incomplete without flowers and shrubs?
:“The substantial difference between the two former [ [[Flower Garden]] and '''Shrubbery''' ], lies in the proportion in which the two classes of plants are cultivated: hence, where a great preponderance of plants without woody stems display their bloom, the characteristics of a [[Flower Garden]] seem obvious enough: if another spot is almost covered with [[clump]]s of shrubs, and merely dotted with a few creeping flowers, it will be termed, without hesitation, a '''Shrubbery'''.”

*Nicol, Walter, 1823, ''The Villa-Garden Directory'' (1823: 3–4)<ref>Walter Nicol, ''The Villa-Garden Directory, or Monthly Index of Word, to Be Done in Town and Villa Gardens, Shrubberies and Parterres'' (Edinburgh: Archibald Constable, 1823), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DF9Z32E5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . care should be taken, in the disposition of the '''shrubberies''', or other [[plantation]]s, to preserve the best [[view]]s. The whole should appear light and airy; nor should the place be ''boxed in'' by high [[wall]]s or [[hedge]]s. . .
:“Next to the error of rearing high [[fence]]s, is that of bounding the whole premises by a close and connected belt of '''shrubbery''', or other [[plantation]]; leaving the house standing in a small open paddock, unadorned by a plant of any kind; the belt being often separated from it by a deep and broad ditch, or [[ha-ha]].”

[[File:1848.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[J. C. Loudon]], Shrubbery formed in the geometric style of gardening, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 804, fig. 557.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 802–4, 806–7, 809)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“6130. ''By a '''shrubbery''', or shrub-garden'', we understand a scene for the display of shrubs valued for their beauty or fragrance, combining such trees as are considered chiefly ornamental, and some herbaceous flowers. The form or plan of the ''modern '''shrubbery''''' is generally a winding border, or strip of irregular width, accompanied by a [[walk]], near to which it commences with the herbaceous plants and lowest shrubs, and as it falls back, the shrubs rise in gradation and terminate in the ornamental trees, also similarly graduated. Sometimes a border of '''shrubbery''' accompanies the [[walk]] on both sides; at other times only one side, while the other side is, in some cases, a border for culinary vegetables surrounding the [[kitchen-garden]], but most generally it is an accompanying breadth of turf, varied by occasional groups of trees and plants, or decorations, and with the [[border]], forms what is called [[pleasure-ground]].
:“6131. ''The sort of '''shrubbery''' formed under the [[geometric style]] of gardening''. . . was more compact; it was called a bosque, [[thicket]] or [[wood]], and contained various compartments of turf or gravel branching from the [[walk]]s, and very generally a [[labyrinth]]. The species of shrubs in those times being very limited, the object was more walks for recreation, shelter, shade, and verdure, than a display of flowering shrubs. . . [Fig. 5]
:“6132. ''In respect to situation'', it is essential that the '''shrubbery''' should commence either immediately at the house, or be joined to it by the [[flower-garden]]; a secondary requisite is, that however far, or in whatever direction it be continued, the [[walk]] be so contrived as to prevent the necessity of going to and returning from the principal points to which it leads over the same ground. . .
:“6138. ''On planting the '''shrubbery''''' the same general remarks, submitted as introductory to ''planting the flower-garden'', are applicable; and shrubs may be arranged in as many different manners as flowers. Trees, however, are permanent and conspicuous objects, and consequently produce an effect during winter, when the greater number of herbaceous plants are scarcely visible. This is more especially the case with that class called evergreens, which, according as they are employed or omitted, produce the greatest difference in the winter aspect of the '''shrubbery'''. We shall here describe four leading modes for the arrangement of the '''shrubbery''', distinguishing them by the names of the mingled or common, the select or grouped manner, and the systematic or methodical style of planting. Before proceeding farther it is requisite to observe, that the proportion of evergreen trees to deciduous trees in cultivation in this country, is as 1 to 12; of evergreen shrubs to deciduous shrubs, exclusive of climbers and creepers but including roses, as 4 to 8; that the time of the flowering of trees and shrubs is from March to August inclusive, and that the colors of the flowers are the same as in herbaceous plants. These data will serve as guides for the selection of species and varieties for the different modes of arrangement, but more especially for the mingled manner. . .
[[File:1353.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], “The select or grouped manner of planting a shrubbery,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), p. 806, fig. 559.]]
:“6141. ''The select or grouped manner'' of planting a '''shrubbery'''. . . is analogous to the select manner of planting a [[flower-garden]]. Here one genus, species, or even variety, is planted by itself in considerable numbers, so as to produce a powerful effect. Thus the pine tribe, as trees, may be alone planted in one part of the '''shrubbery''', and the holly, in its numerous varieties, as shrubs. After an extent of several yards, or hundreds of yards, have been occupied with these two genera, a third and fourth, say the evergreen fir tribe and the yew, may succeed, being gradually blended with them, and so on. A similar grouping is observed in the herbaceous plants inserted in the front of the [[plantation]]; and the arrangement of the whole as to height, is the same as in the mingled '''shrubbery'''. . . [Fig. 6]
[[File:1847.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, [[J. C. Loudon]], Ground-plan for “systematic or methodical planting in shrubberies,” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), p. 807, fig. 560. The shrubbery is indicated at ''k'' in the upper left quadrant. ]]
:“6144. ''Systematic or methodical planting in '''shrubberies''''' consists, as in flower-planting, in adopting the Linnaean or Jussieuean arrangement as a foundation, and combining at the same time a due attention to gradation of heights. . . But much the most interesting mode of arrangement would be that of Jussieu, by which a small villa of two or three acres might be raised, as far as gardening is concerned, to the ne plus ultra of interest and beauty. To aid in the formation of such scenes the tables . . . exhibiting the genera contained in each Linnaean or Jussieuean order, and also the number of species distributed according to their places in the garden, will be found of the greatest use. [Fig. 7]
:“6156. ''Decorations in '''shrubberies'''''. Those of the '''shrubbery''' should in general be of a more useful and imposing character than such as are adopted in the [[flower-garden]]. The [[green-house]] and aviary are sometimes introduced, but not, as we think, with propriety, owing to the unsuitableness of the scene for the requisite culture and attention. Open and covered seats are necessary, or, at least, useful decorations, and may occur here and there in the course of the [[walk]], in various styles of decoration, from the rough bench to the [[Rustic_style|rustic]] hut. . . and Grecian [[temple]]. . . Great care, however, must be taken not to crowd these nor any other species of decorations. Buildings being more conspicuous than either [[statue]]s, [[urn]]s, or inscriptions, require to be introduced more sparingly, and with greater caution. In garden or ornamented scenery they should seldom obtrude themselves by their magnitude or glaring color; and rarely be erected but for some obvious purpose of utility.
:“6157. . . Light bowers formed of lattice-work, and covered with climbers, are in general most suitable to parterres; plain covered seats suit the general [[walk]]s of the '''shrubbery'''.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''SHRUB’BERY''', ''n''. Shrubs in general.
:“2. A [[plantation]] of '''shrubs'''.”

*Teschemacher, James E., May 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 160–61)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): 157–61, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZA92W46U/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [[walk]] might be continued in a serpentine direction on to the vegetable garden behind the house (the entrance to which ought to be concealed by leading round a [[clump]] of thick '''shrubbery'''), first branching off to the [[flower garden]] immediately at the back of the house; which besides roses may be partly devoted to [[bed]]s of tulips, ranunculus, anemone, &c. . . .
:“The entrance on the left will be observed to lead to the stables, partly concealed by trees and '''shrubbery'''; this [[avenue]] also leads to the vegetable garden and would be used for carting manure, coals, wood, &c., the windows of the kitchens facing that way.”

*Teschemacher, James E., June 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 229–30)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (June 1, 1835): 228–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EZCPG4DN/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . If the '''shrubbery''' constitute the boundary of the premises it would be well to raise the earth at the back about two or three feet higher than the front— at every twenty feet a tree may be planted, such as Catalpa syringifolia, Laburnum, Liriodendron, (tulip tree), Larch, silver leaved Sycamore, purple Beech, Ailanthus, Elegnus, Moose wood, &c. Between these trees place the lofty shrubs, as red and white lilac, dog wood, syringa, smoke tree (Rhus continus), snow ball tree and many others; below these place small shrubs as Symphroia racemosa, varius spireas, particularly spirea bella sorbifolia, laevigata, Rhodora canadensis, swamp honey suckle, (azalea), altheas, mezereon, corchorus, calycanthus, Amorpha fruticosa, Potentilla fruticosa, Tartarean honey suckle, and the common Dutch honey suckle, which if kept low by the knife will be bushy and almost always in flower: in front of these may be placed the low herbaceous flowering plants as, paeonies, red, white and blush, pinks, merocallis, low Phloxes, convallaria majalis (lily of the valley), and other by far to numerous to mention. In planting such a '''shrubbery''' great attention must be paid not to crowd the plants too much, as in a few years they will much impede each other’s growth and altogether destroy the beauty. . . The best finish for the [[border]] of such a '''shrubbery''' is a verge of fine grass not less than eight inches in width, which must be kept frequently mown and neatly edged. At intervals of ten or fifteen feet a tree rose of about five or six feet high is extremely ornamental. If the '''shrubbery''' cross the end of the [[flower garden]], with the [[view]] of concealing the vegetable garden, then trees are not requisite, but simply low shrubs. Three or four years will probably elapse before the '''shrubbery''' will be sufficiently thick for the purpose intended; in the mean time the large gaps between the shrubs which would otherwise have a naked appearance, may be filled with lofty herbaceous and biennial flowers. I know of none more appropriate or beautiful than the red and white foxglove, Solomon’s seal, (Convallaria racemosa, multiflora, latifolia,) Aster, novae angliae and others, Cimicifuga, Helianthus multiflorus, the late phloxes, &c. always supposing these not to be allowed to spread so far as to injure the shrubs. . .

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 409, 412)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Suppose the area or garden space to be small, one great object would be to shut out by '''shrubbery''' the boundaries, so that the small extent might not appear, to fill every angle and corner with the Lilac or other large and spreading plant, and to take every advantage of the adjoining land. Thus imagine the neighboring piece to be grass; by means of a very open or of a [[sunk fence]] and a grass [[plat]] the grass on both lands would appear to combine and present an extensive expanse of green, or if wood adjoins, then by judicious transplantation an uninterrupted line of [[copse]] would be formed, on which the eye would rest with pleasure. The invisible [[fence]]s commonly used in England, might here be of great service, they are made of thick iron wire, about four feet high, with thin iron posts at distances of eight or ten feet, painted black, so that they form no impediment to such combinations of [[prospect]] with contiguous properties. The same may be done where a rivulet or a piece of water exists near, observing always that such innocent appropriations of our neighbor’s property is much better enjoyed when only caught at glimpses and between intervals of '''shrubbery'''. . .
:“There is also some management necessary in working up such landscapes with an artist’s eye, by opening vistas through [[plantation]]s, concealing barns and outbuildings or [[kitchen garden]]s by judicious management of [[clump]]s of trees, or permitting small glimpses of the [[flower garden]] by gaps in the '''shrubberies'''—an ornamental roof of a greenhouse partly concealed by foliage is an elegant object.” [[[#Fig_2|See Fig. 2]]]

*Sayers, Edward, 1838, ''The American Flower Garden Companion'' (1838: 147–49)<ref>Edward Sayers, ''The American Flower Garden Companion, Adapted to the Northern States'' (Boston: Joseph Breck and Company, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GHTFN8B2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''shrubbery''' is so nearly allied to the [[flower garden]] that in a work professedly treating of the latter, a particular notice of the former subject is required. Indeed, it is rarely that the flower garden has a good and natural appearance without the presence of the '''shrubbery''', either as forming an outline on the margin, or occupying a prominent situation at one end for the convenience of a shady retreat or other useful purpose. . .
:“I recommend that '''shrubbery''' be more frequently planted on the margin of [[lawn]]s, the outsides of the [[flower garden]], and indeed in all kinds of foregrounds and side entrances to residences of almost any denomination. To residences on the main road and in the immediate vicinity of cities, '''shrubbery''' can with every propriety be introduced on the side wings of the [[lawn]] and carriage roads: and in many cases if a belt or [[border]] of some seven or eight feet wide of '''shrubbery''' be planted in front next to the road that passes such places, it would add much to the beauty and value of the property. . . There can be no objection, however, to a few ornamental trees being planted in front of such houses or even mingled with the '''shrubbery''', and particularly if so managed as to form a ''screen or outline'' to protect the building from the cold winds, when trees so situated serve the double purpose of shelter and ornament.
:“In planting shrubs of every denomination, the general rule must be to place the plants so that their habit and appearance will be really ornamental and at the same time subserve (or at least seem to) some useful end: for instance, the taller kinds, as the ''Lilac'', ''Snowball'', and the like, are the most proper to cover board [[fence]]s, and the back part of '''shrubberies'''; the more dwarf kinds, as the ''Double Almond'', ''Roses'', ''Mezeron'' and so on, for the front or facing. There is also some taste required in mixing the varieties of foliage and habits of the different kinds to be planted, which can only be acquired by a due observance of shrubs when in full foliage. The planting should be so managed that when grown up the outline is natural, that is to say, not too formal; but here and there a little broken by some tall shrub growing above the rest.
:“In the front of such plantations a part of the ground should be planted with herbaceous and other kinds of plants, which when nicely mingled with the shrubs form a pretty contrast in the flowering season. Indeed the margin of the '''shrubbery''' is the only situation where such plants will flourish and show to good advantage, besides giving a fine flourish to the whole.”

*[[Robert Buist|Buist, Robert]], 1841, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'' (1841: 12, 20)<ref>Robert Buist, ''The American Flower Garden Directory'', 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TI7IE55B view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The outer margin of the [flower] garden should be planted with the largest trees and shrubs: the interior arrangement may be in detached groups of '''shrubbery''' and [[parterre]]s.
:“If '''shrubberies''' were made to a great extent, the scenery would be much more varied and characteristic by grouping judiciously than by indiscriminately planting.
:“However, in small [[flower garden]]s and '''shrubberies''', the latter has to be adopted. In such places, tall growing kinds should never be introduced, unless merely as a screen from some disagreeable object, for they crowd and confuse the whole. The dwarf and more bushy sorts should be placed nearest to the eye, in order that they may conceal the naked stems of the others. Generally when shrubs are planted, they are small; therefore, to have a good effect from the beginning, they should be planted closer than they are intended to stand. When they have grown a few years, and interfere with each other, they can be lifted, and such as have died, or become sickly, replaced, and the remainder can be planted in some other direction. Keep them always distinct, one from another, in order that they may be the better shown off. But, if it is not desired that they should be thicker planted than it is intended to let them remain, the small growing kinds may be six or eight feet apart; the larger, or taller sorts, ten to twenty feet, according to the condition of the soil.
:“Thick masses of '''shrubbery''', called [[thicket]]s, are sometimes wanted. In these there should be plenty of evergreens. A mass of deciduous shrubs has no imposing effect during winter.”

*Barber, John Warner, 1844, describing the village of Roxbury in ''Historical collections, being a general collection of interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c.'' (1844: 483)<ref>John Warner Barber, ''Historical collections, being a general collection of interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c., relating to the history and antiquities of every town in Massachusetts, with geographical descriptions'', (1844): 483, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/F53ITP6J view on Zotero].</ref>
:"The numerous genteel residences and cottages, which are mostly built on wood and painted white, contrast strongly with the evergreens and '''shrubbery''', by which most of them are surrounded; and during the summer months, the appearance of this place is highly beautiful."

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 543)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''SHRUBBERY''' is a garden, or portion of a garden, devoted to the cultivation of shrubs. It is not necessary, as Mr. Glenny observes, ‘That there should be any flowers or borders to constitute a '''shrubbery''', but there should be great taste in forming [[clump]]s, and grouping the various foliages and styles of growth. The groundwork in such a garden consists of gravel [[walk]]s and [[lawn]]. If flowers be intermixed, or, which is very generally adopted, there be a space left all round the [[clump]]s to grow flowers in, it becomes a dressed or [[pleasure ground]], rather than a '''shrubbery'''.—Though any part of a ground in which shrubs form the principal feature, is still called a '''shrubbery'''.’— ''Gard. and Prac. Flor''.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], April 1847, “Hints on Flower Gardens” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 444)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, “Hints on Flower Gardens,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 10 (April 1847): 441–45, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRG26IQH view on Zotero].</ref>

:". . . still another most delightful scene is reserved, a so-called Rococo garden. . . A garden, laid out in this manner, demands much cleverness and skill in the gardener. . . Around it the most charming landscape open to the [[view]], gently swelling hills, interspersed with pretty village, gardens and grounds. In the plan of the garden, ''a'' and ''b'' are massed of '''shrubs'''; ''c'', circular [[bed]]s, separated by a border or belt of turf, ''e'', from the serpentine [[bed]], ''d''. The whole of this running pattern is surrounded by a border of turf, ''f''; ''g'' and ''h'' are gravel [[walk]]s; i, [[bed]]s, with pedestal and [[statue]] in the centre; ''k'', small oval [[bed]]s, separated from the [[bed]], ''l'', by a border or turf; ''m, n, o, p'', irregular arabesque [[bed]], set in turf."

[[File:0959.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.]]
[[File:0771.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, [[Frances Palmer]], “Ground Plot of Brier Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2.]]
*Thomas, John J., April 1848, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden” (''Cultivator'' 5: 114)<ref>John J. Thomas, “The Shrubbery and Flower Garden,” ''Cultivator, a Monthly Publication, Devoted to Agriculture'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114–16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/CRVBXUHR/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“With a wish however, to encourage a more graceful, pleasing, and [[picturesque]] mode of laying out even the small [[flower garden]] in connexion with the '''shrubbery''', we have given the above plan, which nearly explains itself.” [Fig. 8]

*Ranlett, William H., 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:5, 33)<ref name="Ranlett">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[border]]s [of the proposed cottage grounds, Design I] are filled with a variety of '''shrubbery''', producing a succession of flowers through the season, and a variety of delicate fruit trees are arranged in such order as to ornament the place nearly or quite as much as the standard shrubs, that produce only flowers.” [Fig. 9]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 442–45)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The '''''shrubbery''''' is so generally situated in the neighborhood of the [[flower-garden]] and the house, that we shall here offer a few remarks on its arrangement and distribution.
:“A collection of flowering shrubs is so ornamental, that to a greater or less extent it is to be found in almost every residence of the most moderate size: the manner in which the shrubs are disposed, must necessarily depend in a great degree upon the size of the grounds, the use or enjoyment to be derived from them, and the prevailing character of the scenery.
:“It is evident, on a moment’s reflection, that shrubs being intrinsically more ornamental than trees, on account of the beauty and abundance of their flowers, they will generally be placed near and about the house, in order that their gay blossoms and fine fragrance may be more constantly enjoyed, than if they were scattered indiscriminately over the grounds.
:“Where a place is limited in size, and the whole lawn and plantations partake of the ''[[pleasure-ground]]'' character, shrubs of all descriptions may be grouped with good effect, in the same manner as trees, throughout the grounds; the finer and rare specics [''sic''] being disposed about the dwelling, and the more hardy and common sorts along the [[walk]]s, and in groups, in different situations near the eye.
:“When, however, the residence is of a larger size, and the grounds have a [[park]]-like extent and character, the introduction of shrubs might interfere with the noble and dignified expression of lofty full grown trees, except perhaps they were planted here and there, among large groups, as ''underwood''. . . When this is the case, however, a portion near the house is divided from the [[park]] (by a wire [[fence]] or some inconspicuous barrier) for [''sic''] the [[pleasure-ground]], where the shrubs are disposed in belts, groups, etc., as in the first case alluded to.
:“There are two methods of grouping shrubs upon lawns which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and ''[[picturesque]]'' scenery.
[[File:0391.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, “The Irregular Flower-garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), p. 428, fig. 76. This plan shows belts of shrubs arranged in arabesque beds.]]
:“In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the plantations of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of shrubs may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . In this case, the shrubs alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the beds; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled.” [Fig. 10]

*New York State Lunatic Asylum Trustees, 1851, describing the ideal grounds for a lunatic asylum (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 53)<ref>Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The salutary influence on the insane mind of highly cultivated [[lawn]]s—pleasant [[walk]]s amid shade trees, '''shrubbery''', and [[fountain]]s, beguiling the long hours of their [''sic''] tedious confinement—giving pleasure, content, and health, by their beauty and variety, are fully appreciated by us.”

*Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr. 1976: 2:39, 78)<ref name="Ranlett"></ref>
:“The windows, the door, and the chimney; the absence of a [[piazza]], the lack of all ornamentation, of vines and '''shrubbery''' [of a house recently erected in the suburbs of NY], bespeak a degree of ignorance of the means of enjoyment, of niggardliness and contracted [[view]]s, that ere long will be looked upon with incredulity. . .
:“City Houses, being seen in long rows, and rarely disconnected from other buildings, do not exhibit their defects so palpably as villas, which stand apart by themselves, and unless particularly concealed by '''shrubbery''', expose their nakedness and defects to all observers.”

*L., R. B., June 1851, “On Artificial Rockeries” (''Horticulturist'' 6: 279)<ref>R. B. L., “On Artificial Rockeries,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 6 (June 1851): 276–79, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K4A8SS87/q/on%20artificial%20rockeries view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It may likewise be observed that rockeries should always be in detached groups, and whether large or small, should never present straight lines or flat surfaces. . . it should always be rather cool, and if possible, shut in by itself by '''shrubbery''', and if possible, also, should be accompanied by a [[jet d’eau]] or [[basin]] of water, or both.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0100.jpg|John Trumbull, Master Plan for Yale College, 1792. The three [[square]] privies are surrounded by the '''shrubbery'''.

File:0100_detail.jpg|John Trumbull, Master Plan for Yale College [detail], 1792.

File:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA.

File:0090.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Letter describing plans for a “Garden Olitory,” c. 1804.

File:0166.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “. . . oval [[bed]]s of flowering '''shrubs'''.”

File:1270.jpg|Solomon Drowne, ''[[Botanic Garden]], 1818'', 1818. “'''Shrubbery'''” is marked in the hemicycle plat.

File:1221.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Plan of wings and courtyards, South Carolina Insane Asylum, 1821.

File:1848.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], '''Shrubbery''' formed in the [[geometric style]] of gardening, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 804, fig. 557.

File:1353.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “The select or grouped manner of planting a '''shrubbery''',” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 806, fig. 559.

File:1847.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Ground-plan for “systematic or methodical planting in '''shrubberies''',” in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 807, fig. 560. The shrubbery is indicated at ''k'' in the upper left quadrant.

File:1354.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Rough bench in [[Rustic_style|rustic]] hut decorated in '''shrubberies''', in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 809, fig. 561.

File:1355.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], “Grecian [[temple]],” in ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826), 809, fig. 562.

File:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of [[Parmentier’s_Horticultural_and_Botanical_Garden|Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanical Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

File:1145.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of Laurel Hill [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]],” in ''Statues of Old Mortality and His Pony, and of Sir Walter Scott'' (1839). "11, '''Shrubbery'''."

File:0960.jpg|John J. Thomas, “Plan of a Garden,” in ''Cultivator'' 9, no. 1 (January 1842): 22, fig. 8. ". . .rich profusion of '''shrubbery''' near the house. . ."

File:1503.jpg|Anonymous, "The Rococo Garden of Baron Hügel, near Vienna," Horticulturist, vol. 1, no. 10 (April 1847), pl. opp. p. 441. "''a'' and ''b'' are massed of '''shrubs'''."

File:0959.jpg|Anonymous, “The '''Shrubbery''' and [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in the ''Cultivator'' 5, no. 4 (April 1848): 114.

File:0775.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of a cottage, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 23. "Ground [[Plot/Plat|plot]]. . . in the [[Modern style/Natural style|natural style]] with [[hedge]] and '''shrub''' [[border]]s."

File:1253.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Kirri Cottage for Julia Jackson Davis, 1849.

File:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. "H" marks "a fruit '''shrubbery'''".
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0056.jpg|[[John Bartram|John]] or [[William Bartram]], "A Draught of [[Bartram_Botanic_Garden_and_Nursery|John Bartram’s House and Garden]] as it appears from the River", 1758.

File:0069.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Plan of [[Mount Vernon]], 1787.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''[[View]] of Baltimore from Howard [[Park]]'', c. 1796.

File:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

File:0051.jpg|William Strickland, “[[The Woodlands]],” 1809, in ''Casket'' 5, no. 10 (October 1830): pl. opp. 432.

File:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from ''A Map of the City of Washington'', 1818.

File:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820–25.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''[[View]] of the West Front of [[Monticello]] and Garden'', 1825.

File:1161.jpg|R.L., ''Residence of John Whelp, Mariners’ Harbor, Staten Island, N.Y.'', c. 1830–40.

File:1100.jpg|Robert Walter Weir, “Lunatic Asylum, New York,” Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, in ''New York Mirror'' (February 1, 1834): opp. 241.

File:1101.jpg|Anonymous, “Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane,” ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 6.

File:0938.jpg|James E. Teschemacher, “A [[Greenhouse|green-house]] constructed at the centre of a cottage,” in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (May 1, 1835): opp. 157. On the left, a '''shrubbery''' conceals the entrance to the stables.

File:1033.jpg|Anonymous, “Forest [[Pond]],” in ''The [[Picturesque]] Pocket Companion, and Visitor’s Guide, through [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]'' (1839), 171.

File:1118.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Undercliff Near Cold-Spring. (The [[Seat]] of General George P. Morris),” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 11.

File:1039.jpg|Anonymous, The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]], in Joseph Breck, ''The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]]: or, Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (1841), frontispiece.

File:1303.jpg|John Warner Barber, "North-western [[view]] in the central part of the Village of Roxbury," in ''Historical Collections, Being a general collection of interesting facts, traditions, biographical sketches, anecdotes, &c.,'' (1844), 483.

File:1146.jpg|John T. Hammond (engraver), ''Plan of the Laurel Hill [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]], near Philadelphia'' [detail], c. 1845.

File:1150.jpg|Joseph C. Wells, attr., ''Roseland Cottage'', c. 1846.

File:1007.jpg|Anonymous, “A [[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[Alcove]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed. ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): pl. opp. 345, fig. 4.

File:0369.jpg|Anonymous, “Mrs. Camac’s Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. between 58 and 59, fig. 13.

File:0364.jpg|Anonymous, “Belmont Place, near Boston, the [[seat]] of J. P. Cushing, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 54, fig. 10.

File:0367.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esp.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 57.

File:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Modern_style|natural style]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25.

File:0391.jpg|Anonymous, “The Irregular [[Flower_garden|Flower-garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 428, fig. 76. This plan shows belts of '''shrubs''' arranged in arabesque [[bed]]s.

File:0771.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of Brier Cottage,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 2.

File:0773.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]] of Anglo-Italian Villa, New York, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 8.

File:0774.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]]s for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

File:0776.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “A [[plot]] of village property 724 feet by 488,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 48.

File:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1165.jpg|William Williams, ''Deborah Hall'', 1766.

File:0167.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], General plan of the summit of [[Monticello]] Mountain, before May 1768.

File:0256.jpg|The Beardsley Limner, ''Mrs. Hezekiah Beardsley (Elizabeth Davis)'', c. 1788—90.

File:0243.jpg|Ludwig Gottfried von Redeken, ''A [[View]] of SALEM in N. Carolina—1787'', 1787.

File:0021.jpg|Cornelius Tiebout, ''A [[View]] of the present [[Seat]] of his Excel. the Vice President of the United States'', 1790.

File:0058.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795—99.

File:0510.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''A [[View]] in Charleston taken from Savage’s Green'', 1796.

File:0257.jpg|Richard Brunton, attr., ''Portrait of Deborah Richmond'', 1797.

File:0005.jpg|Amy Cox, attr., ''Box [[Grove]]'', c. 1800.

File:0182.jpg|Eliza Caroline Burgwin Clitherall, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1805.

File:0312.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Hampton, the [[Seat]] of Gen.l Cha.s Ridgely, Maryland,” in ''The country [[seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 19.

File:0119.jpg|Anonymous, ''Making Hay'', c. 1810.

File:0006.jpg|Harriet De (?), ''The Duck [[Pond]]'', c. 1820.

File:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The Hermitage'', c. 1820.

File:0521.jpg|William Rush, ''North East or Franklin Public [[Square]], Philadelphia'', 1824.

File:0132.jpg|Rufus Porter and J. D. Poor, Josiah Stone House [also known as the Holsaert House/Cobb House], 1825—30.

File:0049.jpg|William Satchwell Leney after Hugh Reinagle, “View of the [[Botanic Garden]] of the State of New York,” in [[David Hosack]], ''Hortus Elginensis'' (1811), frontispiece.

File:0347.jpg|Anonymous, ''Girl in Red with Flowers and a Distelfink'', c. 1830.

File:0464.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

File:1173.jpg|Anonymous, The Diploma for the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, c. 1836, in ''Yearbook of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society'' (1956), frontispiece.

File:0419.jpg|John La Tourette, “University of the State of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.,” detail from ''Map of the State of Alabama'', c. 1837.

File:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington, from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

File:0524.jpg|Anonymous, Palladian Villa Style Building in Formal Landscape, c. 1840—50.

File:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''[[Picturesque]] [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

File:0033.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], ''Plan of the [[National_Mall|Mall]], Washington, D.C.'', 1841.

File:1966.jpg|Edward William Mumford, ''Clarke’s Hall & Dock Creek'', c. 1844.

File:0448.jpg|Anonymous, ''Brother and Sister'', c. 1845.

File:1102.jpg|F. F. Judd (artist), E. B. and E. C. Kellogg (lithographers), “Retreat for the Insane, Hartford, Connecticut,” in ''Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Officers of the Retreat for the Insane at Hartford, Connecticut'' (1846), 314.

File:0753.jpg|John Notman, “Plan of Grounds, Fieldwood, near Princeton,” October 19, 1846.

File:0110.jpg|Joseph Goldsborough Bruff (artist), Edward Weber & Co. (lithographer), ''Elements of National Thrift and Empire'', c. 1847.

File:2292.jpg|Weingärtner & Sarony, “Smithsonian Institution, from the North East,” in Robert Dale Owen, ''Hints on Public Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. 108.

File:0614.jpg|T. Illman after J. Davis, ''Hancock House Boston'', c. 1850.

File:1967.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.

File:0023.jpg|[[A. J. Downing]], ''Plan Showing Proposed Method of Laying Out the [[Public_ground|Public Grounds]] at Washington'', 1851.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>
<hr>
[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Planting Arrangements]]

Lawn

2021-03-26T14:15:13Z

A-Whitlock:

==History==
[[File:0425.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.]]
[[File:0490.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Archibald L. Dick, “Elysian Fields, Hoboken (New York in the distance),” in ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs'' (1831–34).]]
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the lawn was an essential element of the American designed landscape. It was a stretch of grass turf occasionally referred to as grass-ground or greensward. Samuel Johnson defined “greensword” as “the turf on which grass grows.” These terms, however, were rarer in American usage than the term “lawn.”<ref>See Samuel Johnson Jr., ''Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (London: W. Strahan for J. and P. Knapton, 1755), 1:n.p., [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GE2JPJR3 view on Zotero], and S. Allen Chambers Jr., ''Poplar Forest and Thomas Jefferson'' (Forest, VA: Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, 1993), 73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HEXFEBX9 view on Zotero]. One of the first recorded examples of the use of the term “greensward” is Thomas Jefferson’s 1812 instructions that if “seed could be gathered by the children it might be sowed in the fall or spring in the square round the house where the greensward has not yet taken.”</ref> Although descriptions exist of public spaces having lawns, such as the former [[bowling green]] in New York, described by John Lambert (1816), and the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, described by Margaret Bayard Smith (1828), other terms (such as [[square]], [[park]], [[green]] or [[bowling green]], [[common]], or [[mall]]) were more commonly used for public sites. The term “lawn” was used more often in descriptions of residential landscapes.

[[File:1389.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Batty Langley, “Variety of ''Lawns'', or ''Openings'', before a ''grand Front of a Building'', into a ''[[Park]], Forest, [[Common]]'', &c.” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVI.]]
[[File:0229.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Charles Fraser]], ''The [[Seat]] of John Julius Pringle, Esquire, on the Ashley River'', 1800.]]
The scale of lawns ranged from modest to grand. Small dwelling [[yard]]s contrasted with broad swaths of turf in settings as diverse as landscape [[park]]s at country homes, campuses [Fig. 1], hospitals, resorts, and public spaces that included [[green]]s and [[common]]s. Where rainfall, climate, and soil allowed, imported English grasses and cultivars, such as clover, were planted in lawns, and native [[meadow]] grasses were scythed to similar effect.<ref>The importation of English grasses was necessary for providing forage for livestock that had been introduced to America. As early as the 1640s, a thriving seed market had been established in Rhode Island. See Daniel A. Romani Jr., “‘Our English Clover-Grass Sowen Thrives Very Well’: The Importation of English Grasses and Forages into Seventeenth-Century New England,” in ''Plants and People: The Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife'', Annual Proceedings, 1995, ed. Peter Benes (Boston: Boston University Press, 1996), 25–37, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NJCQ95SU/ view on Zotero]. While the presence of grass seed does not indicate a similarly early practice of planting lawns, many of the same cultivars were used in the descriptions of American lawns in the last third of the 18th century.</ref> George Washington mentions planting his lawn with “English grass Seeds” in 1785. Correspondence between Charles Carroll (of Annapolis) and his son reveals the planning and labor involved in planting a lawn: "Severall Small Boys & Girls Have been employed. . . in picking English grass & white Clover seed. Ye 1st was allmost all shed, of ye latter I think I shall send you enough. . . In levelling yr ground I hope you have been Carefull to preserve ye top Soil & to lay it on again, Sowe yr Clover seed when ye Soil is moist, Rake it & when pretty dry Role it with yr Garden Roler is not too Heavy."<ref>Charles Carroll (of Annapolis) to Charles Carroll of Carrollton, August 16, 1771. Maryland Historical Society, Carroll Papers, MS 206.</ref>

[[File:0317.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 5, William Russell Birch, ''Montebello—The [[Seat]] of General Smith'', c. 1808.]]
[[File:0083.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Sedgeley'', c. 1799.]]
While turf was most likely cultivated in some fashion during colonial times, it was not until the last quarter of the 18th century that garden descriptions and other landscape writing registered the common practice of planting lawns, particularly among the larger gardens of the colonial elite.<ref>Virginia Scott Jenkins, ''The Lawn: A History of an American Obsession'' (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IKMBW6W7 view on Zotero], and Therese O’Malley, “The Lawn in Early American Landscape and Garden Design,” in ''The American Lawn'', ed. Georges Teyssot (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 64–87, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DC7N8IZS view on Zotero].</ref> Lawns continued to grow in popularity in America, and by the mid-19th century they were firmly established as a signature of the prosperous American homeowner’s landscape. These lawns became a stage for the social dramas of leisure and sport, depicted at White Sulphur Springs in Virginia, Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey [Fig. 2], and New Haven Green in Connecticut.<ref>In contrast to Jenkins’s interpretation, which argues that the importance of the lawn began with the development of American suburbs in the mid-19th century and culminated in the mid-20th century, the lawn was a significant element of American landscape design in the 18th and early 19th centuries as well. See Jenkins 1994, 14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IKMBW6W7 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2223.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 7, Karl Bodmer, ''Point Breeze,'' 1832.]]
[[File:0088.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], "[[View]] to the North from the Lawn at [[Mount Vernon]]", 1796.]]
Praising the merits of turf had a long tradition in treatise writing. Batty Langley (1728) included several unadorned “[[parterre]]s of grass” in his designs, noting that “the Grandeur of those beautiful Carpets consists in their native Plainness” [Fig. 3]. Treatises for American audiences continued to offer instructions for maintaining lush, green lawns and recommended frequent scything or mowing, sweeping, and rolling, while acknowledging the limitations of the often hotter and dryer American climate.

[[File:1975.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 9, James Smillie (artist), “[[View]] from Battle Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 79.]]
[[File:1678.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, Anonymous, ''Friends Almshouse, Walnut Street, Philadelphia'', c. 1848.]]
The qualities praised in the didactic sources in terms of color and texture were reflected in representations of the American lawn in both verbal and visual descriptions. The smooth, green plane provided a pleasing setting for [[view]]s of a house, as suggested by Margaret Bayard Smith’s 1828 description of James Madison’s Montpelier in Virginia, and by house portraits by such artists as [[Charles Fraser]] [Fig. 4], William Russell Birch [Fig. 5], and [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]] [Fig. 6]. Distant views, such as Karl Bodmer’s painting of Point Breeze [Fig. 7], capitalized upon the effect of a house surrounded by an unobstructed lawn—the centerpiece of the estate presented like a jewel mounted on a swath of green velvet. In a similar manner, the unbroken plane of a green lawn provided a foreground for [[view]]s from a main house. This idea was exemplified by several descriptions of [[Monticello]], [[Mount Vernon]], and [[William Hamilton|William Hamilton's]] seat, [[The Woodlands]], near Philadelphia, and was depicted in paintings, such as [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Benjamin Henry Latrobe's]] view from [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 8] and a view of the [[picturesque]] Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, by James Smillie [Fig. 9]. This foreground effect of the lawn was further enhanced by planting trees at its edge in a diverging or undulating pattern, drawing the viewer’s attention outward, thus enhancing the distant [[view]] and accentuating the size of the lawn.

[[File:2262.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 11, Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.]]
[[File:0123.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.]]
The appearance of an open lawn, freely blending with the landscape beyond, was an essential aspect of the “[[modern style]]” of English [[park]]s and of their American emulations. This effect was to be achieved, where possible, with the appearance of minimal human intervention. One technique was the use of the [[ha-ha]], or, later, the wire [[fence]], which provided a measure of protection against wildlife without interrupting the effect of a continuous transition from the house and lawn to the surrounding countryside. Writers and artists alike admired the contrast of the lawn, “smooth as velvet,” with the irregular, shadowy outline of trees, which helped to create the contrast and diversity espoused by advocates of the natural and [[picturesque]] styles. The disposition of groups of trees and shrubs suggested by John Abercrombie (1817) presented the lawn as a space through which one wandered, over which one’s gaze was carried to distant [[vista]]s, and on which animals grazed.<ref>While images of landscape gardens often included sheep and cattle reclining or grazing on lawns in classic pastoral repose, we have only two references that address the symbiotic utility of lawns or greenswards for grazing livestock.</ref> The principle was one that [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]] espoused in ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849) in his designs for residential gardens. Despite the emphasis in treatise texts on the use of broad, sweeping lawns in large-scale [[plantation]] and estate gardens, lawns were also important design elements in small, enclosed spaces, such as the Friends Almshouse in Philadelphia [Fig. 10]. In numerous examples dating from the 18th and 19th centuries, lawns were enclosed with either a screen of trees or a barrier of [[Fence|fencing]], [[wall]]s, or [[hedge]]s.<ref>Tom Williamson has pointed out a similar continuity of enclosed, often geometrically regular gardens near the house even after the construction of large, naturalistic landscape gardens on the same estate. See Tom Williamson, ''Polite Landscapes: Gardens and Society in Eighteenth-Century England'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 69–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2VTUQM87 view on Zotero].</ref> Sometimes these enclosures were necessitated by space constraints, as seen, for example, in the anonymous painting of Col. George Boyd’s seat in Portsmouth, New Hampshire [Fig. 11], and, at times, by the desire to separate the lawn from other parts of the garden or work areas, as in Rebecca Couch’s painting of a Connecticut house [Fig. 12] (see [[Yard]]). Even in small lots, however, garden periodicals and treatises encouraged the juxtaposition of lawn and trees, [[bed]]s, or [[shrub]]s to give the illusion of greater depth and to diversify the space [Fig. 13].

[[File:0058.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 13, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795–99.]]
[[File:0546.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793.]]
While the pursuit of the [[picturesque]] landscape continued through the mid-19th century (with proponents such as [[Bernard M’Mahon]] and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]]), another current of garden design was less concerned with mimicking the irregularity of nature than with the “clean unbroken line.” Promoted by British writers, such as Humphry Repton (1803) and [[J. C. Loudon]] (1826), and by American writers, such as Thomas Bridgeman (1832) and James E. Teschemacher (1835), the lawn was praised as a setting for variety within the garden, whether its carpet-like surface was cut into by the regular forms of [[walk]]s and flower [[bed]]s, or embellished with furniture, benches, [[arbor]]s, and [[Statue|statuary]]. In contrast to qualities of diversity and irregularity, the frequent use of adjectives such as “polish,” “neatness,” and “precision” conveyed the effect of the lawn as a kind of canvas into which regular elements were cut or placed. In addition to their visual significance in American landscape design, lawns held social and symbolic significance. In both the 18th and 19th centuries, the lawn was perceived to be a sign of improved or “cultivated” space. For example, John Lambert in his 1816 account of the Hudson River area, found pleasure in the contrast between uncultivated [[wood]]s and [[copse]]s and cultivated lawns and [[meadow]]s. In domestic residences, the green lushness sought after by admirers of the lawn was a mark of competence, investment, and, as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] phrased it, “a universal passport to admiration.” Visitors often took note of a lawn’s color as a sign of its condition and a reflection of its owner’s care: Margaret Bayard Smith (1828) reported that the lawn at Montpelier was “green as in spring,” while David Bailie Warden (1816) admired the “beautiful verdure” of Analostan Island, Gen. John Mason’s summer house in Washington, DC. Turfing one’s grounds not only indicated an investment in the labor of planting and maintaining a lawn, but also signaled that one had the luxury of devoting time and space to something other than utilitarian [[kitchen garden]]s or [[orchard]]s. Numerous portraits, such as that of Levin Winder [Fig. 14], depicted the sitter’s properties, including lawns expressive of status and wealth.

In addition to the lawn’s role as a marker of status, descriptions, such as that by Frederick Douglass of Col. Edward Lloyd’s [[Wye House]] in Talbot County, Maryland (1825), as a scene of “Eden-like beauty,” reflected the broader rhetoric of America as the new paradise with its bountiful, limitless space untainted by the crowding and evils of the Old World. In seeming contradiction, the lawn was also read as a sign of having an affinity with the vast estates and pleasure [[park]]s of civilized Europe. Several writers describing American residences noted that lawn and tree groupings, even in modest scale, alluded to the great landscape gardens of English manor houses that were known through the descriptions and tours in such works as Thomas Whately’s ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770).<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref> Both Douglass at [[Wye House]] and C. M. (Charles Mason) Hovey (1841) at William Demming’s residence, Presque Isle, in Fishkill, New York, described in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing's]] ''Magazine of Horticulture'', linked the American lawn to English [[park]]s.

In addition, in the second half of the 18th century the lawn referred to the agrarian roots of the new republic and to the classical villas, on which many of the planter gentry modeled their estates.<ref>William A. Brogden, “The Ferme Ornée and Changing Attitudes to Agricultural Improvement,” ''Eighteenth Century Life'' 8 (January 1983): 39–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2JXRQB64 view on Zotero]; James S. Ackerman, The Villa: Form and Ideology of Country Houses (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2EC879QB view on Zotero], see especially chapters 8 and 10 about Jefferson and Downing.</ref> In short, the lawn was equated with the land itself. Even a small patch of green in a muddy, smelly town alluded to a [[plantation]] or country house, presumed or real. Granted, the rhetoric of the lawn as the vestigial rural [[seat]] of the natural legislator was one shared by an elite few, but it was a symbol of an ideology that shaped much of the political philosophy of the revolutionary and early national period. [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]], in ''Notes on the State of Virginia'' (1784), echoed French Physiocratic philosophers in his presentation of the land as the only true and moral source of wealth. J.-P. Brissot de Warville wrote upon visiting [[Mount Vernon]] in 1788 that George Washington had often been “compared to Cincinnatus: the comparison is doubtless just. This celebrated General is nothing more at present than a good farmer.”<ref>J.-P. Brissot de Warville, ''New Travels in the United States of America'', ed. Durand Echeverria, trans. Mara Soceanu Vamos and Durand Echeverria (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1964), 428–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RB4EKFVG view on Zotero].</ref> America’s 18th-century landed gentry was not only versed in the arts of botany, geometry, astronomy, classics, and music, but also in farming their own land. The smooth spread of lawn, even at a modest scale surrounding an urban dwelling, could be read as a badge of allegiance to that agrarian ideal.

—''Elizabeth Kryder-Reid''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*Gordon, Lord Adam, May 1765, describing a house in Annapolis, MD (quoted in Mereness 1916: 408)<ref>Newton Dennison Mereness, ed., ''Travels in the American Colonies'' (New York: Macmillan, 1916), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8CGKJV8S view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . a house which was built for a Governour. . . but never was finished. . . the Situation of it most Elegant, Standing on an agreeable rising ground, in a beautiful '''Lawn''', commanding the [[view]] of the Town.”

[[File:0342.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787–92.]]
*Washington, George, October 6, 1785, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (Jackson and Twohig, eds., 1978: 4:202)<ref>George Washington, ''The Diaries of George Washington'', eds. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, 6 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9ZIIR3FT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The appearances of the day, and the impracticability of giving, on acct. of the clammyness of the Earth, an even face to any more of my '''lawn''', until the grd. should get dryer, of which there is no immediate [[prospect]], I sowed what was levelled & smoothed of it, with English grass Seeds; and as soon as the top was so dry, as not to stick to the Roller, I rolled & cross rolled it; first with a light wooden roller; and then with a heavy wooden roller; with a [[view]] of compressing the Ground— smoothing the Surfice of it & to bury the Seeds.” [Fig. 15]

*Anonymous, January 21, 1790, describing in the ''Virginia Herald and Fredericksburg Advertiser'' a property for sale in Orange County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“To be sold, The place where I reside in Orange County, lying on the great mountain road, 30 miles from Fredericksburg. . . a '''lawn''' of 10 acres surrounding the dwelling houses.”

*[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1791, describing Marshall Plantation, on the San Juan River, FL (1928: 84)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida'', ed. Mark Van Doren (New York: Dover, 1928), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/88NA3B2P/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house was situated on an [[eminence]], about one hundred and fifty yards from the river. . . On the other side was a spacious garden, occupying a regular [[slope]] of ground down to the water; and a pleasant '''lawn''' lay between.”

*Bentley, William, April 21, 1791, describing a house and garden in Newbury, MA (1962: 1:249)<ref>William Bentley, ''The Diary of William Bentley, D.D., Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts'' (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B63ABACF view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[74] 21. . . . Hon. Mr Jackson shewed me his elegant mansion House. It is situate in the upper Street above the Church towards Amsbury ferry. It has a spacious '''lawn''' behind it with a gradual descent, & is near the house of John Tracey. The banks [[slope]] from the House.”

*Tucker, Saint George, 1793, describing a passage of landscape in his “Almanack” (quoted in Martin 1991: 222, n39)<ref>Peter Martin, ''The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia: From Jamestown to Jefferson'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6TAHS88N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“How sweet is the landscape before us!—the distant mountains mingle with the azure, and all between is the finest penciling of nature. The verdant '''lawn''', the tufted grove, the dusky tower, the hanging [[wood]], the winding stream and tumbling [[waterfall|water fall]], compose the lovely picture before you.”

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing a fictional character’s home (1798: 58–59)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“One sunny afternoon, I was standing in the door of my house, when I marked a person passing close to the edge of the bank that was in front. . .
:“such figures were seldom seen by me, except on the road or field. This '''lawn''' was only traversed by men whose views were directed to the pleasures of the [[walk]], or the grandeur of the scenery.”

[[File:0340.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for [[Mount Vernon]], March 13, 1803.]]
*Weld, Isaac, 1799, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1799: 53)<ref>Isaac Weld, ''Travels through the States of North America and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, during the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797'' (London: John Stockdale, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4HPKRDA7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In front, the breadth of the whole building, is a '''lawn''' with a gravel [[walk]] round it, planted with trees, and separated by [[hedge]]s on either side from the farm [[yard]] and garden. As for the garden, it wears exactly the appearance of a [[nursery]], and with every thing about the place indicates that more attention is paid to profit than to pleasure. The ground in the rear of the house is also laid out in a '''lawn''', and the declivity of the [[Mount]], towards the water, in a [[deer park]].” [Fig. 16]

*Codman, Dr. John, July 18, 1800, in a letter to Sarah Codman, describing the Grange, estate of Dr. John and Sarah Codman, Lincoln, MA (Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Codman Family Manuscript Collection, box 118, folder 1,923.)
:“Mrs. Gore and myself have been planning improvements at Lincoln, she says it is the handsomest place in America and might be made a l’anglaise with ease. I like her plan that the fore-[[yard]] should be thrown down into a '''lawn''' that carriages may drive to the front door.”

*[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, in a letter to his daughter, Mrs. Torrey, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1987: 2:145)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'' (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We then walked over the [[pleasure ground]]s in front and a little back of the house. It is formed into [[walk]]s, in every direction, with [[border]]s of flowering [[shrub]]s and trees. Between are '''lawns''' of green grass, frequently mowed to make them convenient for walking, and at different distances numerous copse of native trees, interspersed with artificial [[grove]]s, which are set with trees collected from all parts of the world.”

[[File:0969.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, [[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at [[Monticello]], 1806.]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson, Thomas]], c. 1804, describing improvements for [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Nichols and Griswold 1978: 111)<ref>Frederick Doveton Nichols and Ralph E. Griswold, ''Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect'' (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/RUZC4Q3D view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The ground between the upper and lower roundabouts to be laid out in '''lawns''' & clumps of trees, the '''lawns''' opening so as to give advantageous catches of [[prospect]] to the upper roundabout.” [Fig. 17]

[[File:0304.jpg|thumb|Fig. 18, William Russell Birch, “[[The Woodlands|Woodlands]] the [[Seat]] of M.r W.m Hamilton Pennsylv.a,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 14.]]
*Drayton, Charles, November 2, 1806, describing [[The Woodlands]], seat of [[William Hamilton]], near Philadelphia, PA (1806: 54—58)<ref>Charles Drayton, “The Diary of Charles Drayton I, 1806,” Drayton Hall: A National Historic Trust Site, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HAARCGXN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The Approach, its road, [[wood]]s, '''lawn''' & [[clump]]s, are laid out with much taste & ingenuity. Also the location of the Stables; with a [[Yard]] between the house, stables, '''lawn''' of approach or [[park]], & the [[pleasure ground]] or [[pleasure garden|garden]].
: The [[Fence|Fences]] separating the [[Park]]-'''lawn''' from the Garden on one hand, & the office [[yard]] on the other, are 4 ft. 6 high. . . The [[park]] '''lawn''' is not in good order, for lack of being fed upon. . .
:“The Garden consists of a large verdant '''lawn''' surrounded by a belt of [[walk]], & [[shrubbery]] for some distance. . .
:“The Stable [[yard|Yard]], tho contiguous to the house, is perfectly concealed from it, the '''Lawn''', & the Garden. . . This sloping passage being a segment of a circle, & its two outer walls concealed by loose [[hedge]]s, & by the projection of the flat roofed Screen of masonry, keeps the [[yard]], & I believe the whole passage out of sight from the house—but certainly from the garden & [[park]] '''lawn'''.” [Fig. 18]

*Ticknor, George, 1815, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville (quoted in Jones 1957: 3–4)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He [ [[Thomas Jefferson]] ] lives on a mountain. . . We were obliged to wind two thirds round its sides before we reached the artificial '''lawn''' on which the house stands. . . The '''lawn''' on the top, as I hinted, was artificially formed by cutting down the peak of the height. In its centre, and facing the southeast, [[Thomas Jefferson|Mr. Jefferson]] has placed his house.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing the Hudson River Valley, NY (1816: 2:45)<ref name="Lambert">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The cultivated parts are intersected with small [[wood]]s, [[coppices]], and [[clump]]s of trees, which add much to the diversity of the scenery, and form a pleasing contrast to '''lawns''', [[meadow]]s, and cornfields.”

*Lambert, John, 1816, describing New York, NY (1816: 2:57)<ref name="Lambert"></ref>
:“At the commencement of the Broadway, near the Battery, stands the old Government-house, now converted into offices for the customs. Before it is a small '''lawn''' railed in, and in the centre is a stone pedestal, upon which formerly stood a leaden [[statue]] of George the Third.”

*Paulding, James Kirke, 1816, describing [[Berkeley Springs]], VA (later WV) (1817: 1:196)<ref>James Kirke Paulding, ''Letters from the South'', 2 vols. (New York: James Eastburn, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H5XVF9WE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The visiters live in cabins built of square logs, whitewashed, and disposed in a range just on the skirts of a little '''lawn''', so that they have all the air of a rural village.”

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 19, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from ''A Map of the City of Washington'', 1818.]]
*Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, DC (quoted in Junior League of Washington 1977: 106)<ref>Junior League of Washington, ''The City of Washington: An Illustrated History'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GWCH2GXJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The garden, the sides of which are washed by the waters of the river, is ornamented with a variety of trees and [[shrub]]s, and in the midst, there is a '''lawn''' covered with a beautiful verdure.” [Fig. 19]

*Forman, Martha Ogle, 1818, 1820, and 1823, describing Rose Hill, home of Martha Ogle Forman, Baltimore County, MD (1976: 60, 102, 159)<ref>Martha Ogle Forman, ''Plantation Life at Rose Hill: The Diaries of Martha Ogle Forman, 1814–1845'' (Wilmington: Historical Society of Delaware, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/EHQ6UZGE view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[24 April 1818] Ramsey. . . has erected on the '''lawn''' a handsome Cage for the Hawk Pen, he has also made for us a Chicken, a duck, a Turkey, and a goose Coop. . . .
:“[11 May 1820]. . . Mowed our '''lawn''', which looks beautiful. . .
:“[8 May 1823] Rachel finished whitewashing the garden poles, the [[Pigeon house]] and the [[fence]] round the '''lawn'''.”

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 20, Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Monte Video, property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, CT (1824: 12)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“To the west, the '''lawn''' rises gradually from the water, until it reaches the [[portico]] of the house, near the brow of the mountain, beyond which, the western valley is again seen.” [Fig. 20]

[[File:0079.jpg|thumb|Fig. 21, Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''[[View]] of the West Front of [[Monticello]] and Garden'', 1825.]]
*Bacon, Edmund, 1825, describing [[Monticello]], [[plantation]] of [[Thomas Jefferson]], Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Adams 1976: 329)<ref>William Howard Adams, ed., ''The Eye of Thomas Jefferson'' (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IWQT8BPV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The grounds around the house were most beautifully ornamented with flowers and [[shrubbery]]. There were [[walk]]s, and [[border]]s, and flowers, that I have never seen or heard of anywhere else. Some of them were in bloom from early spring until late in the winter. A good many of them were foreign. Back of the house was a beautiful '''lawn''' of two or three acres, where his grandchildren used to play a great deal.” [Fig. 21]

*Douglass, Frederick, 1825, describing [[Wye House]], estate of Col. Edward Lloyd, Talbot County, MD (1855; repr., 1987: 47)<ref>Frederick Douglass, ''My Bondage and My Freedom'', ed. William L. Andrews (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/Q764CVCK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The carriage entrance to the house was a large [[gate]], more than a quarter of a mile distant from it; the intermediate space was a beautiful '''lawn''', very neatly trimmed, and watched with the greatest care. It was dotted thickly over with delightful trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowers. The road, or lane, from the [[gate]] to the great house, was richly paved with white pebbles from the beach, and, in its course, formed a complete circle around the beautiful '''lawn'''. Carriages going in and retiring from the great house, made the circuit of the '''lawn''', and their passengers were permitted to behold a scene of almost Eden-like beauty. Outside this select inclosure, were [[park]]s, where—as about the residences of the English nobility—rabbits, deer, and other wild game, might be seen, peering and playing about, with none to molest them or make them afraid.”

[[File:0505.jpg|thumb|Fig. 22, Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.]]
*Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 2, 1828, in a letter to Mrs. Boyd, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA (1906: 225)<ref name="Bayard Smith">Margaret Bayard Smith, ''The First Forty Years of Washington Society'', ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1906), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FTDFHRFH view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A vast wide '''lawn''' separates the two rows of [[pavillion]]s and dormitories.” [Fig. 22]

*Smith, Margaret Bayard, August 17, 1828, in a letter to Mrs. Boyd, describing Montpelier, [[plantation]] of James Madison, Montpelier Station, VA (1906: 233)<ref name="Bayard Smith"></ref>
:“We were at first conducted into the Drawing room, which opens on the back [[Portico]] and thus commands a [[view]] through the whole house, which is surrounded with an extensive '''lawn''', as green as in spring; the '''lawn''' is enclosed with fine trees, chiefly forest, but interspersed with weeping willows and other ornamental trees, all of most luxuriant growth and vivid verdure. It was a beautiful scene!”

*Trollope, Frances Milton, 1830, describing Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, PA (1832: 2:43)<ref>Frances Milton Trollope, ''Domestic Manners of the Americans'', 2 vols. (London: Wittaker, Treacher & Co., 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MBMCV4N6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the farther side of the river is a gentleman’s [[seat]], the beautiful '''lawns''' of which [[slope]] to the water’s edge, and groups of weeping-willows and other trees throw their shadows on the stream. The works themselves are enclosed in a simple but very handsome building of freestone. . . behind the building, and divided from it only by a '''lawn''', rises a lofty [[wall]] of solid lime-stone rock, which has, at one or two points, been cut into, for the passage of the water into the noble reservoir above.”

*Mason, Gen. John, c. 1830, describing Gunston Hall, seat of George Mason, Mason Neck, VA (quoted in Rowland 1964: 1:98)<ref>Kate Mason Rowland, ''The Life of George Mason: 1725–1792'', 2 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HTZXK292 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On the north front by which was the principal approach, was an extensive '''lawn''' kept closely pastured, through the midst of which ran a spacious avenue.”

*Thacher, James, December 3, 1830, “An Excursion on the Hudson,” describing [[Hyde Park]], seat of [[David Hosack]], on the Hudson River, NY (''New England Farmer'' 9: 156)<ref>James Thacher, “An Excursion on the Hudson. Letter II,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 20 (December 3, 1830): 156–57, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/283TSTEV view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mansion house at [[Hyde Park]] is elevated about 200 feet above the surface of the river. With its two wings it presents a noble front of 136 feet, and is two stories above the basement. The centre or principal building, has a [[piazza]] on both fronts; the west front is open to the Hudson, and the east looks over a spacious, beautiful '''lawn''' towards the turnpike from New York to Albany. . . The forest trees which surround the domicile are identically the natives which are found in our forest; some of the oaks are a century in age, and all are large and so grouped and intermingled over the '''lawn''', as to present at every step the most fantastic views that can attract the pencil of the artist.”

*Latrobe, John H. B., August 1832, describing the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA (quoted in Semmes 1917: 247)<ref name="Semmes">John E. Semmes, ''John H. B. Latrobe and His Times, 1803–1891'' (Baltimore, MD: Norman, Remington, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7D2VIIH3 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are four rows of buildings, composed of one story colonnades, under which are the student’s rooms; and at equal distances are the two inner rows and the professors’ houses two stories in height, with porticos of various architecture. At the upper side of the '''lawn''' is the rotunda, containing the library, a beautiful room.”

[[File:1631.jpg|thumb|Fig. 23, John H. B. Latrobe, Lawn of the White Sulphur, 1835.]]
*Latrobe, John H. B., August 1832, describing White Sulphur Springs, VA (quoted in Semmes 1917: 252)<ref name="Semmes"></ref>
:“Cottages hidden in the dark green foliage, long rows of white homes of all descriptions scattered here and there, and as we came into the precints, there on the right was the ascending '''lawn''' of the freshest verdure, surrounding with its [[picturesque]] cabins, with vehicles of all sorts under its trees. Gay groups laughing and enjoying the afternoon were assembled on the '''lawn'''. Here a gay party of equestrians careering on their return from their evening ride, here another prancing pellmell, here were fencers, here a group starting greyhounds for a race, here a number of serious smokers on one side by themselves, here a whole bevy of children with their whoop and hallo. Servants were hurrying to and fro. The quoit was flying in the air, and the roll of the nine pin ally came upon the ear with the crash and clatter of skittles.” [Fig. 23]

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a [[plantation]] near New Orleans, LA (1:235–36)<ref>Joseph Holt Ingraham, ''The South-West'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1835), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DTFA8CCM view on Zotero].</ref>
:“we proceeded to the sugar-house or ''sucrérie'', through a '''lawn''' which nearly surrounded the ornamental grounds about the house, studded here and there with lofty trees, which the good taste of the original proprietor of the domain had left standing in their forest majesty. From this rich green sward, on which two or three fine saddle-horses were grazing, we passed through a turnstile into a less lovely, but more domestic enclosure.”

*Martineau, Harriet, 1835, describing Jamaica Pond, vicinity of Boston, MA (1838: 2:182–83)<ref>Harriet Martineau, ''Retrospect of Western Travel'', 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/H2BW5FRU view on Zotero].</ref>
:“A cottage on Jamaica Pond, for instance, within an easy ride of Boston, is a luxurious summer abode. I know of one unequalled in its attractions, with its [[flower-garden]], its '''lawn''', with banks shelving down to the mere; banks dark with rustling pines, from under whose shade the bright track of the moon may be seen, lying cool on the rippling waters.”

*Anonymous, April 1, 1837, describing Landscape Gardening (''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'' 3: 130)<ref>Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine, edited by Joseph Breck, (April 1, 1837), 130, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/S2AHUAIF view on Zotero].</ref>
:"Few are able to devote much ground or much expense in extensive ornamental [[plantation]]; but all may decorate the immediate vicinity of their residencies. The house should be situated at some distance from the road, which distance should be greater or less according as the house is large or small, and it should be on a moderate rise of ground. There should be a spacious open '''lawn''' or grass ground in front, which should be unoccupied by any objects except an occasional small groups of trees. . . If it is situated on an [[eminence]], the back as well as front view may be exhibited to great advantage. . ."

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), October 1839, “Some Remarks upon several Gardens and Nurseries in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” describing the residence of Horace Binney, Burlington, NJ (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 5: 363)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Some Remarks upon Several Gardens and Nurseries, in Providence, Burlington, (N.J.) and Baltimore,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 5, no. 10 (October 1839): 361–76, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N4I3HBZD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[flower garden]] is nearly a [[square]], and is laid out with one main circular [[walk]], running round the whole, and a [[border]] for flowers on each side; the centre forming a '''lawn''' scattered over with several large fruit trees.”

*MacDonald, James, October 1839, describing the Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 86)<ref name="Hawkins">Kenneth Hawkins, “The Therapeutic Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Rochester, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UVDGPDHG view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The approach to the Asylum from the southern entrance, by the stranger who associates the most sombre scenes with a lunatic hospital, is highly pleasing. The sudden opening of the [[view]], the extent of the grounds, the various [[avenue]]s gracefully winding through so large a '''lawn'''; the cedar [[hedge]]s, the fir, and other ornamental trees, tastefully distributed or grouped, the variety of [[shrubbery]] and flowers; in fine, the assemblage of so many objects to please the eye, and relieve the melancholy mind from its sad musings, strike him as one of the most successful and useful instances of [[landscape gardening]].”

*Buckingham, James Silk, April 1840, describing the garden of Father George Rapp, Economy, PA (1842: 2:227)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''The Eastern and Western States of America'', 3 vols. (London: Fisher, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FFXTKXCI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“This [the garden] covered about an acre and half of ground, and was neatly laid out in '''lawns''', [[arbour]]s, and flower-[[bed]]s, with two prettily ornamented open octagonal [[arcade]]s, each supporting a circular dome over a [[fountain]].”

*Buckingham, James Silk, 1841, describing the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, Philadelphia, PA (1841: 1:400–401)<ref>James Silk Buckingham, ''America, Historical, Statistic, and Descriptive'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1841), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/PIANFMVK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[greenhouse]]s, containing a handsome collection of exotic plants, together with the ornamental '''lawns''' in front and rear of the house, are under the care of a regular gardener. The attention paid to neatness, and even ornament, in the exterior and interior of the house, gives to the whole an air of elegance seldom equalled in establishments of this nature.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c.,” describing the United States Capitol, Washington, DC (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 127–28)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (April 1842): 121–29, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IRC7B9MN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On each side of the centre [[avenue]]s rows of trees are planted, and upon the grass '''lawns''' which intervene between the centre and outer [[walk]]s, are two large circles of dug ground, planted with [[shrub]]s, dahlias, and other flowers.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.,” describing Presque Isle, residence of William Demming, Fishkill, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the '''lawn''', we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . .
:“Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the '''lawn''' only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the walks filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old [[picturesque]] places of England.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), November 1841, “Select Villa Residences,” describing Highland Place, estate of [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], Newburgh, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 403)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Select Villa Residences, with Descriptive Notices of Each; Accompanied with Remarks and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Landscape Gardening: Intended with a View to Illustrate the Art of Laying Out, Arranging, and Forming Gardens and Ornamental Grounds,” ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 401–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXS8ZS3J view on Zotero].</ref>
:“3. '''Lawn'''; which descends very gradually to the [[nursery]] grounds in front. The piece being too narrow to admit of greater width, the '''lawn''' was lengthened to have the appearance of more breadth of surface. This should be borne in mind by those whose grounds are so situated as to prevent their obtaining the requisite width. There is another object which should be taken into consideration, when forming a '''lawn''' in front of a house situated on the bank of a river, like [[A. J. Downing|Mr. Downing's]], and commanding such fine views: the distant scenery would be hid by the extent of trees which would intervene, unless very judiciously managed.”

*Blair, Francis P., July 1, 1843, describing Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (Ladies Hermitage Association Research #977)
:“On one side of the '''lawn''' leading to the house, is the garden which embosoms the monument which covers the grave of Mrs. Jackson. . . On the other side of the '''lawn''' is the [[orchard]]; and in front is a large woodland (whose extent cannot be seen) for the most part of the tall tulip poplars, are left almost in a state of native wildness.”

*Longfellow, Alexander W., January 1844, describing the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, Cambridge, MA (quoted in Evans 1993: 38)<ref>Catherine Evans, ''Cultural Landscape Report for Longfellow National Historic Site, History and Existing Conditions'' (Boston: National Park Service, North Atlantic Region, 1993), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9TI9GUQN view on Zotero].</ref>

:“We were very busy planning the grounds & I laid out a linden [[avenue]] for the Professor’s private [[walk]]. I was often reminded of your fancy for such things. . . The house is to be repaired but not essentially altered, the old out buildings to be removed, trees planted a [[pond]], & [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]], created the [[pond]] is an apology for the [[bridge]].”

[[File:0356.jpg|thumb|Fig. 24, Anonymous, “The Manor of Livingston,” ed. [[A. J. Downing]], ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 5 (November 1846): pl. opp. 201, fig. 55.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], November 1846, describing Livingston Manor, seat of Mary Livingston, on the Hudson River, NY, and Camac Cottage, near Philadelphia (''Horticulturist'' 1: 204)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Lawns,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 5 (November 1846): 202–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NCDFIGSN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are two residences in this country which so far surpass all others in the perfection of their '''lawns''', that we hope to be pardoned for holding them up to commendation. . .
:“The '''lawn''' at the Livingston Manor is very extensive and [[park]]-like—certainly the largest well-kept '''lawn''' in America, and we wish all our readers who are skeptical regarding an American '''lawn''', could see and feel its many excellent perfections. They would only be still more surprised when they were told how few men keep so large a surface in the highest order. [Fig. 24]
:“The Camac Cottage is a gem of neatness and high keeping. We hope Pennsylvanians at least, who, we think, have perhaps our best '''lawn''' climate, will not fail to profit by so admirable an example as they will find there, of what SPENSER quaintly and prettily calls ‘''the grassie ground''.’”

*Anonymous, August 1848, describing [[Riversdale]], estate of George and Rosalie Stier Calvert, Prince George’s County, MD (''American Farmer'' 4: 53)<ref>Anonymous, “Visit to Riversdale,” ''American Farmer and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day'' 4 (August 1848): 52–55, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/65GUICEQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“On either front is an ample '''lawn''' with shade trees, grass [[plot]]s, [[parterre]]s, [[shrubbery]], and flowers, whose effect upon the senses impart an interest to the [[view]], warm the mind into admiration, and give assurance, that a chastened taste and artistic skill had presided while these were being fashioned into form. . . These improvements were made by the present proprietor’s ancestors, in the beginning of the present century, but are still in a state of the most perfect preservation.”

*Justicia [pseud.], March 1849, “A Visit to Springbrook,” seat of Caleb Cope, near Philadelphia (''Horticulturist'' 3: 411)<ref>Justicia [pseud.], “A Visit to Springbrook, the Seat of the President of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 3, no. 9 (March 1849): 411–14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AAEZMA9A view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The elegant mansion is surrounded with a spacious '''lawn''', kept in a masterly style; and the [[pleasure-ground]]s are enclosed by a light iron [[fence]], about half a mile in length, and studded with many varieties of hardy trees, backed by a natural piece of the most majestic [[wood]]s,—giving a fine sylvan character to the place.”

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), December 1849, describing Oatlands, residence of D. P. Manice, Hempstead, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 15: 529–31)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes of a Visit to Oatlands, Hempstead, L.I., N.Y., the Residence of D. F. Manice, Esq.”, ''The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 15, no. 12 (December 1849): 529–33, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZIRK5R8N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The house is a handsome building, in a kind of castellated gothic, standing about fifty feet from the road, with the [[conservatory]] and [[hothouse]], and [[flower garden]] on the left,—the [[kitchen garden]] and forcing-houses on the right,—and the '''lawn''' and [[pleasure ground]], in the rear of the house, separating it from the [[park]]. . .
:“we continued on to the '''lawn''', where we found much of interest in the various specimens of trees and [[shrub]]s.”

*Eppes, Francis, c. 1850, describing Eppington, plantation of Francis Eppes, on the James River, VA (quoted in Weaver 1969: 31)<ref>Bettie Woodson Weaver, “Mary Jefferson and Eppington,” ''Virginia Cavalcade'' 19 (1969): 30–38, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NUKABDJW view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The mansion-house itself. . . was placed at the extreme side of a large level or '''lawn''', covered with green sward, extending to a considerable distance in front, and declining on the left side as you entered, and in the rear of the house to the low grounds of the Appomattox, a mile off. In front and over the neighborhood road which skirted the '''lawn''', was situated the garden. . . The mansion. . . was almost imbedded in a beautiful double row of the tall Lombardy poplar. . . and this row reached to another double row or [[avenue]] which skirted one side of the '''lawn''', dividing it from the [[orchard]] and stables. The '''lawn''' in front was closed in by a [[fence]] with a small [[gate]] in the middle and a large one on either extremity, one opposite the [[avenue]] of poplars, and the other at the end of the carriageway which swept around it.”

*Londoniensis [pseud.], October 1850, “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge” (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 16: 443)<ref>Londoniensis [pseud.], “Notes and Recollections of a Visit to the Nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 16, no. 10 (October 1850): 442–47, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/T66AP5Z2/q/Notes%20and%20Recollections%20of%20a%20Visit%20to%20the%20Nurseries%20 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In front of this house is a fine open '''lawn''', of an acre or more, dotted with [[clump]]s of flowering plants, and single trees of the rarer species, more particularly of the new weeping trees and coniferae. This '''lawn''' is encircled by a broad [[walk]], on the '''lawn''' side of which are circular [[bed]]s of the choicest summer blooming plants. I did not much like this multitude of circular [[bed]]s, but it is the general style throughout the country.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1851, describing plans for improving the [[public ground]]s of Washington, DC (quoted in Washburn 1967: 55)<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, “Vision of Life for the Mall,” ''AIA Journal'' 47 (1967): 52–59, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TA59MHC7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The pleasing natural undulations of surface, where they occur, I propose to retain, instead of expending money in reducing them to a level. The surface of the [[Park]]s, generally, should be kept in grass or '''lawn''', and mown by the ''mowing machine'' used in England, by which, with a man and horse, the labor of six men can be done in one day.”

*Jones, C. C., 5 June 1851, describing Hermitage, estate of Andrew Jackson, Nashville, TN (1851; repr. 1976: 175)<ref>C. C. Jones, ''A Georgian at Princeton'', ed. Robert Manson Myers (1851; repr., New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/7X6BDD92 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“An iron [[gate]] let us into the '''lawn''' immediately before the mansion; nor had we in our approach seen anything more than the top of a chimney or the glimpse of a [[wall]] or [[pillar]]; nor did we see anything now, so embosomed is it in trees, and so full of small cedars and [[shrubbery]] is the '''lawn'''. The road winds around an enclosed [[plat]] in shape resembling a guitar, shut in by low white posts connected by a small rope with one another. The grass in this lot was much grown, and we observed that the mower had commenced to smooth it off with his scythe.”

[[File:1001.jpg|thumb|Fig. 25, Anonymous, “[[Mount]] Fordham—the Country [[Seat]] of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1851, “The Annual Cattle Sale at Mount Fordham,” describing Mount Fordham, seat of Lewis G. Morris, New York, NY (''Horticulturist'' 6: 372)<ref>A. J. Downing, “The Annual Cattle Sale at Mount Fordham,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): 372–73, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/RVU7GZDK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Around the house at Mount Fordham, extends on all sides a kind of [[meadow]]-'''lawn''', enclosed and divided by pretty wire [[fence]]s of various patterns. This '''lawn''' is kept short by the grazing of improved dairy stock, and we were glad to see successfully practiced what we have been commending so strongly of late to our readers, as the most available point of English country places, that we saw on the other side of the Atlantic—that is the maintenance of a neat and handsome '''lawn''' about a country house, not only without the expense of mowing, but with united profit and beauty—the profit of grazing the grass and the beauty—the real pastoral beauty—of fine cattle, soft turf, and pleasant groups of trees, as the home landscape of our country places generally. By adopting this course, the hay-field aspect of many so-called gentlemen’s country-[[seat]]s, would disappear, and a more complete and satisfactory '''lawn''' or [[park]] be acquired, with no loss of money, and the attainment of a higher species of keeping to one’s country home. [Fig. 25]

===Citations===

*Switzer, Stephen, 1718, ''Ichnographia Rustica'' (1718: 2:200)<ref>Stephen Switzer, ''Ichnographia Rustica, or The Nobleman, Gentleman and Gardener’s Recreation . . .'', 3 vols. (London: D. Browne, 1718), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UWQEVT5X view on Zotero].</ref>
:“If the [[Wood]] is thin, ‘tis there one may clear it quite away, and make open '''Lawns'''. And if the [[Wood]] be an [[Eminence]], then all the small Stuff on the Outside ought to be clear’d away, to open the distant [[Prospect]], if it deserve it; but if it be an unsightly, barren [[Prospect]], then let the [[Wood]] remain to blind it.”

*Langley, Batty, 1728, ''New Principles of Gardenin''g (1728; repr., 1982: 195, 201)<ref>Batty Langley, ''New Principles of Gardening, or The Laying out and Planting Parterres, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, Parks, &c''. (London: A. Bettesworth and J. Batley, etc., 1728; repr., New York: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MRDTAEKC view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''General'' DIRECTIONS, ''&c''. . .
:“I. THAT the grand Front of a Building lie open upon an elegant '''Lawn''' or Plain of Grass, adorn’d with beautiful [[Statue]]s, (of which hereafter in their Place,) terminated on its Sides with open [[Grove]]s. . .
:“VI. That no [[Border]]s be made, or Scroll-Work cut, in any such '''Lawn''' or plain [[Parterre]]; for the Grandeur of those beautiful Carpets consists in their native Plainness. . .
:“XXX. Open '''Lawns''' should be always in Proportion to the Grandeur of the Building; and the Breadth of [[Avenue]]s to the Fronts of Edifices, and their own Length also.”

*Ranlett, William H., describing Frances Palmer’s work (Ranlett 1847 1:25)<ref>William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect: A Series of Original Designs, for Domestic and Ornametnal Cottages and Villas, Connected with Landscape Gardening, Adapted to the United States. . .'' (New York: Dewitt & Davenport, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K98PVCSJ view on Zotero].</ref>

:PLATE 18 - Ground plot, for Design III. and IV., of houses, proposed to be erected near the shore, at Clifton, Staten Island, 100 ft. by 150 each, showing the location of the houses and other buildings, with the [[walk]]s, carriage way, [[shrubbery]]&c., also a stream of water between the '''lawn''' and vegetable garden.

*Miller, Philip, 1759, ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' (1759: n.p.)<ref>Philip Miller, ''The Gardeners Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivation and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden. . . '', 7th ed. (London: Philip Miller, 1759), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4XH23U3R view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In a fine Garden, the first thing that should present itself to the Sight should be an open '''lawn''' of Grass which is size should be proportionable to the garden; in a large garden it should not be less than six or eight acres. . . The figure of this '''lawn''' need not be regular, and if on the Sides there are trees planted irregularly, by way of an open [[Grove]], some of which may be planted forwarder upon the lawn than the others, whereby the regularity of the '''lawn''' will be broken, it will render it more like nature.”

*Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, 1769, ''The Complete Farmer'' (1769: n.p.)<ref>Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, ''The Complete Farmer, or A General Dictionary of Husbandry'', 2nd ed. (London: R. Baldwin et al., 1769), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/54RDSC63 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[flower-garden]] should be made near the back-front of the house, from whence a descent of six or seven steps will finely embellish the whole. Proper room should be allowed for a '''lawn''' of sufficient extent, which, if it be the first object that strikes the sight, will have a very pleasing effect.”

*Ogilvie, George, 1776, ''Carolina, or The Planter'' (1790; repr., 1986: 67–68)<ref>George Ogilvie, “Carolina; Or, the Planter,” ''Southern Literary Journal'' 18 (1986): 7–82, 102–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QSHZQ4DS view on Zotero].</ref>
::“Here Pales seems with Flora to have strove,
:: To blend the beauties of the '''lawn''' and [[grove]];
:: Till ev’ry season yields its ev’ry flow’r,
:: Pride of the month, or pageant of the hour.”

*Marshall, Charles, 1799, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'' (1799: 1:124)<ref>Charles Marshall, ''An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening'', 1st American ed., 2 vols. (Boston: Samuel Etheridge, 1799), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DVB7T4I2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Here [about the house] should be also a good portion of grass [[plat]], or '''''lawn''''', which so delights the eye when neatly kept, also [[border]]s of shewy ''flowers'', which, if backed by any kind of [[fence]], it should be hid with evergreens, or at least with deciduous [[shrub]]s, that the scene may be as much as possible vivacious.”

*Repton, Humphry, 1803, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1803: 13, 46)<ref>Humphry Repton, ''Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (London: Printed by T. Bensley for J. Taylor, 1803), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VVQPC3BI view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There is no error more prevalent in modern gardening, or more frequently carried to excess, than taking away [[hedge]]s to unite many small fields into one extensive and naked '''lawn''', before [[plantation]]s are made to give it the appearance of a [[park]]; and where ground is subdivided by [[sunk fence]]s, imaginary freedom is dearly purchased at the expence of actual confinement. . .
:“In some situations where great masses of [[wood]], and a large expanse of open '''lawn''' prevail, the contrast is too violent, and the mind becomes dissatisfied by the want of unity; we are never well pleased with a composition in natural landscape, unless the [[wood]] and the '''lawn''' are so blended that the eye cannot trace the precise limits of either.”

*[[Bernard M'Mahon|M’Mahon, Bernard]], 1806, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar'' (1806: 55–57)<ref>Bernard M’Mahon, ''The American Gardener’s Calendar: Adapted to the Climates and Seasons of the United States. Containing a Complete Account of All the Work Necessary to Be Done. . . for Every Month of the Year. . .'' (Philadelphia: Printed by B. Graves for the author, 1806), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HU4JIS9C view on Zotero].</ref>
:“THE district commonly called the Pleasure, or [[Flower-Garden]], or [[Pleasure-ground]], may be said to comprehend ''all'' ornamental compartments, or divisions of ground, surrounding the mansion; consisting of '''lawns''', [[plantation]]s of trees and [[shrub]]s, flower compartments, [[walk]]s, pieces of water, &c. whether situated wholly within the space generally considered as the ''[[Pleasure-Garden]]'', or extended to the adjacent fields, [[park]]s, or other out-grounds. . .
:“For instance, a grand and spacious open '''lawn''', of grass-ground, is generally first presented immediately to the front of the mansion, or main habitation; sometimes widely extended on both sides, to admit of a greater [[prospect]], &c. and sometimes more contracted towards the habitation; widening gradually outwards, and having each side embellished with [[plantation]]s of [[shrubbery]], [[clump]]s, [[thicket]]s, &c. in sweeps, curves, and projections, towards the '''lawn'''; with breaks or opens of grass-spaces at intervals, between the different [[plantation]]s; together with serpentine gravel [[walk]]s, winding under the shade of the trees. . .
:“First an open '''lawn''' of grass-ground is extended on one of the principal fronts of the mansion or main house, widening gradually from the house outward, having each side bounded by various [[plantation]]s of trees, [[shrub]]s, and flowers, in [[clump]]s, [[thicket]]s, &c. exhibited in a variety of rural forms, in moderate concave and convex curves, and projections, to prevent all appearance of a stiff uniformity; introducing between the [[plantation]]s at intervals, breaks or opens of grass-ground, communicating with the '''lawn''' and internal divisions, in some places widely spread, in others more contracted; leaving also tracts for serpentine gravel-[[walk]]s, some winding under the shade of the [[plantation]]s, so conducted as to command [[view]]s of the '''lawn''' and interior divisions occasionally, and at intervals, of the most beautiful parts of the surrounding country.”

*Abercrombie, John, with James Mean, 1817, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener'' (1817: 473)<ref>John Abercrombie, ''Abercrombie’s Practical Gardener Or, Improved System of Modern Horticulture'' (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TH54TADZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The commencement of the '''lawn''' should be wider than the front of the house; and the sides of it should diverge, so that if screens of [[plantation]] leave only a front [[view]], the eye may not feel itself confined.
:“In proportion as the '''lawn''' is extensive or the surface uniform, it requires to be broken by groups of [[shrub]]s and trees. The principle on which variety, and some degree of intricacy, are essential, in the composition of a pleasing scene, may be illustrated by surveying an immense flat meadow.”

*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1020)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>
:“7262. ''The '''lawn''''', or that breadth of mown turf formed in front of, or extending in different directions from, the garden-front of the house, is, in the [[geometric style]], varied by architectural forms, levels, and [[slope]]s; and in the modern by a [[picturesque]] or painter-like disposition of groups, placed so as to connect with the leading masses, and throw the '''lawn''' into an agreeable shape or shapes. In very small villas the '''lawn''' may embrace the garden or principal front of the house, without the intervention of [[terrace]]-scenery, and may be separated from the [[park]], or [[park]]-like field, by a light wire [[fence]]; but in more extensive scenes it should embrace a [[terrace]], or some avowedly artificial architectural basis to the mansion, and a sunk [[wall]], as a distant separation, will be more dignified and permanent than any iron [[fence]]. The park may come close up to the [[terrace]]-garden, especially in a flat situation, or where the breadth of the terrace is considerable.”

*[[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: 2:n.p.)<ref>Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', 2 vols. (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/R6R883RR view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''LAWN''', ''n''. [W. ''llan'', an open, clear place. It is the same word as land, with an appropriate signification, and coincides with ''plain'', ''planus'', Ir. ''cluain''.]
:“A open space between [[wood]]s, or a plain in a [[park]] or adjoining a noble [[seat]].
:“Betwixt them '''''lawns''''' or level downs, and flocks “Grazing the tender herbs, were interspers’d. Milton.”

*Floy, Michael, September 24, 1830, “Description of Trees and Shrubs” (''New England Farmer'' 9: 74)<ref>Michael Floy, “A Description of Trees and Shrubs, Producing a Succession of Flowers from Spring to Autumn,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 9, no. 10 (September 24, 1830): 74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/C3XFHEGJ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“''Platanus occidentalis'', Button-ball, by some called Sycamore, is a large and majestic tree, calculated for [[avenue]]s or large '''lawns''', or for ornamental [[plantation]]s. . .
:“''Umlas'', or Elm, three kinds, the European Elm, the American White Elm, and the American Slippery Elm, are all desirable to form a good landscape for '''lawns''' or [[avenue]]s, &c.
:“''Tilia Americana'', the American Lindin, and the ''Tilia Europea'', are both beautiful trees, well calculated for streets or '''lawns'''—the trees grow handsome, and when in flower, the honey bees are much attracted to its sweet, honey-like perfume.”

*Bridgeman, Thomas, 1832, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'' (1832: 112)<ref>Thomas Bridgeman, ''The Young Gardener’s Assistant'', 3rd ed. (New York: Geo. Robertson, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9FU4SNZK view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[Regarding the [[flower garden]]] If there are '''lawns''' or grass [[walk]]s, they should be frequently trimmed, and more frequently mowed and rolled, to prevent the grass from interfering with the flower [[bed]]s, and to give the whole a neat regular carpet-like appearance.”

*Teschemacher, James E., June 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 228)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (June 1, 1835): 228–30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EZCPG4DN/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The garden behind the house may if large be composed of three parts.
:“1st. A grass '''lawn'''.
:“2d. Separate [[bed]]s for distinct flowers.
:“3d. A boundary of ornamental shrubs. . .
:“The '''lawn''' may be formed either by sowing seed. . . this will take, however, two or three years to bring to fine order—therefore the quickest way is to pare turf from a [[meadow]] and lay it down evenly, the pieces close to each other; they will soon join and form a continuous surface. The great beauty of this ornament to the garden consists in having it soft to tread on, and a beautiful bright green color; this can always be effected by mowing frequently. . . After each mowing the '''lawn''' must be neatly swept, and then rolled with a roller of iron, preferable to one of stone. The edges of the [[walk]] should be kept trimmed so as to present a clean unbroken line. . . A '''lawn''' kept in this style is certainly always an object of delight to the eye, and preferable to the finest carpet for the foot—but if not neatly kept it had better be omitted altogether from the garden. The form of '''lawns''' must depend on the extent, the surface, or on individual taste; a few short and simple rules for general forms will be given in a future part of these papers.
:“If extensive, the '''lawn''' may be diversified by [[clump]]s of ornamental trees or if the space be small by single trees.
:“The approach to the house should be by a broad semi-circular [[drive]] intersecting the '''lawns''', and leading by branches to the stables and out buildings, as well as to the [[Flower_garden|flower]] and [[kitchen garden]]s; this last, if near the house, must be completely concealed, either by [[wall]]s covered with fruit trees, or by [[shrubbery|shrubberies]], and may be preferably laid out in a series of parallelograms.

*Teschemacher, James E., November 1, 1835, “On Horticultural Architecture” (''Horticultural Register'' 1: 411)<ref>James E. Teschemacher, “On Horticultural Architecture,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 1 (November 1, 1835): 409–12, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/EF5F6N9Z/q/On%20Horticultural%20architecture view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The vicinity of Boston abounds so much in every variety of beautiful landscape, that there is scarcely any place where art is less required in laying out [[pleasure ground]]s. . . after leaving this paradise of sweets, passing some distance through a thick [[plantation]] of the most ornamental forest trees of America, including the varieties of pine and fir, then suddenly emerging on the beautiful expanse of grass '''lawn''' in front; all this, owing to the natural advantages of the country surrounding Boston, may be accomplished at a comparatively trifling expense and loss of time.”

*Sayers, Edward, February 1838, “On Laying out Gardens and Ornamental Plantations: Laying out Approaches and Planting Shrubberies” (''Horticultural Register'' 4: 62)<ref>Edward Sayers, “On Laying Out Gardens and Ornamental Plantations,” ''The Horticultural Register and Gardener’s Magazine'' 4 (February 1838): 62, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/8IN647Z4 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In such grounds the front part next to the road, may be appropriated to a grass [[plot]] or '''''lawn''''', planted with a few ornamental trees, as the Balsam Fir, Mountain Ash, and the like, which gives a relief to the carriage road that will pass close to the front door, and have an appearance of easy access to and from the house to the carriage.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], November 1846, “A Chapter on Lawns” (''Horticulturist'' 1: 202, 204)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Chapter on Lawns,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 1, no. 5 (November 1846): 202–4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/NCDFIGSN view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In short, the ideal of grass is a '''''lawn''''', which is, to a [[meadow]], what ‘Bishop’s '''lawn'''’ is to homespun Irish linen.
:“With such a '''lawn''', and large and massive trees, one has indeed the most enduring sources of beauty in a country residence. Perpetual neatness, freshness and verdure in the one; ever expanding beauty, variety and grandeur in the other—what more does a reasonable man desire of the beautiful about him in the country? . . .
:“After your '''lawn''' is once fairly established, there are but two secrets in keeping it perfect— frequent mowing and rolling. Without the first, it will soon degenerate into a coarse [[meadow]]; the latter will render it firmer, closer, shorter, and finer every time it is repeated. . .
:“There are but few good '''lawns''' yet in America; but we have great pleasure in observing that they are rapidly multiplying. Though it may seem a heavy tax to some, yet no expenditure in ornamental gardening is, to our mind, productive of so much beauty as that incurred in producing a well kept '''lawn'''. Without this feature, no place, however great its architectural beauties, its charms of scenery, or its collections of flowers and [[shrub]]s, can be said to deserve consideration in point of [[landscape gardening]]; and with it the humble cottage grounds will possess a charm which is, among [[pleasure ground]]s, what a refined and graceful manner is in society—an universal passport to admiration.”

*Johnson, George William, 1847, ''Dictionary of Modern Gardening'' (1847: 343–44)<ref>George William Johnson, ''A Dictionary of Modern Gardening'', ed. David Landreth (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1847), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/D6PQSNAN/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“'''LAWN''' is a surface of turf in the vicinity of the house, requiring to be kept smooth by the regular application of the roller and scythe. When first constructed, after the ground has been dug over as level as may be, it must be rolled, the hollows filled up, and this repeated until a level surface of earth is obtained. It must then be slightly pointed over with a fork, and the turf laid, or the grass seed sown. See ''Turfing''.”

[[File:0996.jpg|thumb|Fig. 26, Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], May 1848, “Design for a Small Flower Garden” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 503–4)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Design for a Small Flower Garden,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 503–5, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/TGACWM8A/q/design%20for%20a%20small%20flower%20garden view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The following little plan of a [[flower garden]], of this kind, on a small scale, is adopted from one of the designs of our late friend, [[J. C. Loudon|Mr. LOUDON]]. It is supposed to be formed in a plot of smooth level '''lawn''', and to be surrounded by a boundary [[walk]], which may, or may not, be backed by a belt of evergreens and flowering [[shrub]]s. In the former case, it would make a complete little scene by itself in a portion of the garden or grounds.” [Fig. 26]

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 75, 343, 525–27)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“But the '''lawn''' may be less frequently mown, the edges of the [[walk]]s less carefully trimmed, where the [[Picturesque]] prevails; while in portions more removed from the house, the [[walk]]s may sometimes sink into a mere footpath without gravel, and the '''lawn''' change into the forest glade or [[meadow]]. . .
:“A wide-spread '''lawn''', on the contrary, where no boundaries are conspicuous, conveys an impression of ample extent and space for enjoyment. . .
:“As a '''lawn''' is the ''ground-work'' of a landscape garden. . . “The unrivalled beauty of the ‘velvet '''lawns'''’ of England has passed into a proverb. This is undoubtedly owing, in some measure, to their superior care and keeping, but mainly to the highly favorable climate of that moist and sea-girt land. . .
:“Our climate, however, is in the middle states one of too much heat and brilliancy of sun, to allow us to keep our '''lawns''' in the best condition without considerable care. . .
:“the whole beauty of a '''lawn''' depends on ''frequent mowing''. . .
:“We can already, especially in the finer places on the Hudson, and about Boston, boast of many finely kept '''lawns''', and we hope every day, as the better class of country residences increases, to see this indispensable feature in tasteful grounds becoming better understood and more universal.”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 26)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The rich gentleman may have his broad domain finely diversified with [[wood]] lots, open fields, deep ravines, creeks, [[cataract]]s, [[canal]]s, [[rock work]]s, fancy or [[Rustic_style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s, etc.; and the wide extended '''lawn''', with its dark green sod, which surrounds his mansion, may be beautifully interspersed with winding [[walk]]s and deciduous evergreen trees.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], March 1850, “How to Arrange Country Places” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 395)<ref>A. J. Downing, “How to Arrange Country Places,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 9 (March 1850): 393–96, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/7HNUGQK2 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Be that as it may, the ground-work of this part [the ornamental portion of a country place] should, in our judgment, always be '''LAWN'''. There is in the country no object which at all seasons and times gives the constant satisfaction of the green turf of a nicely kept '''lawn'''. If your place is large, so much larger and broader is the good effect of the '''lawn''', as it stretches away, over gentle undulations, alternately smiling and looking serious, in the play of sunshine and shade that rests upon it. If it is small—a mere bit of green turf before your door— then it forms the best and most becoming setting to the small [[bed]]s and masses of everblooming roses, verbenas, and gay annuals, with which you embroider it, like a carpet.
:“'''Lawn''', there must be, to give any refreshment to the spirits of man in our country places; for nothing is so intolerable to the eye as great [[flower-garden]]s of parched earth, lying half baked in the meridian sun of an American summer. And though no nation under the sun may have such '''lawns''' as the British, because Britain lies in the lap of the sea, with a climate always more or less humid, yet green and pleasant lawns most persons may have in the northern states, who make the soil ''deep'' and keep the grass well mown.”

*Webster, Wm., October 1850, “Laying Out and Planting Lawns” (''Horticulturist'' 5: 163)<ref>Wm. Webster, “Laying Out and Planting Lawns,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 5, no. 4 (October 1850): 162–64, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/UJH842N7 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“And now for the greatest point of attraction—the lawn. What can be more beautiful than a well kept '''lawn''', with its drooping trees, and [[bed]]s of flowers, and many other attractions? No matter however beautiful a place may appear, it is still incomplete without its due proportion of grass; in fact, a well kept '''lawn''' lends a charm to all surrounding objects, and gives effect to the whole. In the formation of '''lawns''', I would recommend the laying down of turf, in preference to seeding one. When a '''lawn''' is sown, it takes a great length of time to get a good turf; whereas, by laying one down, a fine even surface is obtained at once, and a beautiful verdure. Fancy figures may also be cut around the edges, or in different parts of the '''lawn''', for the planting of flowers in masses, such as Verbenas, Petunias, Fuchsias, and the like. Drooping trees should also be planted in different parts of the '''lawn''' singly; the beauties of which, I need not here descant upon, as it has already been so ably done by Mr. BARRY, in the last number of this journal. All close [[fence]]s, or any unsightly objects, should be hid by trees, or covered with climbing plants or creepers.”

*New York State Lunatic Asylum Trustees, 1851, describing the ideal grounds for a lunatic asylum (quoted in Hawkins 1991: 53)<ref name="Hawkins"></ref>
:“The salutary influence on the insane mind of highly cultivated '''lawns'''—pleasant [[walk]]s amid shade trees, [[shrubbery]], and [[fountain]]s, beguiling the long hours of their [''sic''] tedious confinement—giving pleasure, content, and health, by their beauty and variety, are fully appreciated by us.”

*Breck, Joseph, 1851, ''The Flower-Garden'' (1851: 31–32)<ref>Joseph Breck, ''The Flower-Garden, or Breck’s Book of Flowers'' (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1851), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/HN3UEKMP view on Zotero].</ref>
:“No [[flower-garden]] can be complete without some grass. There are but very few, however, who can afford the luxury of an extensive grass '''lawn'''; but every one wishes for a few rods, at least, about the house; this may lay between the house and garden. When there is but a small surface to grass over, it may be done with turf, if it can be obtained of a good quality, which is not often the case. . .
:“To have a fine '''lawn''', it is necessary not only to mow it often, but roll it also, especially after a rain. By doing thus, a close texture and fine velvety turf may be obtained.”

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1389.jpg|Batty Langley, “Variety of '''''Lawns''''', or ''Openings'', before a ''grand Front of a Building'', into a ''[[Park]], Forest, [[Common]]'', &c.” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XVI.

File:1110.jpg|[[Samuel Vaughan]], Sketch plan of [[Mount Vernon]], June–September 1787. "19. Lawn."

File:0088.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] to the North from the '''Lawn''' at [[Mount Vernon]]'', 1796.

File:0340.jpg|Mutual Assurance Society, Richmond, Declaration for Assurance Book, vol. 26, policy no. 2049, Insurance policy drawings for [[Mount Vernon]], March 13, 1803.

File:0166.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Sketch of the garden and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], June 7, 1807. “. . . winding [[walk]] surrounding the '''lawn''' before the house.”

File:2259.jpg|Anonymous, Plan of the Harvard [[Botanic Garden]], c. 1807. “B. lots or small '''lawns''' with flowering Shrubs.”

File:0676.jpg|Anonymous, Garden Plan of "Newington" in Allegheny County, Pa, 1823, in Alice B. Lockwood, ''Gardens of Colony and State'' (1931), vol. 1, 380.

File:1346.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Plan of a [[Flower_garden|flower garden]] with '''lawn''' (b), in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'', 4th ed. (1826), 791, fig. 540.

File:0332.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], [[Mount Vernon]], c. 1831.

File:0024.jpg|Henry Schenck Tanner, ''City of Washington'', c. 1836.

File:0425.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], Design for University of Michigan (elevation and plan of building and grounds), c. 1838.

File:0098.jpg|Miller & Co., Map of the residence & [[park]] grounds, near Bordentown, New Jersey: of the late Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, 1847.

File:1077.jpg|James Smillie, “Greenwood [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]],” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), flyleaf.

File:1080.jpg|James Smillie (artist), Robert Hinshelwood (engraver), “Lawn-Girt Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 61.

File:0996.jpg|Anonymous, “A Small Arabesque [[Flower_garden|Flower Garden]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 11 (May 1848): 504.

File:0376.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of the foregoing grounds as a Country [[Seat]], after ten years’ improvement,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 114, fig. 24. The “[[park]] or '''lawn''' appears to be divided into four distinct '''lawns''' or areas”.

File:0378.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 118, fig. 26. "'''lawn''' or pleasure-grounds, ''b''."

File:0392.jpg|Anonymous, “The [[Flower_garden|Flower-Garden]] at Dropmore,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 431, fig. 77.

File:0393.jpg|Anonymous, “[[English style|English]] Flower-Garden,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 434, fig. 78. ". . .the central portion is occupied by the '''lawn'''."

File:0787.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 29. "S, bleaching '''lawn'''; . . . U U, grass '''lawn'''. . . "

File:2288.jpg|Map of White Sulphur Springs, Greenbrier County, Virginia, 1854.

File:2288_detail3.jpg|Map of White Sulphur Springs, Greenbrier County, Virginia, 1854 [detail].

File:0333.jpg|G. & F. Bill (firm), ''Birds eye [[view]] of [[Mount Vernon|Mt. Vernon]] the home of Washington'', c. 1859.
</gallery>

===Associated===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:1386.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a Park Exhibiting their manner of Planting, after a more Grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl.XIII.

File:0337.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The West Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787—92.

File:0342.jpg|Edward Savage, ''The East Front of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1787—92.

File:0338.jpg|Anonymous, ''A [[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1790.

File:0826.jpg|James Peller Malcolm, ''[[The Woodlands|Woodlands]], the [[Seat]] of W. Hamilton Esquire, from the Bridge at Gray’s Ferry, Philadelphia'', c. 1792—94.

File:2254.jpg|William Groombridge, ''[[The Woodlands]], the [[Seat]] of William Hamilton, Esq.'', 1793. Santa Barbara Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Sterling Morton for the Preston Morton Collection.

File:0755.jpg|George Beck, ''[[View]] of Baltimore from Howard [[Park]]'', c. 1796.

File:0710.jpg|J. Weiss, ''Home of George Washington, “The Father of His Country”'', 1797.

File:0343.jpg|George Isham Parkyns, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1795.

File:0087.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]] looking to the North'', July 17, 1796.

File:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]] looking towards the South West'', 1796.

File:0345.jpg|Alexander Robertson (artist), Francis Jukes (engraver), “[[Mount Vernon]] in Virginia,” 1800.

File:0344.jpg|George Ropes, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', 1806.

File:0969.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of the grounds at [[Monticello]], 1806.

File:0043_2.jpg|John Archibald Woodside, ''[[Lemon Hill]]'', 1807.

File:0073.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Plan of serpentine [[walk]] and flower [[bed]]s at [[Monticello]], May 23, 1808.

File:0304.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[The Woodlands|Woodlands]] the [[Seat]] of M.r W.m Hamilton Pennsylv.a,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 14.

File:0319.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Sedgley the [[Seat]] of Mr.r W.m Crammond Pennsylv.a,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 15.

File:0301.jpg|William Russell Birch, “[[View]] from [[Belmont_(Philadelphia,_PA)|Belmont]] Pennsyl.a the Seat of Judge Peters,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 16.

File:0506.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Early study for pavilion VII, University of Virginia, 1817.

File:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from ''A Map of the City of Washington'', 1818.

File:0169.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Bird’s-eye [[view]] of the University of Virginia, c. 1820.

File:1052.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), frontispiece.

File:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

File:0505.jpg|Anonymous (artist), Benjamin Tanner (engraver), ''University of Virginia'', 1826.

File: 0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.

File:1216.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia; northeast front, 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520A.

File:1217.jpg|[[Anthony St. John Baker]], [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia; southwest front as viewed from the [[Bowling green|bowling green]], 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, 520B.

File:2223.jpg|Karl Bodmer, ''[[Point Breeze]],'' 1832.

File:1631.jpg|John H. B. Latrobe, '''Lawn''' of the White Sulphur, 1835.

File:2256.jpg|John Henry Bufford. ''Fairmount from the first Landing'', cover illustration for sheet music for ''The Fairmount Quadrilles'', 1836, lithographs. Courtesy of the Free Library of Philadelphia, Print and Picture Department.

File:0937.jpg|Unknown, "Plan for Planting Grounds in Front of Country Dwelling," in ''Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine'', vol. III, (April 1, 1837), 129.

File:0541.jpg|John T. Bowen, ''A [[View]] of the Fairmount Water-Works with Schuylkill in the distance, taken from the [[Mount]]'', 1838.

File:0549.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''[[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1840—50.

File:0550.jpg|Victor de Grailly, ''The Tomb at [[Mount Vernon]]'', c. 1840—50.

File:1103.jpg|W. Mason, “[[Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane]],” c. 1841, in Thomas S. Kirkbride, ''Reports of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane: With a Sketch of its History, Buildings, and Organization'' (1851), frontispiece.

File:0878.jpg|Anonymous, “Ground Plan of a portion of Downing’s [[Botanic_garden|Botanic Gardens]] and [[Nursery|Nurseries]],” in ''The Magazine of Horticulture'' 7, no. 11 (November 1841): 404.

File:1047.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (recto).

File:1047b.jpg|Alexander W. Longfellow, Sketch of the grounds of the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, 1844 (verso).

File:0329.jpg|Anonymous (artist), A. Kollner (lithographer), “North West [[View]] of the Mansion of George Washington [[Mount Vernon]],” in Franklin Knight, ed., ''Letters on Agriculture from His Excellency George Washington'' (1847), opp. 124.

File:0356.jpg|Anonymous, “The Manor of Livingston,” ed. [[A. J. Downing]], ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 5 (November 1846): pl. opp. 201, fig. 55.

File:0361.jpg|Anonymous, “Beaverwyck, the [[Seat]] of Wm. P. Van Rensselaer, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 7.

File:0362.jpg|Anonymous, “Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 8.

File:0364.jpg|Anonymous, “Belmont Place, near Boston, the [[seat]] of J. P. Cushing, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 54, fig. 10.

File:0367.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] in the Grounds of James Arnold, Esp.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 57.

File:0369.jpg|Anonymous, “Mrs. Camac’s Residence,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. between 58 and 59, fig. 13.

File:1466.jpg|Anonymous, “Villa of Theodore Lyman, Esq., near Boston,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 387, fig. 48.

File:0766.jpg|Anonymous, “The Battery, New York, By Moonlight,” in ''Illustrated London News'' (October 27, 1849): 277.

File:0774.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], Ground [[plot]]s for proposed houses near Clifton, Staten Island, in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1849), vol. 1, pl. 18.

File:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.

File:0777.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Ground [[Plot]] of 4-1/4 Acres,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 6. "The '''lawn''' is on the north of the house. . ."

File:1001.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Mount]] Fordham—the Country [[Seat]] of Lewis G. Morris, Esq.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 8 (August 1851): pl. opp. 345.

File:0334.jpg|Middleton, Strobridge & Co. (engravers), ''[[Mount Vernon]]. The Home of Washington'', c. 1861.
</gallery>

===Attributed===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

File:0201.jpg|Anonymous, ''Perry Hall, Home of Harry Dorsey Gough'', n.d.

File:0843.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], [[Montgomery Place]], n.d.

File:0180.jpg|Anonymous, Fairhill, ''The [[Seat]] of Isaac Norris Esq.'', 18th century.

File:1384.jpg|Batty Langley, One of two “Designs for Gardens that lye irregularly to the ground House. . . House opening to the North upon a plain [[Parterre]] of Grass,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XI.

File:1387.jpg|Batty Langley, “Part of a [[Park]] Exhibiting their manner of planting, after a more grand manner than has been done before,” in ''New Principles of Gardening'' (1728), pl. XIV.

File:0290.jpg|William Burgis, ''[A prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in New England.]'', 1743.

File:0160.jpg|William Tennant, ''A North-West Prospect of Nassau Hall, with a Front [[View]] of the Presidents House in New-Jersey, Princeton College'', 1764.

File:0248.jpg|Claude Joseph Sauthier, ''A Plan of the Town of Newbern in Craven County, North Carolina'', 1769.

File:2262.jpg|Anonymous, ''The South West [[Prospect]] of the [[Seat]] of Colonel George Boyd of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, New England, 1774''.

File:0348.jpg|Anonymous, ''Landscape with Buildings'', c. 1775–1800.

File:0161.jpg|Jonathan Budington, ''[[View]] of the Cannon House and Wharf'', 1792.

File:0270.jpg|Ralph Earl, ''William Floyd'', c. 1793.

File:0546.jpg|William Clarke, ''Levin Winder'', 1793.

File:0408.jpg|David Leonard, ''A S. W. [[view]] of the College in Providence, together with the President’s House & Gardens'', c. 1795.

File:0058.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], Garden plan with outbuildings, from “Buildings Erected or Proposed to be Built in Virginia,” 1795–99.

File:2250_detail1.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

File:2250_detail2.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

File:0083.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Sedgeley'', c. 1799.

File:0173.jpg|Anonymous, Overmantel from the Bannister house, c. 1800–20.

File:0732.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Springland'', c. 1800.

File:2249.jpg|Unknown, Derby Garden, [circa 1795–1799], Samuel McIntire Papers, MSS 264, flat file, plan 107. Courtesy of Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Rowley, MA.

File:0229.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''The [[Seat]] of John Julius Pringle, Esquire, on the Ashley River'', 1800.

File:0749.jpg|William Groombridge, ''Fairmount and [[Schuylkill River]]'', 1800.

File:0233.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Another [[View]] of Brabants: Seat of the Late Bishop Smith'', c. 1800

File:0231.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''A [[Seat]] on Ashley River'', April 1802.

File:0223.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Ashley Hall'', 1803.

File:0224.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Mepkin, the [[Seat]] of Henry Laurens, Esq.'', May 1803.

File:0228.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Richmond: The [[Seat]] of Edward Rutledge, Esq.'', Saint Johns, 1803.

File:0092.jpg|[[Thomas Jefferson]], “Plan of Spring Roundabout at [[Monticello]],” c. 1804.

File:0730.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The Grove in Springland,” before 1805.

File:0123.jpg|Rebecca Couch, ''Connecticut House'', c. 1805.

File:0203.jpg|Francis Guy, ''Perry Hall from the northwest'', c. 1805.

File:0225.jpg|Charles Fraser, ''Mepkin, No. 1'', May 1805.

File:0407.jpg|Amos Doolittle, ''A [[View]] of the Buildings of Yale College at New Haven'', 1807.

File:1924.jpg|P. Lodet, ''Clermont, [[Seat]] of the Chancellor Livingston - North River 1807'', 1807.

File:0317.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Montebello—The [[Seat]] of General Smith'', c. 1808.

File:2248.jpg|William Russell Birch, ''Sweet Briar'', c. 1808.

File:0326.jpg|William Russell Birch, “The [[View]] from Springland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 2.

File:0312.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Hampton, the [[Seat]] of Gen.l Cha.s Ridgely, Maryland,” in ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (1808).

File:0311.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Hoboken in New Jersey, the Seat of M.r John Stevens,” 1808, in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 3.

File:0303.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Landsdown, the [[Seat]] of the late W.m Bingham Esq.r, Pennsylvania,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 5.

File:0315.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Solitude in Pennsylv.a belonging to M.r Penn,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 9.

File:0318.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Montibello the [[seat]] of Gen.l S. Smith Maryland,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 13.

File:0322.jpg|William Russell Birch, “China Retreat Pennsyl.a the [[Seat]] of M.r Manigault,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States'' (1808), pl. 19.

File:1679.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny Hyde de Neuville]], ''The Moreau House'', July 2, 1809.

File:0051.jpg|William Strickland, “[[The Woodlands]],” 1809, in ''Casket'' 5, no. 10 (October 1830): pl. opp. 432.

File:1152.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Lilacs'', Residence of Thomas Kidder [perspective rendering, front], c. 1810.

File:0119.jpg|Anonymous, ''Making Hay'', c. 1810.

File:0150.jpg|Rebecca Chester, ''A Full [[View]] of Deadrick’s Hill'', 1810.

File:0102.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of the Campus Grounds, Union College, 1813.

File:1464.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Plan of Union College, 1813.

File:0103.jpg|Lewis and Goodwin (lithographers), after a drawing by Joseph Jacques Ramée, ''Union College. Schenectady'', NY, 1815.

File:0104.jpg|Joseph Jacques Ramée, Estate plan for Calverton, (Baltimore, MD) [detail], c. 1816, in ''Parcs & jardins'' (c. 1836), pl. 1.

File:0404.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''Elevation of the South front of the President’s house, copied from the design as proposed to be altered in 1807'', January 1817.

File:0990.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Southeast [[View]] of “Sedgeley [[Park]],” the Country [[Seat]] of James Cowles Fisher, Esq.'', c. 1819.

File:0716.jpg|Alvan Fisher, ''The Vale'', 1820—25.

File:1454.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Vale'', 1820—30.

File:0120.jpg|Anonymous, ''By the Sea'', c. 1820.

File:1015.jpg|George Flower, ''Park House, Albion, Edwards County, Illinois—Home of George Flower'', c. 1820.

File:0020.jpg|Janika de Fériet, ''The [[Hermitage]]'', c. 1820.

File:0157.jpg|[[Anne-Marguerite Hyde de Neuville]], ''Washington City'', 1821.

File:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

File:0719.jpg|Eliza Susan Quincy, “Seat of Josiah Quincy, Esqr.,” 1822.

File:0079.jpg|Jane Braddick Peticolas, ''[[View]] of the West Front of [[Monticello]] and Garden'', 1825.

File:0514.jpg|Catherine Mary Wheeler, Sampler, 1825.

File:0152.jpg|George Hayward after J. Anderson, ''[[View]] of The [[Belvedere]] Club House, 1794'', 1828.

File:0112.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “[[View]] of the White House,” 1826, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850).

File:2014.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Front [[View]] of [[Mount]] Airy, Virginia,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520A.

File:2013.jpg|Anthony St. John Baker, “Back [[View]] of [[Mount]] Airy, Va.,” 1827, in ''Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose'' (1850), part IV, p. 520B.

File:0715.jpg|E. W. Clay, etched by J.W. Steel and W.H. Hay, “Sedgeley Park,” in C.G. Childs, ''[[View]]s in Philadelphia and its environs, from original drawings taken in 1827-30'' (1830), pl. 24.

File:0179.jpg|Anonymous, ''The Mill'', c. 1830.

File:0432.jpg|Attributed to Reuben Rowley, ''Dr. John Safford and Family'', c. 1830.

File:1043.jpg|Sidney Mason Stone, ''House for Roger Sherman Baldwin, New Haven, Conn. [exterior elevation]'', c. 1830–40.

File:0490.jpg|Archibald L. Dick, “Elysian Fields, Hoboken (New York in the distance),” in ''[[View]]s in New-York and its Environs'' (1831–34).

File:0739.jpg|William Russell Birch, “Landsdown,” before 1834.

File:0464.jpg|Nicolino Calyo, ''Harlem, the Country House of Dr. Edmondson'', 1834.

File:0646.jpg|Anonymous, “Montpelier, Va., the [[Seat]] of the late James Madison,” 1835.

File:0679.jpg|James W. Steel, “Beech Hill, The Country [[Seat]] of R. Gilmor, Esq.,” in W. H. Carpenter and T. S. Arthur, eds., ''The Baltimore Book: A Christmas and New Year’s Present'' (1838), pl. opp. 184.

File:0525.jpg|William E. Winner, ''Garden Scene Near Philadelphia'', c. 1840.

File:0040.jpg|W. H. Bartlett, “Washington, from the President’s House,” in Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery'' (1840), vol. 2, pl. 26.

File:0524.jpg|Anonymous, Palladian Villa Style Building in Formal Landscape, c. 1840–50.

File:0726.jpg|Thomas Cole, ''The Van Rensselaer Manor House'', 1841.

File:0518.jpg|''Blue Sulphur Springs'', possibly by Eliza Howard Simms Burd, September 15, 1843.

File:0823.jpg|Joshua Barney, ''Map of Hampton'', 1843. Courtesy: Hampton National Historic Site, National Park Service.

File:1048.jpg|Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Sketch of the Grounds of the Longfellow Estate, 1844.

File:0753.jpg|John Notman, “Plan of Grounds, Fieldwood, near Princeton,” October, 19, 1846.

File:0394.jpg|Anonymous, “The Conservatory,” [[Montgomery Place]], in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 159, fig. 28.

File:1975.jpg|James Smillie (artist), “[[View]] from Battle Hill,” in Nehemiah Cleaveland, ''Green-Wood Illustrated'' (1847), opp. 79.

File:1678.jpg|Anonymous, ''Friends Almshouse, Walnut Street, Philadelphia'', c. 1848.

File:0406.jpg|Henry Howe, "Ohio University, at Athens," 1848.

File:0705.jpg|Augustus Köllner, “President’s House,” 1848. The '''lawn''' is located in front of the White House.

File:2292.jpg|Weingärtner & Sarony, “Smithsonian Institution, from the North East,” in Robert Dale Owen, ''Hints on Public Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. 108.

File:0383.jpg|Anonymous, “Residence of Gov. Morehead, North Carolina,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 387, fig. 46.

File:1139.jpg|Edwin Whitefield, ''[[View]] of Hartford, CT. From the Deaf and Dumb Asylum'', 1849.

File:0446.jpg|Joseph Goodhue Chandler, ''Charles H. Sisson'', 1850.

File:0025.jpg|Robert P. Smith, ''[[View]] of Washington'', c. 1850.

File:0557.jpg|Sarony & Major, ''Iranistan, an Oriental Ville'', 1852–54.

File:1993.jpg|John O'Brien Inman, Inman Homestead, c. 1850.

File:0042.jpg|Benjamin Franklin Smith Jr., ''Washington, D.C. with projected improvements'', c. 1852.

File: 2284.jpg|Middleton Wallace & Co., ''Wilberforce University, Xenia, Ohio. (The colored peoples college)'', c. 1850-60.
</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==

<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Topographic Features]]

File:2292.jpg

2021-03-26T14:14:42Z

A-Whitlock:

Weingärtner & Sarony, "Smithsonian Institution, from the North East," in Robert Dale Owen, ''Hints on Public Architecture'' (1849), pl. opp. p. 108. Smithsonian Libraries and Archives.

File:2292.jpg

2021-03-26T14:14:01Z

A-Whitlock:

File:0261.jpg

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John Brewster, Jr., ''James Eldredge'', July 5, 1795, oil on canvas, 54 x 40 1/2 in. (137.1 x 102.8 cm). The Connecticut Historical Society, Hartford.

Hallowell, ME

2021-03-25T21:06:14Z

A-Whitlock:

The village of Hallowell was built on steeply terraced land along the Kennebec River in what is now the state of Maine. The name of the village derived from the Boston merchant and Kennebec Proprietor Benjamin Hallowell, who owned large swathes of property in the area. Several of his heirs had emigrated from England in the late 18th century for the purpose of settling Hallowell.<ref>Craig Compton Murray, “Benjamin Vaughan (1751–1835): The Life of an Anglo-American Intellectual” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1989), 204–5, 381–82, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero]; Samuel L. Boardman, “A General View of the Agriculture and Industry of the County of Kennebec, with Notes upon Its History and Natural History,” in ''Tenth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture'' (Augusta, ME: Stevens & Sayward, Printers to the State, 1865) 10: 130, 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TV2AZBT3 view on Zotero].</ref> In addition to building basic infrastructure such as roads and stone walls, they dabbled in myriad ventures to attract settlers, improve agriculture, and create economic opportunity.<ref>Emma Huntington Nason, ''Old Hallowell on the Kennebec'' (Augusta, ME: Press of Burleigh & Flynt, 1909), 30, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/USP2T2FM view on Zotero]; Boardman, 1865), 10: 190,[https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TV2AZBT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

==Overview==
'''Associated People:''' Benjamin Hallowell; [[Samuel Vaughan]] (1720–1802); [[Benjamin Vaughan]] (1751–1835) 
'''Location:''' Hallowell, ME 
'''Condition:''' extant 

<hr>

==History==
[[File:2209.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Charles Vaughan, Hallowell, ca. 1820.]]
Benjamin Hallowell’s son-in-law, [[Samuel Vaughan]], had been interested in establishing a Unitarian community at Hallowell since about 1784. Ten years later, his son Charles (1759–1839) settled in Hallowell, where he built a large, two-story house fronted by a [[piazza]] on a high plateau overlooking the Kennebec River in Hallowell [Fig. 1].<ref>John H. Sheppard, ''Reminiscences of the Vaughan Family, and More Particularly of Benjamin Vaughan, LL.D.'' (Boston: David Clapp & Son, 1865), 10, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JUK7VZVU view on Zotero].</ref> John Hannibal Sheppard (1791–1873), who moved to Hallowell as a child in 1793, later recalled the striking appearance of this “White House on the hill”: “False taste had planted no trees on the summit to hide it from the distant [[view]], and it stood out in bold relief to the eye; for sufficient was the back ground of a mountain forest to make a finish in the rural picture.”<ref>Sheppard 1865, 16, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JUK7VZVU view on Zotero].</ref> The house was subsequently occupied and much improved by Charles Vaughan’s elder brother, [[Benjamin Vaughan|Dr. Benjamin Vaughan]], who immigrated to America in 1797 with the aim of living in rustic simplicity at Hallowell. After surveying the family homestead, however, he confessed himself “agrieved and ashamed that what was designed and ought to have been the model of the country has long been one of its reproaches. I find . . . the whole domain looking like a wretched piece of English [[common]].”<ref>Murray 1989, 384, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

By 1799 [[Benjamin Vaughan|Dr. Vaughan]] had hired the British gardener John Hesketh, who had previously served as head gardener at Lord Derby’s estate, Knowsley Hall, near Liverpool.<ref>Samuel Lane Boardman, “Appendix to Report on Kennebec County,” in ''Twelfth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture'' (Augusta, ME: Stevens & Sayward, Printers to the State, 1867), 220, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/6R33CCIB view on Zotero].</ref> Capability Brown had designed Knowsley’s [[kitchen garden]] and [[park]] in the mid-1770s, and his ideas appear to have influenced Hesketh’s landscape work at Hallowell. [[Benjamin Vaughan|Dr. Vaughan’s]] house became renowned for the striking manner in which cultivated [[flower garden]]s and [[orchard]]s near the house were juxtaposed against the seemingly untamed [[wilderness]] of the woodland [[park]]. Following a visit to Hallowell in 1807, [[Timothy Dwight]] praised the “romantic” setting of [[Benjamin Vaughan|Vaughan’s]] house, especially the [[wilderness]], which had been “left absolutely in the state of nature,” with paths “appearing to have been trodden out by the feet of wild animals, [rather] than to have been contrived, and [[bridge]]s, so rude and inartificial, as to seem the result of accident, rather than the effect of labour.” All this reflected “the best taste,” leading to [[Timothy Dwight|Dwight]]’s conclusion, “I know not so handsome an appendage of nature to any gentleman’s [[seat]] in this country” ([[#Dwight_Hallowell|view text]]).<ref>Dwight 1821, 2: 218, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W4USVF49 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:2289.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Dr. Benjamin Vaughan, Hallowell, ca. 1800.]]
The gardens at [[Benjamin Vaughan|Dr. Vaughan’s]] house were extensive, occupying several acres. Samuel Lane Boardman (1836–1914), a journalist who grew up near Hallowell, recalled that “Some ten or twelve men were constantly employed in it during the season of growth and besides containing all the most common varieties of vegetables the new sorts imported from Europe were here tested and if they proved valuable disseminated throughout the State.”<ref>Boardman 1865, 189–90, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TV2AZBT3 view on Zotero].</ref> The [[flower garden]] featured “numerous [[alley]]s” and “wide [[walk]]s . . . between slightly raised [[bed]]s of flowers, interspersed with apple and other fruit trees.”<ref>William Warren Vaughan, ''Hallowell Memories'' (Hallowell, ME: Privately printed, 1931), 46–40, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/FEN2E98M view on Zotero]; Sheppard 1865, 14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JUK7VZVU view on Zotero].</ref> [[Benjamin Vaughan|Dr. Vaughan’s]] grandson, William Manning Vaughan (1807–1891), recalled that in the early 19th century his aunts grew foxglove, narcissus, and roses in the portion of the garden nearest the house, while his grandmother grew herbs—such as peppermint and chamomile—which she distributed for medicinal purposes.<ref>William Warren Vaughan interview of 1891 quoted on [https://vaughanhomestead.org/news/the-search-for-benjamins-garden-a-history-mystery/ Vaughan Homestead Foundation website].</ref> An ascending path led to a [[summerhouse]] that afforded panoramic [[view]]s of the village and riverine landscape.<ref>Sheppard 1865, 14, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JUK7VZVU view on Zotero].</ref> Adjoining the gardens was a fruit and nut [[orchard]], and [[Benjamin Vaughan|Dr. Vaughan]] also operated a flourishing commercial [[nursery]]. He and his wife were known for their generosity in sharing seeds and cuttings from the garden with the numerous neighbors and international visitors who came to see it.<ref>Boardman 1865, 190, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TV2AZBT3 view on Zotero].</ref> [[Benjamin Vaughan|Vaughan’s]] aesthetic approach to developing the family property evidently riled his brother Charles, who, in 1800, chided that he should focus more exclusively on preparing the land for cultivation—“the more that can be prepared the better, and whether it looks well or ill is no object.”<ref>Murray 1989, 387, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KUPH6CQ8 view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Robyn Asleson''

<hr>

==Texts==
*<div id="Dwight_Hallowell"></div>[[Timothy Dwight|Dwight, Timothy]], 1807, describing Hallowell, ME (1821–22: 2:218–19)<ref>Dwight 1821–22, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W4USVF49 view on Zotero].</ref>
: “Hallowell is a very pretty town, built on an irregular, or rather steep, descent. This [[slope]], though interrupted, is handsome, and furnishes more good building spots, than if it had been an uniform declivity, and at the same time equally steep. Then all the grounds would have descended too rapidly. Now they furnish a succession of level surfaces for gardens, house-[[plat]]s and court [[yard]]s; and are thus very convenient, as well as sometimes very handsome. The streets are both parallel, and right-angled to the river; but, like those of all other towns throughout this country, are irregular. The houses, being generally new and decent, have the same cheerful appearance, which has been so often remarked. Several of them are handsome, and surrounded by very neat appendages. All the situations on the higher grounds are fine. A more romantic spot is not often found, than that on which stands the house of [[Benjamin Vaughan|Mr. [Benjamin] V[aughan].]] a descendant of Mr. Hallowell, from whom this town took its name; inheriting from him, it is said, a large landed estate in this country. . . . His house stands on one of the elevated levels, mentioned above, where the hill, bends from its general Southern direction toward the West, and, forming an obtuse, circular point, furnishes a beautiful Southern, as well as Northern and Eastern, [[prospect]]. The river, here lying almost immediately below the eye, is a noble object.

:“In the rear, as you recede from the river, but at the side of the house, (the front being Southward, and looking down the river;) lies a handsome garden, furnishing even at this time of the year, ample proofs of the fertility of the soil. Behind the garden is a wild and solitary valley; at the bottom of which runs a small mill stream. Its bed is formed, universally, of rocks and stones. In three successive instances strata of rocks cross the stream obliquely; and present a face so nearly perpendicular, as to furnish in each instance, a charming [[cascade]]. These succeed each other at distances conveniently near; and yet so great, that one of them only can be seen at a time. The remaining course of the stream is an alternation of currents, and handsome [[basin]]s. On either side, the banks, which are of considerable height, and sometimes steep, formed of rude forested grounds, and moss-grown rocks, are left absolutely in the state of nature. Along the brook [[Benjamin Vaughan|Mr. [Benjamin] V[aughan].]] has made a convenient foot-way, rather appearing to have been trodden out by the feet of wild animals, than to have been contrived by man, and winding over a succession of stone [[bridge]]s, so rude and inartificial, as to seem the result of accident, rather than the effect of human labour. With these little exceptions, the whole scene is left, with the best taste, as it was found. A charming change from the cheerfulness of the house, garden and town, and the splendour of the river and its shores, is here experienced in a moment. The first step out of the rear of the garden is into wildness, solitude, and gloom. I know not so handsome an appendage of nature to any gentleman’s [[seat]] in this country.”

*Sheppard, John H., 1865, describing the garden of [[Benjamin Vaughan]] (1865: 14)<ref>Sheppard 1865, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JUK7VZVU view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Dr. [[Benjamin Vaughan]] was fond of horticulture, and was one of the pioneers of New England in the improvement of fruits and cereals. He imported choice seeds, which he was ever ready to impart to his neighbors. He had a large garden of several acres tastily laid out, with broad paths and numerous [[alley]]s, whose [[border]]s were adorned with flowers or shaded with currant bushes, fruit trees and [[shrubbery]]. The whole was under the care of an English gardener. Every kind of culinary vegetable was raised abundantly. . . .

:“I spoke of his garden; there may be many costly and more embellished, owned by millionaires, in the vicinity of our great cities; but this of [[Benjamin Vaughan|Dr. Vaughan]] had one charm, seldom found elsewhere. It lay in the midst of a landscape of surpassing beauty. It rose gradually from the entrance [[gate]] near the house, until in ascending the [[walk]] you found yourself on the height of a declivity at the verge of tall [[woods]] in a [[summerhouse|summer-house]]; from this airy resting-place there was a magnificent [[view]] of the village, distant hills, and the gentle waters of the Kennebec winding "at their own sweet will.” Near the spot were mowing fields, and pastures with cattle grazing and some shady oaks yet spared by the Goths in their clearings. . . .

:“Behind the [[summerhouse|summer-house]] loomed up a steep mountain deeply wooded, and between them was a precipitous ravine or narrow glen through which a powerful stream rushed headlong from ledge to ledge, beneath a dark shadow of tall trees, until it leaped down like a miniature [[cataract]] and formed a pretty[[ basin]], where we sometimes caught a small trout or two. After descending from rock to rock the stream at last subsided into a [[pond]], which supplied the large flour mill built by Mr. Charles Vaughan. This romantic [[waterfall]] was called the “Cascade,” accessible by a winding path down the steep, and its murmur could be heard from the [[summerhouse|summer-house]] in the stillness of the evening, where now the steam-whistle and the locomotive echo through the valley below. Perhaps the utilitarian, who only thinks what his berries may bring in the market, or how a cabbage shall add another dime to his dollars, may ridicule the idea of fine scenery surrounding a garden.”

<hr>

==Images==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="5">

Image:2289.jpg|Dr. Benjamin Vaughan, Hallowell, ca. 1800.

Image:2209.jpg|Charles Vaughan, Hallowell, ca. 1820.

Image:2291.jpg|Southwick, J, and J Chace. ''Map of Kennebec Co., Maine'', 1856.

Image:2291_detail1.jpg|Southwick, J, and J Chace. ''Map of Kennebec Co., Maine'', 1856 [detail].

Image:2291_detail2.jpg|Southwick, J, and J Chace. ''Map of Kennebec Co., Maine'', 1856 [detail]. "C. Vaughan" is inscribed in the middle of the image.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Other Resources==
[http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n84112459 Library of Congress Authority File]

[https://vaughanhomestead.org/news/the-search-for-benjamins-garden-a-history-mystery/ “The Search for Benjamin’s Garden: A History Mystery,” Vaughan Homestead Foundation Website]

<hr>

==Notes==
<references/>

<hr>

[[Category: Places]]

File:2291 detail2.jpg

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A-Whitlock:

Southwick, J, and J Chace. ''Map of Kennebec Co., Maine'', 1856 [detail]. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, Washington, DC.

File:2291 detail1.jpg

2021-03-25T21:04:26Z

A-Whitlock:

Southwick, J, and J Chace. ''Map of Kennebec Co., Maine'', 1856 [detail]. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, Washington, DC.

File:2291.jpg

2021-03-25T21:04:09Z

A-Whitlock:

Southwick, J, and J Chace. ''Map of Kennebec Co., Maine'', 1856. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, Washington, DC.

File:2291 detail2.jpg

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A-Whitlock:

File:2291 detail1.jpg

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File:2291.jpg

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A-Whitlock:

File:2290.jpg

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Anonymous, "View of a Common Country House" and "View of the Same, Improved," in ''Horticulturist'', vol. 1, no. 1 (July 1846), pl. opp. p. 13, fig. 2 and 3. The LuEsther T Mertz Library, the New York Botanical Garden

File:2290.jpg

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Picturesque

2021-03-25T20:18:15Z

A-Whitlock:

==History==
[[File:0379.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, Anonymous, “View of a Picturesque farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 120, fig. 27.]]
The picturesque is an aesthetic category derived from the idea of designing landscapes to look like pictures. The picturesque was at its height in Britain around the turn of the 19th century, though its development began much earlier and it is still in use today. In American landscape discourse, the term “picturesque” had two important uses. The first referred to a garden style with specific compositional components detailed by theorists such as Thomas Whately and [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]]. The picturesque also came to be understood as a visual effect achieved by the incorporation of natural and designed landscape elements into a [[prospect]] or [[view]]. This second sense is clear in [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. Loudon’s]] 1826 claim that a [[view]] was picturesque if “it would form a tolerable picture” when painted ([[#Loudon|view text]]). This use of the term was used frequently in travelers’ descriptions of towns, settlements, or gardens. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] later echoed [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon]] when he wrote that “the picturesque is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely” (1849) ([[#Downing|view text]]). It is evident that during their historical development, both senses of this term, as either a style or a visual effect, were frequently used simultaneously. In addition, in many cases the term “picturesque” served as an effective expression meaning simply an attractive or pleasing scene, as in the case of [[William Bartram|William Bartram’s]] romantic and evocative descriptions of his travels in the south (1792) ([[#Bartram|view text]]). The goal of the picturesque was to re-create in the garden the experience of the natural landscape. The chief characteristics of the picturesque were surprise and variety, in contrast to the effects of terror and awe associated with the sublime. These characteristics were defined by the theorists Whately and William Gilpin, whose treatises were well known in America. At [[Mount Vernon]], [[Manasseh Cutler]] reported in 1802 that the picturesque effect was enhanced by “coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it was seen,” underscoring the importance of surprise to the picturesque effect ([[#Cutler|view text]]). Similarly, sinuous routes through the garden afforded a “continual change of scenery.” In reference to his picturesque [[plantation]]s, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] claimed that the effect depended upon “''intricacy'' and ''irregularity''.”<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 103, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>

[[File:1807.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, George Inness, ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.]]
In ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816), [[G. (George) Gregory|George Gregory]] insisted that the picturesque garden was possible only in properties that exceeded twenty acres; smaller lots were considered ridiculous for such a function. He thus defines the picturesque garden as part of the larger designed landscape, a portion apart from the house, and extensive and often synonymous with “[[park]]” ([[#Gregory|view text]]). Any part of a designed landscape, however, could be produced in the picturesque mode, even the [[ferme ornée|ornamental farm]] as illustrated by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] [Fig. 1].

The concept of the picturesque was critical to [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] approach and a continuous theme in his ''Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849). [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] defined the picturesque as a style distinct from the beautiful mode of design, but considered both varieties of the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]] of [[landscape gardening]]: the “Beautiful” expressed simple and flowing forms, whereas the “Picturesque” had striking, irregular and “pointed” forms. He illustrated the latter term with cottage houses set on relatively modest lots [[[#Fig_17|See Fig. 17]]]. The picturesque style, according to [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], was achieved not by size (contrary to [[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory’s]] definition), but by shapes and outlines of trees, architecture, and grounds. For [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], the term represented primarily a rejection of all regular and geometric forms in landscape design.

<div id="Fig_3"></div>[[File:0580.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, Lewis Miller, “[[Mount Vernon]]” [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), 108. [[#Fig_3_cite|Back to texts]]]]
Instructions for laying out the picturesque garden were found in garden literature such as the ''Horticultural Register'', which stated in 1837 that the picturesque was a “facsimile imitation of natural scenery” ([[#Register|view text]]). In his treatise, [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] advocated that trees should stand in irregular groups not in straight rows, and paths and [[border]]s should be winding or serpentine, adapting to the natural inequalities of the surface. Several writers recommended that any sign of artifice should be disguised.

[[File:0089.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''View of [[Mount Vernon]] looking towards the South West'', 1796.]]
American scenery, according to [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] and his contemporaries, was a place where, he wrote in 1850, “the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape,” and ultimately harmonizes with the boldly varied picturesque style ([[#Downing_1850|view text]]). The ingredients of [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing’s]] picturesque included an architecture of projecting profiles and bold outlines, specific vegetation, such as larch trees, and planting schemes of irregular groups. The desired effect could be achieved, according to [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]], at little cost, even on small properties such as farms. He illustrated the picturesque garden in his ''Treatise'' with winding lanes, irregular groups of trees, and untrimmed [[hedge]]s giving a less formal, and a more free and natural air.

[[File:0417.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[prospect]]-[[arbor]],” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.]]
Numerous representations and descriptions of designed landscapes emphasized the picturesque aesthetics of the site, exemplified by both image and text of Washington Irving’s [[Sunnyside]] [Fig. 2]. Gardens laid out with picturesque features have been documented from the 1740s in the British colonies, in such places as Henry Middleton’s [[seat]], Middleton Place, and William Middleton’s [[plantation]], Crowfield, both near Charleston, South Carolina. In 1802, [[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler]] determined that [[Mount Vernon]] had “quite a picturesque appearance” because of the successful integration of the building with the surrounding trees. Lewis Miller’s 1849 illustrated account of his visit to [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 3] repeated [[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler’s]] description of Washington’s home as picturesque. In the sketch Miller did not position the [[plantation]] symmetrically (a [[view]] that might have emphasized the bilateral symmetry of the design), but presented the house from an oblique angle that depicted the house off-center, focusing more on the “little [[copse]]s [and] [[clump]]s” that add “a romantick and picturesque appearance to the whole Scenery” ([[#Miller|view text]]). [[Mount Vernon]] was a particularly interesting example because specific aspects of its design were often criticized for not being in the more modern, picturesque style. It seems that although individual elements were not deemed to be picturesque, the entire effect of house, gardens, and extended landscape could still be. This tension is also expressed in [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Benjamin Henry Latrobe's]] [[view]]s of [[Mount Vernon]] [Fig. 4]; [[Benjamin Henry Latrobe|Latrobe]] used picturesque conventions to depict the house, even though his written critique of the gardens expressed displeasure with its symmetrical [[parterre]]s.<ref>''The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795–1798'', ed. Edward C. Carter II (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977), 1:165, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SZEEBG9K view on Zotero].</ref>

In 1829, at a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the picturesque garden was presented as one garden type in a list that included the [[kitchen garden|kitchen]], [[flower garden|flower]], and [[botanic garden|botanical gardens]]. Its component parts included the imitation ruin, [[rustic style|rustic]] ornament, and exotic styles as indicated by [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] advertisement for his services. The [[rustic style|rustic]] [[prospect tower]] at [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]] in Brooklyn, New York, was praised by [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing]] as one of the “most fitting decorations of the Picturesque landscape garden” [Fig. 5]. In the first quarter of the 19th century, [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden]] was frequently described in the farm and garden press as an important exemplar of the picturesque. In his own article entitled “Landscape and Picturesque Gardens” of 1828, [[André Parmentier|Parmentier]] described this [[modern style]], the picturesque, as reinstating “Nature in the possession of those rights from which she has too long been banished by an undue regard to symmetry.”

Nathaniel Parker Willis in ''American Scenery'' (1840), made a distinction between the picturesque in American landscape and that elsewhere. In Europe, ruins—symbols of history—were central to the experience of the picturesque. In the United States, however, the “eternal succession of lovely natural objects,” was for Willis, expressive of the future ([[#Willis|view text]]).

—''Therese O’Malley''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===
*<div id="Bartram"></div>[[William Bartram|Bartram, William]], 1792, describing islands off the coast of Georgia and Florida (1996: 93)<ref>William Bartram, ''Travels, and Other Writings'', ed. Thomas Slaughter (New York: Library of America, 1996), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJ8STDET view on Zotero].</ref>
:“These floating islands present a very entertaining [[prospect]]; for although we behold an assemblage of the primary productions of nature only, yet the imagination seems to remain in suspense and doubt; as in order to enliven the delusion, and form a most '''picturesque''' appearance, we see not only flowery plants, [[clump]]s of [[shrub]]s, old-weather beaten trees, hoary and barbed, with the long moss waving from their snags, but we also see them completely inhabited, and alive, with crocodiles, serpents, frogs, otters, crows, herons, curlews, jackdaws, &c. There seems, in short, nothing wanted but the appearance of a wigwam and a canoe to complete the scene.” [[#Bartram_cite|back up to History]]

*Brown, Charles Brockden, 1798, describing the fictional estate of Wieland, near Philadelphia, PA (1798: 54–55)<ref>Charles Brockden Brown, ''Wieland, or The Transformation, An American Tale'' (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5CB78G5T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“No scene can be imagined less enticing to a lover of the '''picturesque''' than this. . .
:“The scenes which environed our dwellings at Mettingen constituted the reverse of this. [[Schuylkill River|Schuylkill]] was here a pure and translucid current, broken into wild and ceaseless music by rocky points, murmuring on a sandy margin, and reflecting on its surface banks of all varieties of height and degrees of declivity. These banks were chequered by patches of dark verdure and shapeless masses of white marble, and crowned by [[copse]]s of cedar, or by the regular magnificence of [[orchard]]s, which, at this season, were in blossom, and were prodigal of odours. The ground which receded from the river was scooped into valleys and dales. Its beauties were enhanced by the horticultural skill of my brother, who bedecked this exquisite assemblage of [[slope]]s and risings with every species of vegetable ornament, from the giant arms of the oak to the clustering tendrils of the honeysuckle.”

*<div id="Cutler"></div>[[Manasseh Cutler|Cutler, Manasseh]], January 2, 1802, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (1987: 2:56)<ref>William Parker Cutler, ''Life, Journals, and Correspondence of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D.'', 2 vols. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1987), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3PBNT7H9 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It appears on an [[eminence]], not like a hill, but a level ground, with a pretty deep valley between, covered with [[wood]]s and bushes of different kinds, which conceal the winding passage from the [[gate]] to the house. . . In this situation the house, with two ranges of small buildings extending in a curved form, from near the corners of the house, till interrupted by the trees, has quite a '''picturesque''' appearance, and the effect is much heightened by coming out of a thick [[wood]], and the sudden and unexpected manner in which it is seen.” [[#Cutler_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0565.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.]]
*Warden, David Bailie, 1816, describing Analostan Island, seat of Gen. John Mason, Washington, DC (quoted in Phillips 1917: 49)<ref>Philip Lee Phillips, ''The Beginnings of Washington: As Described in Books, Maps, and Views'' (Washington, DC: The author, 1917), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QXZXNN8N view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[view]] from this spot is delightful. It embraces the '''picturesque''' banks of the Potomac, a portion of the city, and an expanse of water, of which the [[bridge]] terminates the [[view]].” [Fig. 6]

*Anonymous, September 10, 1817, describing in the ''Virginia Herald'' a property for sale in Westmoreland County, VA (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation)
:“Rappahannock land. For sale. . . The situation is high, healthy, and '''picturesque'''; from the south door, you overlook the rich scenery of the Rappahannock for a great extent; and from the north, you have a fine [[view]] of the Potomac, whitened by the rapidly-increasing commerce of the District of Columbia.”

[[File:1052.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.]]
*Silliman, Benjamin, 1824, describing Monte Video, property of Daniel Wadsworth, Avon, CT (1824: 15)<ref>Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the Autumn of 1819'' (New Haven, CT: S. Converse, 1824), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/B5VWTWM5 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The little spot of cultivation surrounding the house, and the [[lake]] at your feet, with its '''picturesque''' appendages of winding paths, and Gothic buildings, shut in by rocks and forests, compose the fore-ground of this grand Panorama.” [Fig. 7]

*Anonymous, April 28, 1826, “On Landscapes and Picturesque Gardens” (''New England Farmer'' 4: 316)<ref>Anonymous, “On Landscape and Picturesque Gardens,” ''New England Farmer'' 4, no. 40 (April 28, 1826): 316, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/I3K5QGBZ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[André Parmentier|Mr. [Andrew] P[armentier]]]. by the advice of several of his friends, will furnish plans of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardens; he will communicate to gentlemen who wish to see him, a collection of his drawings of Cottages, Rustic [[Bridge]]s, Dutch, [[Chinese manner|Chinese]], Turkish, French [[Pavilion]]s, [[Temple]]s, [[Hermitage]]s, Rotundas, &c. For further particulars, inquiries personally, or by letter, addressed to him, post paid, will be attended to.”

*Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a “bungalow” in Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931–34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy, broad [[veranda|verandah]], we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . Many similar houses nearly as '''picturesque''' as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude.”

[[File:0064.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, ''Map of [[Parmentier’s_Horticultural_and_Botanical_Garden|Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.]]
*Anonymous, October 3, 1828, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden,” describing [[André Parmentier|André Parmentier’s]] horticultural and [[botanic garden|botanical garden]], Brooklyn, NY (''New England Farmer'' 7: 85)<ref>Anonymous, “Parmentier’s Horticultural Garden,” ''New England Farmer, and Horticultural Journal'' 7, no. 11 (October 3, 1828): 84–85, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/ZC2KF67E view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The [[greenhouse|green-house]] department, although not so extensive as some in our vicinity, contains many beautiful plants exhibited with the same tasteful arrangement which characterizes the whole of [[André Parmentier|Mr. Parmentier’s]] establishment; even the method in disposing the [[pot]]s according to some principle of grouping or contrasting the color and size of the flowers, entertains the eve, and shows the variety of ways in which a skillful gardener may distribute his materials to produce '''picturesque''' effect.” [Fig. 8]

*Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1830, describing [[Lemon Hill]], estate of [[Henry Pratt]], Philadelphia (quoted in Boyd 1929: 432)<ref>James Boyd, ''A History of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1827–1927'' (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1929), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UN9TRH8T view on Zotero].</ref>
:“In [[landscape gardening]], water and [[wood]] are indispensable for '''picturesque''' effect; and here they are found distributed in just proportions with hill and [[lawn]] and buildings of architectural beauty, the whole scene is cheerfully animated by the brisk commerce of the river, and constant movement in the busy neighborhood of Fairmount.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., 1832, describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], Cambridge, MA (quoted in Harris 1832: 64–65)<ref>Thaddeus William Harris, ''A Discourse Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on the Celebration of Its Fourth Anniversary, October 3, 1832'' (Cambridge, MA: E. W. Metcalf, 1832), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/3A3UDHF3/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“. . . it is proposed, that a tract of land called 'Sweet Auburn,' situated in Cambridge, should be purchased. As a large portion of the ground is now covered with trees, [[shrub]]s, and wild flowering plants, [[avenue]]s and [[walk]]s may be made through them, in such a manner as to render the whole establishment interesting and beautiful, at a small expense, and within a few years; and ultimately offer an example of landscape or '''picturesque''' gardening, in conformity to the [[modern style]] of laying out grounds, which will be highly creditable to the Society.”

[[File:1025.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “Entrance to [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]]]]
*Hawthorne, Elizabeth Manning and Hawthorne, Nathaniel describing [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]], in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834: 9)<ref>Cemetery of Mount Auburn, in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9 [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/8EK3TUJQ view on Zotero].</ref>
:. . . On the north, at a very small distance, Fresh [[Pond]] appears, a handsome sheet of water, finely diversified by its woody and irregular shores. Country [[seat]]s and cottages in various direction, and especially those on the elevated land at Watertown, add much to the '''picturesque''' effect of the scene. It is proposed, at some future period, to erect on the summit of [[Mount Auburn Cemetery|Mount Auburn]], a Tower, after some classic model, of sufficient height to rise above the tops of the surrounding trees. This will serve the double purpose of a land-mark, to identify the spot from a distance, and of an [[Belvedere/Prospect tower/Observatory|observatory]] commanding an uninterrupted [[view]] of the country around it.
:. . . The grounds of the [[Cemetery/Burying ground/Burial ground|Cemetery]] have been laid out with intersecting [[avenue]]s, so as to render every part of the wood accessible. These [[avenue]]s are curved and variously winding in their course, so as to be adapted to the natural inequalities of the surface. By this arrangement, the greatest economy of the hand is produced, combining at the same time the [[picturesque]] effect of [[landscape gardening]]. [Fig. 9]

*Ritchie, Anna Cora Ogden Mowatt, 1839, describing [[Point_Breeze|Bonaparte’s Park]] at estate of Joseph Bonaparte (Count de Survilliers), Bordentown, NJ (quoted in Weber 1854: 186)<ref>Constance Weber, “A Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte,” in ''Godey’s Lady’s Book'' (Philadelphia: L. A. Godey, 1854), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NEDC6TSD view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The only portion of the building left is the [[Belvedere|observatory]], which is surrounded by a stone enclosure and looked like a miniature ruin left purposely in this dilapidated state to add to the '''picturesqueness''' of the scene. A narrow stream winds itself gracefully through one part of the grounds, over which several [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]]s are erected. Equally [[rustic style|rustic]] [[seat]]s are scattered beneath the shade of the tall trees on its banks, and upon its clear surface a flock of snow-white swans were floating about.”

*<div id="Willis"></div>Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 1840, describing the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia (1840; repr., 1971: 3–4, 313)<ref>Nathaniel Parker Willis, ''American Scenery, or Land, Lake and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature'', 2 vols. (1840; repr., Barre, MA: Imprint Society, 1971), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T5CMW67U view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The interest, with regard to both the natural and civilized features of America, has very much increased within a few years; and travelers [''sic''], who have exhausted the unchanging countries of Europe, now turn their steps in great numbers to the novel scenery, and ever-shifting aspects of this.
:“The '''picturesque''' [[view]]s of the United States suggest a train of thought directly opposite to that of similar objects of interest in other lands. There, the soul and centre of attraction in every picture is some ruin of the ''past''. The wandering artist avoids every thing that is modern, and selects his point of [[view]] so as to bring prominently into his sketch, the castle, or the cathedral, which history or antiquity has hallowed. The traveller visits each spot in the same spirit—ridding himself, as far as possible, of common and present associations, to feed his mind on the historical and legendary. The objects and habits of reflection in both traveller and artist undergo in America a direct revolution. He who journeys here, if he would not have the eternal succession of lovely natural objects—
[[File:0540.jpg|thumb|Fig. 10, John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.]]
:“'Lie like a load on the weary eye,' must feed his imagination on the ''future''. The American does so. His mind, as he tracks the broad rivers of his own country, is perpetually reaching forward. Instead of looking through a valley, which has presented hundreds of years—in which live lords and tenants, whose hearths have been surrounded by the same names through ages of tranquil descent, and whose fields have never changed landmark or mode of culture since the memory of man, he sees a valley laden down like a harvest wagon [''sic''] with a virgin vegetation, untrodden and luxuriant; and his first thought is of the villages that will soon sparkle on the hillsides, the axes that will ring from the woodlands, and the mills, [[bridge]]s, [[canal]]s, and railroads, that will span and [[border]] the stream that now runs through sedge and wild-flowers. The towns he passes through on his route are not recognizable by prints done by artists long ago dead, with houses of low-browed architecture, and immemorial trees; but a town which has perhaps doubled its inhabitants and dwellings since he last saw it, and will again double them before he returns. Instead of inquiring into its antiquity, he sits over the fire with his paper and pencil, and calculates what the population will be in ten years, how far they will spread, what the value of the neighbouring land will become, and whether the stock of some [[canal]] or railroad that seems more visionary than Symmes’s expedition to the centre of the earth, will, in consequence, be a good investment. He looks upon all external objects as exponents of the future. In Europe they are only exponents of the past. . .
:“Steps and [[terrace]]s conduct to the reservoirs, and thence the [[view]] over the ornamented grounds of the country [[seat]]s opposite, and of a very '''picturesque''' and uneven country beyond, is exceedingly attractive. Below, the court of the principal building is laid out with gravel [[walk]]s, and ornamented with [[fountain]]s and flowering trees; and within the edifice there is a public drawing-room, of neat design and furniture; while in another wing are elegant refreshment-rooms—and, in short, all the appliances and means of a place of public amusement.” [Fig. 10] [[#Willis_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0032.jpg|thumb|Fig. 11, [[Robert Mills]], ''Picturesque View of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.]]
*[[Robert Mills|Mills, Robert]], February 23?, 1841, describing his design for the [[National Mall]], Washington, DC (Scott 1990: n.p.)<ref>Pamela Scott, ed., ''The Papers of Robert Mills'' (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1990), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/9CEBJWW8 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“By means of Groups and [[vista]]s of trees, '''picturesque''' [[view]]s may be obtained of the various buildings and such other objects as may be of a monumental character and thus there would be an attraction produced which would draw many of our citizens and strangers to partake of the pleasure of promenading here.” [Fig. 11]

*Hovey, C. M. (Charles Mason), August 1841, “Notes made during a Visit to New York, &c.,” describing Presque Isle, residence of William Demming, Fishkill, NY (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 7: 374)<ref>Charles Mason Hovey, “Notes Made during a Visit to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and Intermediate Places, from August 8th to the 23rd, 1841,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 7, no. 10 (October 1841): 361–74, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XQ37WZ9M view on Zotero].</ref>
:“Beyond the grouping of trees on the bank of the river, and the stately forms of some of the single specimens on the [[lawn]], we found but little to notice. Of the former we can speak in gratifying terms; for we are delighted to be able to give our evidence of the existence of so much of that landscape beauty among us, which is almost exclusively the peculiar feature of the gardening of Britain. Nature, it is true, has done much for the place, but art has also accomplished a great deal. . .
:“Through the belt on the [[border]] of the river, by cutting away the branches, [[view]]s of the most interesting portions of the opposite side of the river have been opened. Were the [[lawn]] only kept closer, and more frequently mown, the [[walk]]s filled with gravel and well rolled, we could have imagined ourselves in some of the fine old '''picturesque''' places of England.”

*Adams, Nehemiah, 1842, describing [[Boston Common]], Boston, MA (1842: 11–12)<ref>Nehemiah Adams, ''Boston Common'' (Boston: William D. Ticknor and H. B. Williams, 1842), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/VXTWGJ58 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It is seldom that a piece of ground is seen which, with no greater extent, is so diversified in surface and combines so much in itself that is '''picturesque''', as the [[Boston Common|Common]]. There is hill and plain, [[meadow]] and upland, in it. It has sufficient irregularity to make a pleasing variety of surface without being rough; its elevations are well sloped towards the plain part of the enclosure; indeed it would be difficult for art to arrange the surface of the [[Boston Common|Common]] more agreeably for pleasing effect or use.”

*W., February 1842, describing Lowell Cemetery, Lowell, MA (''Magazine of Horticulture'' 8: 49)<ref>W., “An Account of the Lowell Cemetery, Its Situation, Historical Associations, and Particular Description,” ''Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and All Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Rural Affairs'' 8, no. 2 (February 1842): 47–50, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/UKZS86F6 view on Zotero].</ref>
:“The site of the Lowell Cemetery is eminently '''picturesque''' and beautiful. The northern and southern boundaries embrace a range of high grounds, covered for the most part with a young and verdant growth of trees: these high grounds gradually and abruptly slope towards the centre or valley, through which runs a brook, supplying several large [[pond]]s for the season, also sufficient for supplying a [[fountain]] of about one hundred feet head. The southern range of high grounds is covered with a verdant growth of trees, and is highly ornamented with that most characteristic and appropriate of all sepulchral ornaments—well grown and stately oaks, intermixed with the funereal and feathered boughs of the dark hemlock; while the [[slope]]s are only partially clothed with trees, and the contrast between the deep dusky green of the hemlock and the soft bright tint of the grass in the open spaces between them, produces an effect almost magical, and which strikes one as being more the result of art than nature.”

*Barber, John Warner and Henry Howe, 1844, describing Mount Holly, NJ (1844: 113)<ref>John Warner Barber, and Henry Howe, ''Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey. . . with Geographical Descriptions of Every Township in the State'' (Newark, NJ: Benjamin Olds, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KBBHZ5NT/ view on Zotero].</ref>
:“There are in the village several elegant dwellings, among which is conspicuous Dunn’s [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] cottage, erected by the proprietor of the late [[Chinese manner|Chinese]] and [[English style|English]] cottage style. The grounds are tastefully arranged, and the general effect of the whole is light, fanciful, and extremely '''picturesque'''.”

[[File:0357.jpg|thumb|Fig. 12, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “Montgomery Place,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.]]
*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], October 1847, “A Visit to Montgomery Place,” describing [[Montgomery place|Montgomery Place]], country home of Mrs. Edward (Louise) Livingston, Dutchess County, NY (''Horticulturist'' 2: 157)<ref>Alexander Jackson Downing, ed., “A Visit to Montgomery Place,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): 153–60, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XUWRREQS view on Zotero].</ref>
:“He takes another path, passes by an airy looking [[rustic style|rustic]] [[bridge]], and plunging for a moment into the [[thicket]], emerges again in full [[view]] of the first [[cataract]]. Coming from the solemn depths of the [[wood]]s, he is astonished at the noise and volume of the stream, which here rushes in wild foam and confusion over the rocky [[Fall/Falling_garden|fall]], forty feet in depth. Ascending a flight of steps made in the precipitous banks of the stream, we have another [[view]], which is scarcely less spirited and '''picturesque'''.
:“This [[waterfall]], beautiful at all seasons, would alone be considered a sufficient attraction to give notoriety to a rural locality in most country neighborhoods. But as if nature had intended to lavish her gifts here, she has, in the course of this valley, given two other [[cataract]]s. These are all striking enough to be worthy of the pencil of the artist, and they make this valley a feast of wonders to the lovers of the '''picturesque'''.” [Fig. 12]

*<div id="Miller"></div>Miller, Lewis, June 5, 1849, describing [[Mount Vernon]], [[plantation]] of George Washington, Fairfax County, VA (c. 1850: 108)<ref>Lewis Miller, ''Orbis Pictus: A Picturesque Album to the Ladies of York, Pennsylvania'' (Williamsburg, VA: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XNQR79ST view on Zotero].</ref>
:“[[Mount Vernon]]. . . is pleasantly situated on the Virginia bank of the river. The mansion house itself appears venerable and convenient[.] A lofty [[portico]] ninety-six feet in length, Supported by Eight [[pillar]]s, has a pleasing effect when viewed from the water: ornamented with little [[copse]]s— [[clump]]s, and Single trees—. add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole Scenery.” [Fig. 3] [[#Miller|back up to History]]

[[File:0288.jpg|thumb|Fig. 13, George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.]]
*Committee on the Capitol [[Square]], Richmond City Council, July 24, 1851, describing John Notman’s plans for the Capitol [[Square]], Richmond, VA (quoted in Greiff 1979: 162)<ref>Constance Greif, ''John Notman, Architect, 1810–1865'' (Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, 1979), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/SXT2RI6Z view on Zotero].</ref>
:“It was deemed advisable to commence the improvements of the [[Square]] itself on the western side thereof. . . the ground on that side [has been] formed into gentle natural undulations, rising gradually to the base of the capitol and to the monument. . . giving great apparent extent to the grounds and producing an agreeable variety and at the same time affording space for much greater extent of [[walk]]s, leading in every direction where they may be useful or agreeable without the necessity of climbing steps and dividing the grounds into irregular and '''picturesque''' [[lawn]]s.” [Fig. 13]

*Horticola [pseud.], March 1852, “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats Near Boston,” describing Oakley Place, seat of William Pratt, Boston, MA (''Horticulturist'' 7: 127)<ref>Horticola [pseud.], “Notes on Gardens and Country Seats near Boston,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 7, no. 3 (March 1852): 126–28, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/73G5WK8I view on Zotero].</ref>
:“OAKLEY PLACE, ''the residence of'' Mrs. PRATT, is near Mr. CUSHING’S, and presents a fine specimen of a small country place, combining the '''picturesque''' and the natural—the [[gardenesque]] and the wild, in beautiful harmony together.”

===Citations===
*Whately, Thomas, 1770, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'' (1770; repr., 1982: 146–47)<ref>Thomas Whately, ''Observations on Modern Gardening'', 3rd ed. (1770; repr., London: Garland, 1982), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QKRK8DCD view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Of '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY.

:“XLVII. But regularity can never attain to a great share of beauty, and to none of the species called '''''picturesque'''''; a denomination in general expressive of excellence, but which, by being too indiscriminately applied, may be sometimes productive of errors. That a subject is recommended at least to our notice, and probably to our favour, if it has been distinguished by the pencil of an eminent painter, is indisputable; we are delighted to see those objects in the reality, which we are used to admire in the representation; and we improve upon their intrinsic merit, by recollecting their effects in the picture. The greatest beauties of nature will often suggest the remembrance; for it is the business of a landskip painter to select them; and his choice is absolutely unrestrained; he is at liberty to exclude all objects which may hurt the composition; he has the power of combining those which he admits in the most agreable manner; he can even determine the season of the year, and the hour of the day, to shew his landskip in whatever light he prefers. The works therefore of a great master, are fine exhibitions of nature, and an excellent school wherein to form a taste for beauty; but still their authority is not absolute; they must be used only as studies, not as models; for a picture and a scene in nature, though they agree in many, yet differ in some particulars, which must always be taken into consideration, before we can decide upon the circumstances which may be transferred from the one to the other.

:“In their ''dimensions'' the distinction is obvious; the same objects on different scales have very different effects; those which seem monstrous on the one, may appear diminutive on the other; and a form which is elegant in a small object, may be too delicate for a large one.”

*Gilpin, William, 1792, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty'' (1792: 3–8)<ref>William Gilpin, ''Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; On Picturesque Travel; and On Sketching Landscape: To Which Is Added a Poem on Landscape Painting'' (1792; repr., Farnborough, England: Gregg, 1972), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JT6TGTT3 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Disputes about beauty might perhaps be involved in less confusion, if a distinction were established, which certainly exists, between such objects as are ''beautiful'', and such as are '''''picturesque'''''—between those, which please the eye in their natural state; and those, which please from some quality, capable of being ''illustrated in painting''. . .

:“In examining the ''real object'', we shall find, one source of beauty arises from that species of elegance, which we call ''smoothness'', or ''neatness''; for the terms are nearly synonymous. . .

:“But in '''''picturesque''''' ''representation'' it seems somewhat odd, yet we shall perhaps find it equally true, that the reverse of this is the case; and that the ideas of ''neat'' and ''smooth'', instead of being '''''picturesque''''', in fact disqualify the object, in which they reside, from any pretensions to '''''picturesque''''' beauty.—Nay farther, we do not scruple to assert, that ''roughness'' forms the most essential point of difference between the ''beautiful'', and the '''''picturesque'''''; as it seems to be that particular quality, which makes objects chiefly pleasing in painting.—I use the general term ''roughness''; but properly speaking roughness relates only to the surfaces of bodies: when we speak of their delineation, we use the word ''ruggedness''. Both ideas however equally enter into the '''picturesque'''; and both are observable in the smaller, as well as in the larger parts of nature—in the outline, and bark of a tree, as in the rude summit, and craggy sides of a mountain. . .

:“Turn the [[lawn]] into a piece of broken ground: plant rugged oaks instead of flowering [[shrub]]s: break the edges of the [[walk]]: give it the rudeness of a road: mark it with wheel-tracks; and scatter around a few stones, and brushwood; in a word, instead of making the whole ''smooth'', make it ''rough''; and you make it also '''''picturesque'''''.”

*Price, Uvedale, 1794, ''An Essay on the Picturesque'' (1794: 17, 34)<ref>Uvedale Price, ''Essays on the Picturesque as Compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful'' (London: J. Robson, 1794), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/XH6SS7T2 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“IT seems to me, that the neglect, which prevails in the works of modern improvers, of all that is '''picturesque''', is owing to their exclusive attention to high polish and flowing lines, the charms of which they are so engaged in contemplating, as to make them overlook two of the most fruitful sources of human pleasure; the first, that great and universal source of pleasure, variety, whole power is independent of beauty, but without which even beauty itself soon ceases to please; the other, intricacy, a quality which, though distinct from variety, is so connected and blended with it, that the one can hardly exist without the other.

:“THERE are few words whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word '''Picturesque'''.”

*Anonymous, 1798, ''Encyclopaedia'' (1798: 7:565)<ref>''Encyclopaedia, or A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Miscellaneous Literature'', 18 vols. (Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson, 1798), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/F6T8DNDF view on Zotero].</ref>

:“II. '''PICTURESQUE''' BEAUTY. Though the aids of art are as essential to gardening, as education is to manners; yet art may do too much: she ought to be considered as the hand-maid, not as the mistress, of nature; and whether she be employed in carving a tree into the figure of an animal, or in shaping a [[view]] into the form of a picture, she is equally culpable. The nature of the place is sacred. Should this tend to landscape, form some principal point of [[view]], assist nature and perfect it; provided this can be done without injuring the [[view]]s from other points. But do not disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not sacrifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of landscape painting. . .

:“Instead of sacrificing the natural beauties of the place to one formal landscape, let every step disclose fresh charms unsought for. ''Planting and Gardening'', p. 602.”

*<div id="Gregory"></div>[[G. (George) Gregory|Gregory, G. (George)]], 1816, ''A New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' (1816: 2:n.p.)<ref>George Gregory, A ''New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'', 1st American ed., 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Isaac Peirce, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/2H8KAZ5E view on Zotero].</ref>

:“GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so improving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and '''picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]].

:“The former is what every person, except the inhabitants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few.

:“'''Picturesque''' or [[landscape gardening]] should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in applying the term gardening to this department of agriculture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the [[park]] or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design.

:“That style of gardening which would unite both objects, and which would give a '''picturesque''' effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an improvident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an unprofitable grass-[[plat]] or [[shrubbery]], on serpentines and mazes, and fishponds; or even on [[cascade]]s, to the infinite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the '''picturesque''' would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. . .

:“'''Picturesque''' gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, only can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the proper grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal.

:“To plant '''picturesquely''', a knowledge of the characteristic differences of trees and [[shrub]]s, is evidently a principle qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant.” [[#Gregory_cite|back up to History]]

*<div id="Loudon"></div>[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1826, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening'' (1826: 1000)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', 4th ed. (London: Longman et al., 1826), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KNKTCA4W view on Zotero].</ref>

:“7180. ''As an illustration of the theory of [[landscape gardening|landscape-gardening]]'', which we have adopted, we subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of '''picturesque''' and natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects '''picturesque''' beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape; but, as we mean also to investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a perfect flat, varied by [[wood]], say elms, with a piece of water, and a high [[wall]], forming the angle of a ruined building; it is animated by cows and sheep; its expression is that of melancholy grandeur; and, independently of this beauty, it is '''picturesque''' in expression; that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture.” [[#Loudon_cite|back up to History]]

*[[André Parmentier|Parmentier, André]], 1828, ''The New American Gardener'' (quoted in Fessenden 1828: 185)<ref>Thomas Fessenden, ''New American Gardener'' (Boston: J. B. Russell, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/M8WDX2P7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“For where can we find an individual, sensible to the beauties and charms of nature, who would prefer a ''symmetric'' garden to one in modern taste; who would not prefer to [[walk]] in a [[plantation]] irregular and '''picturesque''', rather than in those straight and monotonous [[alley]]s, bordered with mournful box, the resort of noxious insects?”

*Anonymous, January 4, 1828, “Rural Scenery” (''New England Farmer'' 6: 187)<ref>Anonymous, “Rural Scenery,” ''New England Farmer'' 6, no. 24 (January 4, 1828): 187, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/INS7XKSI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“''Landscape and'' '''''Picturesque''''' ''Gardens''.—Among the embellishments which attend the increase of wealth, the cultivation of the sciences, and the refinement of taste, none diversify and heighten the beauty of rural scenery, more than '''picturesque''' and landscape gardens. . .

:“For the introduction into this country of the design and execution of landscape and '''picturesque''' gardening, the public is much indebted to [[André Parmentier|Mr. A. Parmentier]], proprietor of the [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Horticultural Botanic Garden]], near Brooklyn, two miles from this city. His own garden, for which he made so advantageous a choice, may give us some idea of his taste. The [[border]]s are composed of every variety of trees and [[shrub]]s that are found in his nurseries. The [[walk]]s are sinuous, adapted to the irregularity of the ground, and affording to visitors a continual change of scenery, which is not enjoyed in gardens laid out in even surfaces, and in right lines. His dwelling and French saloon are in accordance with the surrounding rural aspect. In his gardens are 25,000 vines planted and arranged in the manner of the vineyards of France.”

*Dearborn, H. A. S., September 19, 1829, ''An Address Delivered Before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (1833: 16)<ref>H.A.S. (Henry Alexander Scammell) Dearborn, ''An Address Delivered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society'' (Boston: J. T. Buckingham, 1833), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/KTVETNFP view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The natural divisions of Horticulture are the [[Kitchen Garden]], Seminary, [[Nursery]], Fruit Trees and Vines, Flowers and [[Green Houses]], the [[botanic garden|Botanical]] and Medical Garden, and [[landscape gardening|Landscape]], or '''Picturesque''' Gardening.”

*<div id="Register"></div>Anonymous, April 1, 1837, “Landscape Gardening” (''Horticultural Register'' 3: 124–25)<ref>Anonymous, “Landscape Gardening,” ''Horticultural Register, and Gardener’s Magazine'' 3 (April 1, 1837): 121–31, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/TBFISAR7 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“Confining ourselves to the [[modern style|modern]] or [[natural style]], we shall proceed to offer some remarks on its characteristics. Landscape gardens in this style generally present either '''picturesque''', or what is termed [[gardenesque]] scenery. '''Picturesque''' scenery is a facsimile imitation of natural scenery; the trees and [[shrub]]s constituting it are planted, as in natural forests and forest-groups, such as a painter would wish to copy; every appearance of art is concealed, and it exactly resembles a real landscape, except in the greater variety and profusion of pleasing assemblages within a smaller space than can be found in nature. Its effect as a ''whole'', only, is studied. . . The '''picturesque''' is calculated to please particularly the admirers of landscape scenery in nature; the [[gardenesque]] not only these, but the florist and botanist also. . . In '''picturesque''' scenery, the trees may be allowed to grow thick or irregular, provided they form an agreeable collective effect; but in the [[gardenesque]], every thing irregular or rough should be removed, which would prevent a neat and finished appearance.” [[#Register_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:1761.jpg|thumb|Fig. 14, [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the picturesque style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 165, fig. 48.]]
*[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1838, ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838: 164–66)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''The Suburban Gardener, and Villa Companion'' (London: Longman et al., 1838), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BQVBJ48F view on Zotero].</ref>

:“'''''Picturesque''''' ''Imitation''. To design and execute a scene in either of these styles of imitative art, the artist would require to have the eye of a landscape-painter; to a certain extent, the science of an architect and of a botanist; and the knowledge of a horticulturist. Every part of nature, whether rude or refined, may be imitated according to art. For example, an old gravel pit, which had become covered with bushes and indigenous trees, and contained a hovel or rude cottage in the bottom, with a natural path worn in the grass by the occupants, would be improved according to imitative art, if foreign trees, [[shrub]]s, and plants, even to the grasses, were introduced instead of indigenous ones; and a Swiss cottage, or an architectural cottage of any kind that would not be recognised as the common cottage of the country, substituted for the hovel. To complete the character of art, the [[walk]] should be formed and gravelled, at least, to such an extent as to prevent its being mistaken for a natural path. Rocky scenery, aquatic scenery, dale or dingle scenery, forest scenery, [[copse]] scenery, and open glade scenery, may all be imitated on the same principle; viz. that of substituting foreign for indigenous vegetation, and laying out artificial [[walk]]s. This is sufficient to constitute a '''picturesque''' imitation of natural scenery. . .

:“In ''fig''. 47. the trees are arranged in the [[gardenesque]] manner; and in ''fig''. 48., in the '''picturesque''' style. The same character is also communicated to the [[walk]]s; that in the [[gardenesque]] style, having the margins definite and smooth, while the '''picturesque''' [[walk]] has the edge indefinite and rough. Utility requires that the gravel, in both styles of [[walk]], should be smooth, firm, and dry; for it must always be borne in mind, that, as landscape-gardening is a useful as well as an agreeable art, no beauty must ever be allowed to interfere with the former quality. [Fig. 14]

:“In planting, thinning, and pruning, in order to produce [[gardenesque]] effect, the beauty of every individual tree and [[shrub]], as a single object, is tobe taken into consideration, as well as the beauty of the mass: while in planting, thinning, and pruning for '''picturesque''' effect, the beauty of individual trees and [[shrub]]s is of little consequence; because no tree or [[shrub]], in a '''picturesque''' [[plantation]] or scene, should stand isolated, and each should be considered as merely forming part of a group or mass. In a '''picturesque''' imitation of nature, the trees and [[shrub]]s, when planted, should be scattered over the ground in the most irregular manner; both in their disposition with reference to their immediate effect as plants, and with reference to their future effect as trees and [[shrub]]s. In some places trees should prevail, in others [[shrub]]s; in some parts the [[plantation]] should be thick, in others it should be thin; two or three trees, or a tree and [[shrub]], ought often to be planted in one hole, and this more especially on [[lawn]]s.”

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1844, Excerpt from ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; . . . '' (1844: 102)<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America; with a View to the Improvement of Country Residences. . . with Remarks on Rural Architecture'', 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1844), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/IGJXRU9V view on Zotero].</ref>

:"In fig. 25, is shown a small piece of ground, on one side of a cottage, in which a '''picturesque''' character is attempted to be maintained. The [[plantation]]s here, are made mostly with shrubs instead of trees, the latter being only sparingly introduced, for the want of room. In the disposition of these shrubs, however, the same attention to '''picturesque''' effect is paid as we have already pointed out in our remarks on grouping ; and by connecting the [[thicket]]s and groups here and there, so as to conceal one [[walk]] from the other, a surprising variety and effect will frequently be produced, in an exceedingly limited spot."

*[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], February 1848, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings” (''Horticulturist'' 2: 363–64)<ref>Anonymous, “Hints and Designs for Rustic Buildings,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 2, no. 8 (February 1848): 363–65, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/4H34XQXX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“But the more humble and simple cottage grounds, the rural [[walk]]s of the [[ferme ornée]], and the modest garden of the suburban amateur, have also their ornamental objects and rural buildings—in their place, as charming and spirited as the more artistical embellishments which surround the palladian villa.

:“These are the [[seat]]s, [[bower]]s, [[grotto]]es, and [[arbor]]s, of [[rustic style|rustic]] work—than which nothing can be more easily and economically constructed, nor can add more to the rural or '''picturesque''' expression of the scene.

:“Those simple buildings, often constructed only of a few logs and twisted limbs of trees, are in good keeping with the simplest or the grandest forms of nature. . . . The terminus of a long [[walk]], otherwise unmeaning, is in no way more easily rendered satisfactory and agreeable, than by a '''picturesque''' place of repose; and the charms of a commanding hill, where the eye wanders over a grand panorama, is rarely so happily improved, as by being crowned with a [[rustic style|rustic]] [[pavilion]], which seems as the shelter and resting place of modern Gilpins, ‘in search of the picturesque.’”

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 26)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

:“If [the rich gentleman’s [[lawn]] is constructed] in the '''picturesque''' style, the trees will stand in groups, contrasting the sizes and colours of their foliage, commingling, and making a harmonious whole.”

[[File:0354.jpg|thumb|Fig. 15, Anonymous, “Example of the Picturesque in Landscape Gardening,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 273, fig. 16.]]
*<div id="Downing"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, A. J.]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849; repr., 1991: 63, 69, 74, 142, 182, 193, 270, 352, 443–44)<ref>Andrew Jackson Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America'', 4th ed. (1849; repr., Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1991), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref>

:“The earliest professors of Modern [[Landscape Gardening]] have generally agreed upon two variations, of which the art is capable. . . These are the ''beautiful'' and the '''''picturesque''''': or, to speak more definitely, the beauty characterized by simple and flowing forms, and that expressed by striking, irregular, spirited forms. . .

:“More concisely, the Beautiful is nature or art obeying the universal laws of perfect existence (i.e. Beauty), easily, freely, harmoniously, and without the ''display'' of power. The '''Picturesque''' is nature or art obeying the same laws rudely, violently, irregularly, and often displaying power only. . .

:“THE '''PICTURESQUE''' in [[Landscape Gardening]]. . . aims at the production of outlines of a certain spirited irregularity, surfaces comparatively abrupt and broken, and growth of a somewhat wild and bold character. The shape of the ground sought after, has its occasional smoothness varied by sudden variations, and in parts runs into dingles, rocky groups, and broken banks. The trees should in many places be old and irregular. . . [Fig. 15]
[[File:0375.jpg|thumb|Fig. 16, Anonymous, “Grouping to produce the Picturesque,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849),103, fig. 22.]]
:“In '''Picturesque''' [[plantation]]s everything depends on ''intricacy'' and ''irregularity'', and grouping, therefore, must often be done in the most irregular manner— rarely, if ever, with single specimens, as every object should seem to connect itself with something else; but most frequently there should be irregular groups, occasionally running into [[thicket]]s, and always more or less touching each other; trusting to after time for any thinning, should it be necessary. Fig. 22 may. . . give an idea of '''picturesque''' grouping. . . [Fig. 16]

:“The oak is not only one of the grandest and most '''picturesque''' objects as a single tree upon a [[lawn]], but it is equally unrivalled for groups and masses. There is a breadth about the lights and shadows reflected and embosomed in its foliage, a singular freedom and boldness in its outline, and a pleasing richness and intricacy in its huge ramification of branch and limb, that render it highly adapted to these purposes. . .

:“Like the lime tree, however, care must be taken, in the [[modern style]], to introduce it [the Horsechestnut] rather sparingly in '''picturesque''' [[plantation]]s, and then only as a single tree, or upon the margin of large groups, masses, or [[plantation]]s; but it may be more freely used in grounds in the graceful style, for which it is highly suitable. . .

:“In bold or '''picturesque''' scenes, they [the maple] can be employed to advantage by intermingling them with the more striking and majestic forms of the oak, etc., where variety and contrast is desired. . .

:“This purpose may be either to give spirit to a group of other trees, to strengthen the already '''picturesque''' character of a scene, or to give life and variety to one naturally tame and uninteresting. All these objects can be fully effected by the Larch; and although it is by far the most suited to harmonize with and strengthen the expression of scenery naturally grand, or '''picturesque''', with which it most readily enters into combination; yet, in the hands of taste, there can be no reason why so marked a tree should not be employed in giving additional expression to scenery of a tamer character. . .

:“we have already rejected all regular and geometric forms, in scenes where either natural or '''picturesque''' beauty is supposed to predominate, . . .

:“There are two method of grouping shrubs upon [[lawn]]s which may separately be considered, in combination with ''beautiful'' and with '''''picturesque''''' scenery.

:“In the first case, where the character of the scene, of the [[plantation]]s of trees, etc., is that of polished beauty, the belts of [[shrub]]s may be arranged similar to herbaceous flowering plants, in arabesque [[bed]]s, along the [[walk]]s. . . In this case, the [[shrub]]s alone, arranged with relation to their height, may occupy the [[bed]]s; or if preferred, shrubs and flowers may be intermingled. . .

:“Where '''''picturesque''''' ''effect'' is the object aimed at in the [[pleasure ground|pleasure-ground]]s, it may be attained in another way; that is, by planting irregular groups of the most vigorous and thrifty growing [[shrub]]s in [[lawn]], without placing them in regular dug [[bed]]s or belts; but instead of this, keeping the grass from growing and the soil somewhat loose, for a few inches round their stems. . .

:“As in '''picturesque''' scenes everything depends upon ''grouping well'', it will be found that shrubs may be employed with excellent effect in connecting single trees, or finishing a group composed of large trees, or giving fullness to groups of tall trees newly planted on a [[lawn]], or effecting a union between buildings and ground. It is true that it requires something of an artist’s feeling and perception of the '''picturesque''' to do these successfully, but the result is so much the more pleasing and satisfactory when it is well executed.

:“When [[walk]]s are continued from the house through distant parts of the [[pleasure-ground]]s, groups of [[shrub]]s may be planted along their margins, here and there, with excellent effect. They do not shut out or obstruct the [[view]] like large trees, while they impart an interest to an otherwise tame and spiritless [[walk]].” [[#Downing_cite|back up to History]]

*Jeffreys [pseud.], December 1849, “Critique on the October Horticulturist” (''Horticulturist'' 4: 271)<ref>Jeffreys [pseud.], “Critique on the October Horticulturist,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849): 268–71, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5RHC96CX view on Zotero].</ref>

:“River’s Nursery—No doubt a most interesting and beautiful sight. I have often wondered why our nurserymen, many of them men of fine taste in landscape delineation, do not study more of the beautiful, and the '''picturesque''' in laying out and planting their grounds. Such dispositions may be made of the different fruit and ornamental trees, [[shrubbery]], and flowering plants, as would make them exceedingly attractive as places of resort, and thereby greatly extend the sales to their proprietors. Let us have a reform in these things, and not have our nurseries, as too many of them now do, look like so many corn-fields or bean patches; but tasteful, inviting, and expressive in part of the purpose for which the plants with which they are occupied, are intended. IT is one most interesting feature of this truly delightful profession, that our nurserymen now embrace many men of education, taste and refinement. Let this improvement continue, and by their annual congregation in conventions, and mutual and friendly intercourse, they will ere long arrive at that position which their useful calling should command.”

<div id="Fig_17"></div>[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 17, Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 112, figs. 37 and 38. [[#Fig_17_cite|back up to History]]]]
*<div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[Andrew_Jackson_Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 112–13, 344)<ref>A. J. [Andrew Jackson] Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-Houses, and Villas'' (1850; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1968), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

:“In the Design before us, Fig. 37, there is an air of [[rustic style|rustic]] or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or [[veranda]]-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of '''picturesque'''ness, by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the [[wall]]s.

:“To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-[[veranda]] and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for '''picturesque''' character in a house. . .

:“It is in such '''picturesque''' scenery as this—scenery which exists in many spots in America besides the banks of the Hudson—wherever, indeed, the wildness or grandeur of nature triumphs strongly over cultivated landscape—but especially where river or [[lake]] and hill country are combined—it is there that the highly '''picturesque''' country-house or villa, is instinctively felt to harmonize with and belong to the landscape. It is there that the high tower, the steep roof, and the boldly varied outline, seem wholly in keeping with the landscape, because these forms in the building harmonize either by contrast or assimilation, with the pervading spirit of mysterious power and beauty in romantic scenery.” [Fig. 17] [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
===Inscribed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1761.jpg|[[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|J. C. Loudon]], Trees arranged in the '''picturesque''' style, in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), 165, fig. 48.

Image:0032.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], '''''Picturesque''' [[View]] of the Building, and Grounds in front'', 1841.

Image:0580.jpg|Lewis Miller, “[[Mount Vernon]]” [detail], in ''Orbis Pictus'' (c. 1849), 108. “ornamented with little [[copse]]s—[[clump]]s and single trees.—add a romantick and '''picturesque''' appearance to the whole scenery.”

Image:0375.jpg|Anonymous, “Grouping to produce the '''Picturesque''',” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 103, fig. 22.

Image:0378.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Suburban Villa Residence,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 118, fig. 26. “At ''e'', is a '''picturesque''' [[orchard]].”

Image:0379.jpg|Anonymous, “[[View]] of a '''Picturesque''' farm (''ferme ornée''),” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 120, fig. 27.

Image:0354.jpg|Anonymous, “Example of the '''Picturesque''' in [[Landscape Gardening]],” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 273, fig. 16.
</gallery>

===Associated===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0565.jpg|Robert King, Detail of Analostan Island from Map of the City of Washington, 1818.

Image:0300.jpg|Thomas Birch, ''Fairmount Water Works'', 1821.

Image:1052.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte-Video,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), frontispiece.

Image:1051.jpg|Daniel Wadsworth, “Monte Video, Approach to the House,” in Benjamin Silliman, ''Remarks Made on a Short Tour between Hartford and Quebec'' (1824), pl. opp. 16.

Image:1994.jpg|Thomas Doughty, ''[[View]] of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the Opposite Side of the Schuylkill River'', c. 1824—26.

Image:0064.jpg|Anonymous, ''Map of [[Parmentier’s Horticultural and Botanical Garden|Mr. Andrew Parmentier’s Horticultural & Botanic Garden]], at Brooklyn, Long Island, Two Miles From the City of New York'', c. 1828.

Image:0288.jpg|George Cooke (artist), W. J. Bennett (engraver), ''Richmond, From the Hill Above the Waterworks'', 1834.

Image:1025.jpg|Anonymous, “Entrance to [[Mount_Auburn_Cemetery|Mount Auburn]],” in ''American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge'' 1, no. 1 (September 1834): 9.

Image:0540.jpg|John Caspar Wild, ''Fairmount Waterworks'', 1838.

Image:0034.jpg|[[Robert Mills]], Alternative plan for the grounds of the National Institution, 1841.

Image:1861.jpg|Anonymous, ''Grounds of a cottage orneé'', in A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening,'' (1844): 102, fig. 25.

Image:0999.jpg|Anonymous, Two Ornamental [[Icehouse|Ice Houses]] Above Ground, in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 1, no. 6 (December 1846): pl. opp. 249.

Image:0357.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[Montgomery Place]],” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 2, no. 4 (October 1847): pl. opp. 153.

Image:1063.jpg|James Smillie, “[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), frontispiece.

Image:1976.jpg|James Smillie (artist), John A. Rolph (etcher), “[[View]] of the Forest [[Pond]], [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]],” in Cornelia W. Walter, ''Mount Auburn Illustrated'' (1847; repr., 1850), opp. 94.

Image:0946.jpg|Anonymous, “A Cottage in the Swiss Style,” in A. J. Downing, ed., ''Horticulturist'' 3, no. 6 (December 1848): pl. opp. 257.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at Blithewood,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), frontispiece.

Image:0360.jpg|Anonymous, “Kenwood, Residence of J. Rathbone, Esq. near Albany, N.Y.,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed/ (1849), pl. opp. 50, fig. 9.

Image:0362.jpg|Anonymous, “Cottage Residence of Wm. H. Aspinwall, Esq.,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. opp. 51, fig. 8.

Image:0369.jpg|Anonymous, “Mrs. Camac’s Residence,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), pl. between 58 and 59, fig. 13.

Image:0377.jpg|Anonymous, “Plan of a Mansion Residence, laid out in the [[Natural_style|natural style]],” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 115, fig. 25.

Image:0417.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Rustic_style|Rustic]] [[prospect]]-[[arbor]],” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (1849), 460, fig. 87.

Image:0612.jpg|John Bachmann, ''Bird’s Eye [[View]] of Boston'', 1850.

Image:0920.jpg|Anonymous, “Small Bracketed Cottage,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 78, fig. 9.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman,” in [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. 297.

Image:0117.jpg|Thomas Chambers, ''[[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]'', mid-19th century.

Image:2290.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Common Country House" and "View of the Same, Improved," in ''Horticulturist'', vol. 1, no. 1 (July 1846), pl. opp. p. 13, fig. 2 and 3.

</gallery>

===Attributed===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:2250_detail2.jpg|Unknown, [[Kitchen_garden|Kitchen Garden]] [detail], Elias Hasket Derby House, c. 1795-99.

Image:0089.jpg|[[Benjamin Henry Latrobe]], ''[[View]] of [[Mount Vernon]] looking towards the South West'', 1796.

Image:1138.jpg|William Groombridge, ''[[View]] of [[Lemon Hill]],'' c. 1800.

Image:0497.jpg|Anonymous, “[[Bowling Green]] [[Fountain]],” in E. Porter Belden, ''New-York, Past, Present, and Future'' (1850), opp. 30.

Image:1807.jpg|George Inness, ''Sunnyside'', c. 1850–60.

</gallery>
<hr>

==Notes==
<references>

</references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Garden Styles]]

Veranda

2021-03-25T20:17:28Z

A-Whitlock:

(Verandah)

==History==
[[File:0320.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 1, William Russell Birch, “York-Island with a View of the Seats of Mr. A. Gracie, Mr. Church &c.,” 1808, in William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States'' (2009), p. 75, pl. 17.]]

Veranda is one of several words (including [[piazza]], [[porch]], and [[portico]]) used to describe covered [[walk]]s or spaces supported by [[column]]s or piers and attached to, or to part of, a building. This architectural feature spoke to the interrelatedness of architecture and gardens, a relationship that grew out of the romantic interest in landscape characterizing the aesthetics of the 18th and 19th centuries. Two images exemplify the importance of these structures in creating and framing views of the garden and landscape. The first is a drawing of York Island, Long Island, by William Russell Birch (1808), who explained that the [[view]] was taken from the [[piazza]], a place from which one could see “innumerable [[seat]]s, spreading over an extensive country which glittered as the sun arose” [Fig. 1].<ref>William Russell Birch, ''The Country Seats of the United States of North America: With Some Scenes Connected with Them'' (Springland, PA: W. Birch, 1808), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/BAIMV4GZ view on Zotero].</ref> The second is from [[Andrew Jackson Downing|A. J. Downing's]] book on wooden [[picturesque]] houses, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850) [Fig. 2]. Both illustrate views from the bracketed [[piazza]], or veranda, as [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] preferred to call it, out to the distant [[prospect]].

[[File:0916.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2, Anonymous, “Bracketed Veranda from the inside,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), p. 122, fig. 45.]]

Treatises often used these terms interchangeably, along with a few less common words. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] used the term “umbrage” to refer to the same feature on a house, implying a place of shade;<ref>William Pierson Jr., traces the origins of the feature, specifically found in Alexander Jackson Davis and A. J. Downing's work, to the awning or canopy partaking of an oriental flavor. In general, its origin was a semi-enclosed outdoor space that was not at all architectural but was related to the ornamental canopy or tent. This connection might explain why the detail flourished during the high romantic period in American architecture. See Pierson, ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'', vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 300-4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG/q/Pierson| view on Zotero].</ref> Downing used the term “[[pavilion]]” synonymously with “veranda” ([[#Downing_1850_1|view text]]); and Mary Elizabeth Latrobe mentioned that in New Orleans the [[piazza]] was also known as the gallery.<ref name="Latrobe_1951"> Benjamin Henry Latrobe. ''Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diaries and Sketches, 1818–1820'', ed. Samuel Wilson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/MJS5EE69/q/latrobe view on Zotero].</ref> Contrasting usage sometimes reveals distinctions.In his plan for a country house, Downing also used the term "porch" to identify the central area of the veranda leading to the entryway. The 19th-century architect William H. Ranlett sometimes distinguished between [[piazza]] and [[veranda]], using “[[piazza]]” for a [[walk]] over which a projecting roof might be added, and “veranda” for a structure that included a roof ([[#Ranlett2|view text]]). Two points are important in the history of these terms: First, these architectural elements served to elide the boundaries of the garden and building by linking interior and exterior space both visually and physically. Second, the associative values of refinement and domesticity, and even national progress, were read into the forms.

Appearing only in the mid-19th century in treatise literature with any frequency, the term “veranda” (also spelled verandah) was used in 1748 in Pehr Kalm's ''Travels in North America'', in which he described small balconies or [[porch]]es on houses.<ref>Kalm, ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm's Travels in North America'', trans. and rev. Adolph B. Benson (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), 121, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4? view on Zotero]. In his study of the veranda, Anthony D. King wrote, “It is generally accepted that the term ‘verandah,’ as used in England and France, and later in the British colonial world, came into the English landscape from India, the origins being either Persian, or, more likely Spanish or Portuguese.“ See King, ''The Bungalow: The Production of a Global Culture'', 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 266, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/97MQ3BFB viwe on Zotero].</ref> Many visual and textual examples indicate that the veranda served as an intermediary space between a house and its garden. [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] described it as an overhanging or low roof supported by an open colonnade or framework. He recommended that it have a gravel or wooden surface rising six to eight inches above the surrounding ground ([[#Downing2|view text]]). Climbing plants often covered verandas. Some writers refer to [[arbor]]-verandas and also mention the latticework that provided screening and support for climbing plants. Ornamental brackets and bargeboards also added to the decorations of the veranda.

[[File:0350.jpg|thumb|left|Fig. 3, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “View in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849), frontispiece.]]
 [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] (1850) expounded at length on the meaning of the veranda, which he saw as a truly American feature not found in European architecture ([[#Downing1|view text]]).<ref>This, of course, was not true because the veranda was featured in both John Plaw, ''Sketches for Country Houses, Villas and Rural Dwellings'' (London: S. Gosnell for J. Taylor, 1800), and J. B. Papworth, ''Penny Cyclopaedia'' (London: J. Taylor, 1818), as pointed out by King, ''The Bungalow'', 266-67, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/97MQ3BFB view on Zotero].</ref> Always concerned with identifying a national style, he believed that the veranda, in addition to providing shade and transitional zone from house to garden, was not simply ornamental but useful and “connected with the life of the owner of the cottage.” Its presence expressed the ownership of a family exhibiting rural taste and a love of [[picturesque]] character, a family “at home in the country.” Downing (1850) went so far as to proclaim the lack of a [[piazza]] or veranda in any but the most utilitarian structure as “unphilosophical and false in taste!” He claimed that it was a resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort of the whole family across nearly the entire extent of the United States [Fig. 3].
[[File:0955.jpg|thumb|Fig. 4, [[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''View N.W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.]]

Although the veranda was an architectural feature found in the colonial and early national periods, it became a key component of asymmetrical [[picturesque]] design for both landscape and architecture in the 1840s.<ref>Vincent J. Scully, ''The Shingle Style and the Stick Style: Architectural Theory and Design from Downing to the Origins of Wright'' (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971), introduction, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/297U533X view on Zotero].</ref> Many illustrations for house pattern books by [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] and his followers depicted plans and elevations in various romantic styles that feature the veranda as an element in a new spatial organization that experimented with the interweaving of interior and exterior space. In his ''Treatise'' (1849) [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] wrote, “architectural beauty must be considered conjointly with the beauty of the landscape or situation,” and “if properly designed and constructed. . . will even serve to impress a character on the surrounding landscape.”<ref>A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 370, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/K7BRCDC5 view on Zotero].</ref> That the frontispiece to his ''Treatise'' illustrated the veranda at [[Blithewood]] underscores the importance of this theoretical stance. Another drawing of [[Blithewood]] [Fig. 4] by [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] presented, from the house and through the semi-enclosed space of the veranda, the view of the landscape toward the river, exemplifying the interpenetration of space that became for [[Alexander Jackson Davis|Davis]] and [[A. J. Downing|Downing]] an important characteristic of their architecture. Architectural historians have written about the veranda as a major component in [[picturesque]] architecture and a mark of distinction between American and English houses of the Gothic revival.<ref> William H. Pierson Jr., ''American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, the Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles'' (New York: Doubleday, 1978), 302-4, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J8FITVZG view on Zotero]. See also King, ''The Bungalow'', 267, where the author writes that “[a]n architectural note of the term, verandah,” emphasized that “it was common as a fashionable architectural feature in England during the early 19th century,” and does not recognize an American distinctiveness, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/97MQ3BFB view on Zotero].</ref>

—''Therese O'Malley''

<hr>

==Texts==
===Usage===

* Kalm, Pehr, October 29, 1748, describing New Brunswick, NJ (1937: 1:121)<ref>Kalm, Pehr. 1937. ''The America of 1750: Peter Kalm’s Travels in North America. The English Version of 1770'', 2 vols. New York: Wilson-Erickson. [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/94EZM2V4 view on Zotero].</ref>
: “The houses are covered with shingles. Before each door is a '''veranda''' to which you ascend by steps from the street; it resembles a small balcony, and has benches on both sides on which the people sit in the evening to enjoy the fresh air and to watch the passers-by.”

[[File:0229.jpg|thumb|Fig. 5, [[Charles Fraser]], ''The Seat of John Julius Pringle Esquire—on Ashley River'', 1800.]]
*Lambert, John, 1816, describing Charleston, SC (1816: 2:125)<ref name="Lambert 1816">John Lambert, ''Travels through Canada, and the United States of North America in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808'', 2 vols. (London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1816), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/T9KUEDWH view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Almost every house is furnished with balconies and '''verandas''', some of which occupy the whole side of the building from top to bottom, having a gallery for each floor.” [Fig. 5]

* Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing a [[plantation]] he visited during his trip from Charleston, SC, to Savannah, GA (quoted in Jones 1957: 98)<ref>Katharine M. Jones, ''The Plantation South'' (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/AT62T7KC/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “From the drawing-room, we could walk into a '''verandah''' or [[piazza]], from which, by a flight of steps, we found our way into a [[flower garden]] and [[shrubbery]].”

* Hall, Capt. Basil, 1828, describing Alabama (quoted in Lockwood 1934: 2:389)<ref>Alice B. Lockwood, ed., ''Gardens of Colony and State: Gardens and Gardeners of the American Colonies and of the Republic before 1840'', 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s for the Garden Club of America, 1931-34), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/JNB7BI9T view on Zotero].</ref>

: “We soon left our comfortless abode [the inn] for as neat and trig [''sic''] a little villa as ever was seen in or out of the Tropics. This mansion, which in India would be called a Bungalow, was surrounded by white railings, within which lay an ornamental garden, intersected by gravel [[walk]]s, almost too thickly shaded by orange [[hedge]]s, all in flower. From the light airy '''verandah''', we might look upon the Bay of Mobile. . . Many similar houses nearly as [[picturesque]] as our own delightful habitation, speckled the landscape in the south and east, in rich keeping with the luxuriant foliage of that evergreen latitude.”

*Ingraham, Joseph Holt, 1835, describing a sugar [[plantation]] near New Orleans, LA (1835: 1:80–81)

: “The house was quadrangular. . . [and] was built of wood, painted white, with Venetian blinds, and latticed '''verandas''', supported by slender and graceful [[pillar]]s, running round every side of the dwelling. . . At each extremity of the [[piazza]] was a broad and spacious flight of steps, descending into the garden which enclosed the dwelling on every side.”

* Lyell, Sir Charles, December 23, 1845, describing Charleston, SC (1849: 1:229)<ref name="Lyell_1849">Sir Charles Lyell, ''A Second Visit to the United States of North America'', 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/DU6NKKZ5 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “Almost all the best houses in Charleston are built with '''verandahs''', and surrounded with gardens.”

* Lyell, Sir Charles, December 28, 1845, describing Beaufort, SC (1849: 1:231)<ref name="Lyell_1849"></ref>

: “we approached Beaufort, a [[picturesque]] town composed of an assemblage of villas, the summer residences of numerous planters, who retire here during the hot season, when the interior of South Carolina is unhealthy for the whites. Each villa is shaded by a '''verandah''', surrounded by beautiful live oaks and orange trees laden with fruit.”

* Earle, Pliny, January 1848, describing Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, New York, NY (''Journal of Medicine'' 10: 64)

: “The Physicians who object to [[yard]]s, or courts, advocate, as a substitute, open '''verandahs''' guarded by lattice-work, such as are found at the Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, and at some of the other institutions of this country.”
[[File:0961.jpg|thumb|Fig. 6, [[J. C. Loudon]], Perspective view of a house in the village of Riceborough, 1850.]]

* [[J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon|Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius)]], 1850, describing Riceborough, GA (1850: 332)<ref>J. C. (John Claudius) Loudon, ''An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; Comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, and Landscape-Gardening'', new ed., cor. and improved (London: Longman et al, 1850), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/W8EQFZUG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “854. . . The village of Riceborough. . . is very [[picturesque]]. Most of the houses have '''verandas'''. . . (''Hall's Sketches, &c.'', and ''Three Years in North America, &c.'')” [Fig. 6]

===Citations===

* [[Noah Webster|Webster, Noah]], 1828, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828: n.p.)<ref name="Webster_1828">Noah Webster, ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'', vol. 1 (New York: S. Converse, 1828), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/N7BSU467 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''VERAN'DA''', n. An oriental word denoting a kind of open [[portico]], formed by extending a sloping roof beyond the main building. ''Todd''.”

* [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], August 1836, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery” (''American Gardeners’ Magazine'' 2: 283)<ref>A. J. Downing, “Remarks on the Fitness of the different Styles of Architecture for the Construction of Country Residences, and on the Employment of Vases in Garden Scenery,” ''American Gardeners’ Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs'' 2, no. 8 (August 1836): 281–86, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/J5HZKZAG view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There can scarcely be a more appropriate, agreeable and beautiful residence for a citizen who retires to the country for the summer, than a modern Italian villa, with its ornamented chimneys, its broad '''verandah''', forming a fine shady [[promenade]], and its cool breezy apartments.”

* <div id="Downing2"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1849, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'' (1849: 376)<ref name="Downing_1849">A. J. Downing, ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', 4th ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/5M4S2D64 view on Zotero].</ref>

: “In this country no architectural feature is more plainly expressive of purpose in our dwelling-houses than the '''veranda''', or [[piazza]]. The unclouded splendor and fierce heat of our summer sun, render this very general appendage a source of real comfort and enjoyment; and the long '''veranda''' round many of our country residences stands instead of the paved [[terrace]]s of the English mansions as the place for [[promenade]]; while during the warmer portions of the season, half of the days or evenings are there passed in the enjoyment of cool breezes, secure under low roofs supported by the open colonnade, from the solar rays, or the dews of night. . .

: “The various projections and irregularities, caused by '''verandas''', [[portico]]es, etc., serve to connect the otherwise square masses of building, by gradual transition with the ground about it.” [[#Downing2_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Ranlett"></div>Ranlett, William H., 1849, ''The Architect'' (1849; repr., 1976: 1:21)<ref name= "Ranlett_1849">William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'', 2 vols. (1849–51; repr. New York: Da Capo, 1976), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/QGQPCB5J/ view on Zotero].</ref>

: “'''Verandas''', [[piazza]]s and [[porch]]es are very expressive of purpose, and a dwelling should always have one or more of them; and balconies, which are decidedly ornamental and not without use.” [[#Ranlett_cite|back up to History]]

*Elder, Walter, 1849, ''The Cottage Garden of America'' (1849: 218)<ref>Walter Elder, ''The Cottage Garden of America'', (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849), [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/NNC7BTFT view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A. What a fine place you have got! that is a neat, well painted front fence; the flower [[plat]] between it and the house, with the evergreen in the centre is beautiful, and that '''verandah''' over the door, covered with flowering vines, looks well.”

[[File:0919.jpg|thumb|Fig. 7, Anonymous, “Suburban Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 109, figs. 33 and 34.]]
[[File:1308.jpg|thumb|Fig. 8, Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 112, figs. 37 and 38.]]
* <div id="Downing1"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 47, 109–10, 112–13, 118, 120, 122)<ref name="Downing_1850">Andrew Jackson Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses; Including Designs for Cottages, Farm-houses, and Villas'' (New York: D. Appleton, 1850; repr., New York: Da Capo, 1968) [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/items/itemKey/GRZPQXQI view on Zotero].</ref>

: “A much higher character is conferred on a simple cottage by a '''veranda''' than by a highly ornamental gable, because one indicates the constant means of enjoyment for the inmates—something in their daily life besides ministering to the necessities—while a more ornamental vergeboard shows something, the beauty of which is not so directly connected with the life of the owner of the cottage, and which is therefore less expressive, as well as less useful. . .

: “[Referring to Design VII] The [[trellis]]-work '''veranda''' along the front of this cottage, and the bay-window in the best apartment, convey at once an expression of beauty arising from a sense of a superior comfort or refinement in the mode of living; and the whole exterior effect, without having any decided architectural merit, is one which we should be very glad to see followed in suburban houses of this class. . . [Fig. 7]

: “In the Design [VIII] before us. . . there is an air of rustic or rural beauty conferred on the whole cottage by the simple, or '''veranda'''-like [[arbor]], or [[trellis]], which runs round three sides of the building; as well as an expression of [[picturesque|picturesqueness]], by the roof supported on ornamental brackets and casting deep shadows upon the walls.

: “To become aware how much this beauty of expression has to do with rendering this cottage interesting, we have only to imagine it stripped of the [[arbor]]-'''veranda''' and the projecting eaves, and it becomes in appearance only the most meagre and common-place building, which may be a house or a barn: at the most, it would indicate nothing more by its chimneys and windows, than that it is a human habitation, and not, as at present, that it is the dwelling of a family who have some rural taste, and some love for [[picturesque]] character in a house. . . [Fig. 8]

: “The larger expression of domestic enjoyment is conveyed by the '''veranda''', or [[piazza]]. In a cool climate, like that of England, the '''veranda''' is a feature of little importance; and the same thing is true in a considerable degree in the northern part of New England. But over almost the whole extent of the United States, a '''veranda''' is a positive luxury in all the warmer part of the year, since in midsummer it is the resting place, lounging spot, and place of social resort, of the whole family, at certain hours of the day. It is not, however, an absolute necessity, like a kitchen or a bed-room, and, therefore, the smallest cottages, or those dwellings in which economy and utility are the leading considerations, are constructed without '''verandas'''. But the moment the dwelling rises so far in dignity above the merely useful as to employ any considerable feature not entirely intended for use, then the '''veranda''' should find its place; or, if not an architectural '''veranda''', then, at least, the [[arbor]]-'''veranda''', covered with foliage. . . To decorate a cottage highly, which has no '''veranda'''-like feature, is, in this climate, as unphilosophical and false in taste, as it would be to paint a log-hut, or gild the rafters of a barn: unphilosophical, because all that relative beauty suggested by features which indicate a more refined enjoyment than what grows out of the necessities of life should first have its manifestation, since it is the most significant and noble beauty of which the subject is capable; and false in taste, because it is bestowing embellishment on the inferior and minor details, and neglecting the more important and more characteristic features of a dwelling. . .” [[#Downing1_cite|back up to History]]

* <div id="Downing_1850"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 304–5, 308)<ref name="Downing_1850"></ref>
: “[Referring to Design XXV] Every feature is suggested by the country life of those who live in residences of this size in the Middle United States. The broad and massive [[veranda]]—the full second story, overshadowed by the overhanging eaves—. . . [is] expressive of the comparatively modest but cultivated tastes and life of substantial country residents in the older parts of the Northern states."
: “In a cottage or villa of this style in England, the [[veranda]] would be useless, for the damp climate, so unlike ours, demands sun and air rather than shelter and shade. . . .
: “The [[porch]] of this house, which projects 12 feet, breaks up…the otherwise too long horizontal line of the veranda roof. . .
: “This [[porch]], being pierced with [[arch]]es on each side, opens on a continuous [[veranda]], 10 feet wide and 80 feet long, which affords a fine [[promenade]] at all seasons— terminating on one side with the [[green house|green-house]]— and there are few greater luxuries in a country-house in an American summer, such as it is in this latitude, than such a cool and airy [[veranda]]— especially if it looks out upon our fine river or lake scenery. . .” [[#Downing_1850_cite|back up to History]]

[[File:0911.jpg|thumb|Fig. 9, Anonymous, “Southern Villa--Romanesque Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. p. 353, fig. 168.]]
* <div id="Downing_1850_1"></div>[[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], 1850, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850; repr., 1968: 357)<ref name="Downing_1850"></ref>
: “[Referring to Design XXXII] On the right of this hall is a noble [[veranda]], which, for want of a better name, we call the ''[[pavilion]]''. . . In short, although this feature may be omitted, without materially diminishing the beauty or convenience of this design, its adoption would give a completeness and significance to a first-rate country-house like this; completeness, since it affords something more than a [[veranda]], viz. ''a room in the open air'', the greatest luxury in a warm summer; significance, since it tells the story of a desideratum growing out of our climate, architecturally and fittingly supplied.” [Fig. 9] [[#Downing_1850_1_cite|back up to History]]

* [[Andrew Jackson Downing|Downing, Andrew Jackson]], July 1850, “A Few Words on Rural Architecture” (''Horticulturist'' 5: 10)<ref>A. J. Downing, “A Few Words on Rural Architecture,” ''Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste'' 5, no. 1 (July 1850): 9–11, [https://www.zotero.org/groups/54737/keywords_in_early_american_landscape_design/items/itemKey/ZPF5KGPR view on Zotero].</ref>

: “There are, indeed, few things so beautiful as a cottage of this kind, well designed and tastefully placed. There is nothing, all the world over, so truly rural and so unmistakably country-like as this very cottage, which has been developed in so much perfection in the rural lanes and amidst the [[picturesque]] lights and shadows of an English landscape. And for this reason, because it is essentially rural and country-like, we gladly welcome its general naturalization, (with the needful variation of the '''veranda''', &c., demanded by our climate,) as the type of most of our country dwellings.”

* <div id="Ranlett2"></div>Ranlett, William H., 1851, ''The Architect'' (1851; repr., 1976: 2: 53)<ref name= "Ranlett_1849"></ref>

: “The art of landscape gardening is an essential part of the accomplishments of an architect, for the main beauty of a rural dwelling is its harmonizing with the scene of which it forms a part. The same house that looked [[picturesque]] and beautiful on the top of a hill would look extravagant and whimsical on a plain; a country house with a southern front should have a projecting roof and a [[piazza]]; but one fronting the north would look more cold and cheerless by the addition of an overhanging roof or a '''veranda'''. Yet nothing is more common than to see houses in the country with gloomy-looking [[piazza]]s on the north side which is always in shadow, while the back part is left to scorch in the sun without even the protection of a hooded window to cast a shadow.” [[#Ranlett2_cite|back up to History]]

<hr>

==Images==
=== Inscribed ===
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:1755.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], "Nutt's hive is placed in the front of a '''veranda'''", in ''The Suburban Gardener'' (1838), p. 714, fig. 307.

Image:1151.jpg|Joseph Collins Wells, ''Design for a cottage for Henry C. Bowen, Esq. J. C. Wells Archct'', ca. 1846.

Image:1505.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Rural Cottage" and "Plan of the Principal Floor," Horticulturist, vol. 2, no. 1 (July 1847). pl. opp. 8.

Image:1540.jpg|Anonymous, "Design for a Small Villa" and "First Floor," ''Horticulturist,'' Vol. 3, No. 7 (January 1849), pl. opp. 305.

Image:0951.jpg|(?) Forbes, “Cottage Villa of Wm. J. Rotch, Esq. New Beford, Mass.,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 5 (November 1849): pl. opp. 201. "'''Veranda'''" is inscribed on either side of the front [[porch]].

Image:0950.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Country House,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 6 (December 1849): pl. opp. 249.

Image:1561.jpg|Anonymous, ''A Southern Cottage Villa'', in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 8 (February 1850): pl. opp. 345. "'''Veranda'''" is inscribed on plan of principal floor of the villa.

Image:0919.jpg|Anonymous, “Suburban Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 109, figs. 33 and 34.

Image:0917.jpg|Anonymous, “Bracketed Cottage, with '''Veranda''',” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 119.

Image:0916.jpg|Anonymous, “Bracketed '''Veranda''' from the inside,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), 122, fig. 45.

Image:1978.jpg|Anonymous, “Principal Floor” of a small bracketed Country House, in A. J. Downing, ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 276, fig. 111.

Image:1837.jpg|Anonymous, “A Country House in the Pointed Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 304, figs. 133 and 134.

Image:1003.jpg|Anonymous, “Design for a Cottage for a Country Clergyman,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 6, no. 7 (July 1851): pl. opp. 297.

</gallery>

=== Associated ===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0320.jpg|William Russell Birch, “York-Island, with a [[View]] of the [[Seat]]s of M.r A. Gracie, M.r Church &c.,” in ''The Country [[Seat]]s of the United States of North America'' (1808), pl. 17.

Image:0945.jpg|Anonymous, “A Villa in the Tuscan Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ed., ''Horticulturist'' 4, no. 1 (July 1849): pl. opp. 1.

Image:0350.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], “[[View]] in the Grounds at [[Blithewood]],” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening'', (1849), frontispiece.

Image:1308.jpg|Anonymous, “Regular Bracketed Cottage,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 112, figs. 37 and 38.

Image:0915.jpg|Anonymous, “Bracketed Country House,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 276, fig. 110.

Image:1836.jpg|Anonymous, “Villa in the Norman Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 280, fig. 114.

Image:0913.jpg|Anonymous, “Small Southern Country House,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), 312, fig. 139.

Image:0911.jpg|Anonymous, “Southern Villa--Romanesque Style,” in [[A. J. Downing]], ''The Architecture of Country Houses'' (1850), pl. opp. 353, fig. 168.

Image:0961.jpg|[[J. C. Loudon]], Perspective [[view]] of a house in the village of Riceborough, Georgia, in ''An Encyclopædia of Gardening'' (1850), 332, fig. 231.

Image:0782.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Villa in the Persian Style,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 14.

Image:0786.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Italian Villa,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 22, design 33.

File:0789.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Wynne Tún,” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, 53.

Image:0795.jpg|[[Frances Palmer]], “Cottage Villa in the earliest [[English_style|English Style]],” in William H. Ranlett, ''The Architect'' (1851), vol. 2, pl. 60, design 53.

Image:2290.jpg|Anonymous, "View of a Common Country House" and "View of the Same, Improved," in ''Horticulturist'', vol. 1, no. 1 (July 1846), pl. opp. p. 13, fig. 2 and 3.

</gallery>

=== Attributed ===

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="7">

Image:0226.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''Wigton on Saint James, Goose Creek: The [[Seat]] of James Fraser, Esq.'', c. 1800.

Image:0229.jpg|[[Charles Fraser]], ''The [[Seat]] of John Julius Pringle Esquire—on Ashley River'', 1800.

Image:0208.jpg|Francis Guy, ''[[Mount]] Deposit from the North'', 1805.

Image:1099.jpg|Anonymous, Garden and Library, Friends’ Asylum for the Insane, 1838, in ''Friends' Asylum for the Insane, 1813-1913'' (1913), pl. opp. 70.

Image:0955.jpg|[[Alexander Jackson Davis]], ''[[View]] N.W. at [[Blithewood]]'', c. 1841.

</gallery>

<hr>

==Notes==
<references></references>

[[Category: Keywords]]
[[Category: Transition Between House and Garden]]

File:2290.jpg

2021-03-25T20:14:37Z

A-Whitlock: